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GEOL5399:Geodynamics

GEOL5399:Geodynamics
Lecture:Friday9:00am11:50pm,Heroy 204
OfficeHours:M/F3:005:00PM

Textbooks:Turcotte,D.L.,andJ.Schubert.Geodynamics.2nded.Cambridge,UK:
CambridgeUniversityPress,2002.ISBN:9780521666244.
Influentialjournalarticlesandbookchaptersongeodynamics.

CourseRequirements:Studentsarerequired toreadtheassignedchapterandreading
assignmentsbefore thelecture.Classgradeswillbebasedonhomeworkassignments,mid
termexam,andfinalexam.
GradingPolicy:60%fromhomeworkassignments,20%frommidtermexam,and20%
fromfinaltakehomeexam.

SMUPolicies

Disability Accommodations: Students needing academic accommodations for a disability must first
be registered with Disability Accommodations & Success Strategies (DASS) to verify the disability
and to establish eligibility for accommodations. Students may call 214-768-1470 or visit
http://www.smu.edu/ALEC/DASS to begin the process. Once registered, students should then
schedule an appointment with the professor to make appropriate arrangements.

Religious Observance: Religiously observant students wishing to be absent on holidays that require
missing class should notify their professors in writing at the beginning of the semester, and should
discuss with them, in advance, acceptable ways of making up any work missed because of the
absence. (See University Policy No. 1.9.)

Excused Absences for University Extracurricular Activities: Students participating in an officially

sanctioned, scheduled University extracurricular activity should be given the opportunity to make
up class assignments or other graded assignments missed as a result of their participation. It is the
responsibility of the student to make arrangements with the instructor prior to any missed
scheduled examination or other missed assignment for making up the work.

Student Learning Outcomes are specified in the previous slides.

Final Exams: Final course examinations shall be given in all courses where they are appropriate,
and some form of final assessment is essential. Final exams or final assessments must be
administered as specified in the official examination schedule, and shall not be administered during
the last week of classes or during the Reading Period.

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ContinuumMechanics

Geodynamics Continuummechanicsappliedtogeologicalproblems
GeodynamicsisasubfieldofgeophysicsdealingwithdynamicsoftheEarth.Itappliesphysics,
mathematics,andchemistrytotheunderstandingofhowmantleconvectionleadstoplate
tectonicsandgeologicphenomenasuchasseafloorspreading,mountainbuilding,volcanoes,
earthquakes,faulting,etc.Italsoattemptstoprobetheinternalactivitybymeasuringdeformation,
gravity,geothermalfield,seismicwaves,magneticfields,aswellasthemineralogyofrocksand
theirisotopiccomposition,etc.
Geodynamics isgenerallyconcernedwithprocessesthatmovematerialsthroughouttheEarth.In
theEarthsinterior,movementhappenswhenrocksmeltordeformandflowinresponsetoastress
field.Thisdeformationmaybebrittle,elastic,orplastic,dependingonthemagnitudeofthestress
andthematerialsphysicalproperties,especiallythestressrelaxationtimescale.Rocksare
structurallyandcompositionallyheterogeneousandaresubjectedtovariablestresses,soitis
commontoseedifferenttypesofdeformationinclosespatialandtemporalproximity.[3]When
workingwithgeologicaltimescalesandlengths,itisconvenienttousethecontinuousmedium
approximationandequilibriumstressfieldstoconsidertheaverageresponsetoaveragestress

ContinuumMechanics

Mechanics Thestudyofthemotionofmatterandtheforcesthatcausesuchmotion.Our
interestliesinthedeeperquestionsofwhathappenswithinthematterconsistsof
bodies.
Continuummechanics Mechanicsofpartsofbodies.Allmatterceasestobea
continuumatasmallenoughlengthscale.
Granularmaterial(sand),canbetreatedasacontinuumatscaleslargerthantheindividualgrains.
Thisdoesnotmeanyouignorethegrains!Forexample,thesizeofthegrainsmayaffectthe
propertiesofthecontinuum,butyouwoulddefineanaveragegrainsizeasapropertyofthe
continuum.
PlateTectonics:Platetectonicsisoftendescribedasrelativemovementofrigidbodies weassume
thattheplatesarerigidandnotdeformingexceptalongthemajorplateboundaries.

IfwewanttobegintounderstandtheopeningofLakeBaikalorupliftoftheSt.Eliasmountains,we
needtoconsiderthedeformationwithinaplate.Asafirstsimpleassumptionwemightdivideupa
plateintoblocksthatareallowedtomoverelativetoeachotherwithintraplatefaultsasthe
boundaries.Dependingonourquestion,wemayfindourselvesneedingtobreakuptheplateinto
smallerandsmallerblocks.
Thereisapointwhenourblocksgetsosmall,thattreatingtheplateasadeformablematerialusinga
continuummodelmakesmoresenseandiscomputationallyeasier.

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ContinuumMechanics

Allpropertieschangesmoothlyacrossacontinuum,notdiscretely.Eventhoughwemight
makeobservationsofmaterialpropertiesataparticularscale,whenusingtheseproperties
inourcalculationsaboutthecontinuum,weassumethatthesepropertiesaresmoothly
varying.
Apieceofacontinuumcannotmovewithoutpushingotherpiecesoutoftheway motion
ofacontinuumimpliesDEFORMATION;adjacentmatterexertsforcesoneachother.

LengthScaleEffects Weusethe
smoothlyvaryingassumptionof
continuumtheoryeventhoughwe
knowthatatasmallenoughscale,the
materialpropertiesarenotsmoothly
varying;therefore,itiscriticalto
considerwhatlengthscaleisimportant
foryourproblemandwherecontinuum
theorywillbreakdown.

KeyAssumptionsAboutaContinuum

Continuity materialcompletelyfillsspace(noporesorvoids)andhasproperties
describablebycontinuousfunctions.
Homogeneity aparticularmaterialhasidenticalpropertiesatallpoints.Forthesimplest
problemsorforyourfirstattemptatsolvinganyproblem,thisassumptionisthebestto
startwith.Forexample,assumingthatdensityisthesameforallthewaterinalakeisa
prettydarngoodassumption.Youmayonlyneedtoreconsiderthisassumptionforvery
complexquestions,suchaswhathappenswhenthereisariver,asedimentsource,and
youwanttomodelthemixingprocessofthesedimentladenwaterandtheclearwater.
Isotropy withinamaterial,thepropertiesarethesameinalldirections.Thisisoftennot
true,forexampleifarocktypehasalignedmineralsinit,e.g.,micas wewilldiscuss
anisotropyoccasionallybecauseitiscommonlyfoundinEarthmaterials.
Wellbehavedfunction Thebehaviorisdescribableintermsofpartialdifferential
equationssubjecttoboundaryconditions.Allfunctionswillbe"wellbehaved,"exceptata
finitenumberofsurfaces.
Smoothlyvarying Thisisrelatedto"wellbehavedfunction".Eventhoughweknowthe
continuumdescriptionbreaksdownatsmallscales,mathematicallywewillassumethatit
doesnt(i.e.wecantakealimit).Wewillgenerallyassumethatpropertyanddeformation
fieldsvaryslowlyenoughthatwecanusecontinuummathconceptsevenatsmallscales.

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ContinuumTheoryisUsedtoDescribeDeformationofEarth
MaterialsinGeodynamics

MechanicalVariables Thesedescribehowstressesareapplied,aredistributedwithinabody,
andinteract.Stressesarewhatcausemotionordeformation.
Bodyforce Bodyforcesareforcesperunitvolumesuchasgravityormagnetismthatactsontheentire
volumeofabodyeverywhere.
Surfaceforce Thisisstress(forceperunitarea)ortraction,whichactonsurfacesattheboundaryor
withinthebody.

KinematicVariables Stressescausematerialtodeformormove.
Displacement Theabsolutemovementofonepointinabody.Themovementofoneendofarubber
bandasyoustretchit.
Strain Istherelativechangeinabody,e.g.thepercentincreaseinthelengthofarubberbandasyou
stretchit.Strainisrelatedtothespatialderivativeofdisplacement.

ConstitutiveRelations Inordertodeterminehowstressesleadtodeformationofamaterial,it
dependsonmaterialproperties.Thesepropertiesaregenerallyknownasconstitutiverelations
andtheydescribeanyrelationbetweenphysicalquantities.
RelatesStressandStrain:thisistheonewewillusemostofteninourproblems.Forexample,amaterials
elasticityrelatesstresstostrainandviscosityrelatestresstorateofstrain.
Relatescurrenttovoltage:Amaterialselectricalresistanceisthepropertythatrelatescurrenttovoltage.
Relatestemperatureandpressureordensity.Forexample,theidealgaslawrelatestemperatureto
pressureinagas.Thecoefficientofthermalexpansionrelatestemperaturetodensity.

ConservationPrinciples Therealworldhaslimitationsonwhatcanhappenwhenastressis
appliedtoamaterialorheatisadded!
Mass Oftenthisismathematicallysimplertousethantheothertwo,butitcanbeamazinglypowerful
forafirstapproachtoaproblem.
Momentum(linearandangular) ThisisfundamentallyrelatedtoNewtonssecondlaw:F=ma
Energy Thiscanbetrickybecauseenergycomesindifferentforms(chemical,heat,kinetic).Inthisclass
wewillmostoftenusethistodescribeheattransferinamaterial.

ForceandTraction

AsurfaceforceF thatactsuniformlyoverplanarsurfaceofareaA resultsinatraction(stress)Tof

magnitude

ThetractionisavectorthathasthesamedirectionasFandhasunitsofpressure.

InSIunits,tractionsaremeasuredinPascals (Pa);
Incgs:dyne/cm2;
in"geophysics":bar(1atmosphere):1bar=106 dynes/cm2 =0.1MPa
Theproblemisthatthisdefinitionfortractiononlyworksintheonedimensionalworld.Becauseforce
isavector,andareaisascalar,allyougetbackisavector whichdoesntgiveusenoughinformation
toknow,e.g.,iftheforceisappliedperpendicularorparalleltothesurfacethattheareaisdescribing.
Weneedtoincludeinourdefinitionofstress,somethingabouttheorientationoftheforcewith
respectto(w.r.t.)surfaceonwhichitisbeingapplied.Therefore,wedefinestress inawaythat
includesbothadirectionfortheforceandadirectionforthearea.Tobemorespecificwithour
definition,wedefinethetractionvectorasthevectorthatistheforcevectordividedbythearea:

Astheareashrinkstozero,thisisthetraction,whichisastressvectoratapointonaplanewitha
normalnj.

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ForceandTraction

Tractionsatapointaredifficulttoconceptualizebecausetheareaatapointoverwhicha
forceactsisinfinitesimal.Despitethisdifficulty,theconceptofpointtractions/stressesis
extremelyimportantbecauseitallowsonetofindthetractiononanarbitraryplane.
Sofar,weshouldrecognizethatstressisnotavectorfieldbecauseitdependsnotonlyon
thepositionxofaparticularmaterialpoint,butalsoonthelocalorientationofthesurface
elementasdefinedbyitsnormalvectorn.
Thistractionforcecanbedividedintotwotypesofforces,whicharecomponentsofthe
vector:thatparalleltothesurfacenormalandthatperpendiculartothesurfacenormal.

Ournextstepisdescribingthestresstensor.Thestresstensorisarepresentationofstress
onthreemutuallyperpendicularplanesinacoordinationsystem.Itspecifiesthecomplete
stateofstress.

CauchysStressPrinciple

10

Cauchysstressprinciple:"whenacontinuumbodyisactedonbyforces,i.e.surfaceforces
andbodyforces,thereareinternalreactions(forces)throughoutthebodyactingbetween
thematerialpoints".
Thefiguresbelowshowhowyoucansliceabodyapart,andthetractionatpointPwillbe
equalandopposite balancingatthatpoint.

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CauchysStressPrinciple

Letslookatthe3Dboxesofstress,fromthisslightlydifferentperspective.

Thefirstsubscriptonthe
stressgivesthedirectionof
thenormaltothesurfaceon
whichtheforceactswhile
thesecondsubscriptgives
thedirectionoftheforce.

BecauseofCauchysprinciplethatthestressintransmittedpointbypointthroughthe
material,wecanshrinktheboxtozerovolume,thisgivesstress ameaningateverypoint
inspace.Usingthisprinciple,Cauchydemonstratedthatthestateofstressatapointina
bodyiscompletelydefinedbytheninecomponentsij ofasecondorderCartesiantensor
calledtheCauchystresstensor,givenby:

Note,thistensorissymmetric rememberthat
if32 and23 werenotequal,theboxwould
startspinning,itisconservationofangular
momentumthatrequiresthemtobeequal it
onlyhas6distinctcomponents.

StressTensor ReinforcetheConcept

12

Representingaforceinthreedimensions
requiresthree numbers,eachreferencedtoa
coordinateaxis.Representingthestateofstress
inthreedimensionsrequiresnine numbers,each
referencedtoacoordinateaxisandaplane
perpendiculartothecoordinateaxes.To
understandwhateachoftheninenumbers
means,itishelpfultovisualizeaninfinitesimally
smallcubeinacontinuousmedium,orientedin
a3Dcoordinatesystem.
Ifthereareuniformforcesactingoneachofthe
facesofthecube,thentractionvectorscanbe
definedoneachface.Letthetractionsonthe3
facesbecalledT1 ,T2 ,T3,respectively.These
tractionsarenotnecessarilynormaltothefaces.
TractionsT1 ,T2 ,T3 areeachdefinedbythree
componentsonenormaltractionandtwo
sheartractions.Thesecomponentsarelabeled
withtwosubscripts,asinij.Thefirstsubscripti
denotesthefaceofthecubeonwhichthe
tractionactsandthesecondsubscriptjdenotes
thedirectionofthetraction.

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StressTensor ReinforcetheConcept

13

Invectornotation,thetractionsonthefacesof
thecubearewritten(alsocalledCauchys
formula):
T1
T2
T3

Inmatrixnotation,thetractionvectorsare
written:

Thismatrixisgenerallyreferredtoasthestress
tensor.Itisthecompleterepresentationofstress
atapoint.
Thestresstensorisasymmetrictensor,meaning
thattij =tji.Asaresult,theentiretensormaybe
specifiedwithonlysixnumbersinsteadofnine.

DifferentNotationsfortheCauchysFormula

14

Ageneralequationfortheexplicitexpressionsaboveisgivenby:

Summationnotationisawayofwritingsummationswithoutthesummationsign.Touse
it,simplydroptheandsumoverrepeatedindices.Theequationinsummationnotation
isgivenby:

Theequationinmatrixformisgivenby

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Summary:Cauchysstresstheorem

Thestateofstressatapointinthebodyisthendefinedby
allthestressvectorsT(n)associatedwithallplanes(infinite
innumber)thatpassthroughthatpoint.
However,accordingtoCauchysfundamentaltheorem,also
calledCauchysstresstheorem,merelybyknowingthestress
vectorsonthreemutuallyperpendicularplanes,thestress
vectoronanyotherplanepassingthroughthatpointcanbe
foundthroughcoordinatetransformationequations.
Cauchysstresstheoremstatesthatthereexistsasecond
ordertensorfield,calledtheCauchystresstensor,
independentofn,suchthatTisalinearfunctionofn:

ThisequationimpliesthatthestressvectorT(n)atanypoint
P inacontinuumassociatedwithaplanewithnormalunit
vectorn canbeexpressedasafunctionofthestressvectors
ontheplanesperpendiculartothecoordinateaxes,i.e.in
termsofthecomponentsij ofthestresstensor.

Atensorisageometricobjectthatdescribeslinearrelation
betweenvectors,scalars,andothertensors.

15

16

Scalars Ascalarisa0th ordertensor,itcontainsmagnitudeinformationonly.Thereisnodirection

associatedwithit.Densityisthemostcommonscalarquantitywewilluseingeophysics.Temperature
isanothercommonscalarquantity.Concentrationofsaltorotherchemicalpropertiesareother
examples.Incontinuummechanics,wecanhaveascalarfield,suchasadensityfieldthatvaries
spatially.Thedensityisdefinedateachpointinspace=(x,y,z)
Vectors Avectorisa1st ordertensor,itcontainsinformationaboutbothmagnitudeanddirection.A
singlevectorhas3componentsv=v(x,y,z)=vi =(v1,v2,v3).Velocity,acceleration,heatflux,andforce
areallvectorsthatwecommonlyuseincontinuummechanics.Ingeophysicswealsodiscussthe
electricfieldandmagneticfield,whicharevectorfields.
Tensor A2nd ordertensor(thisiswhatwecommonlycallatensor)containsinformationabouta
magnitudeandTWODIRECTIONS.A secondordertensordescribestherelationshipbetweentwo
vectors.Ascalarmultiplyingavectorandchangethemagnitudeofthevector,butnotitsdirection.A
vectormultiplyinganothervectorcanchangeitsmagnitude,butitcanonlyaffectthedirectionofthe
vectorbycreatinganewvectorat90 fromtheothers(thecrossproduct).Ifwewanttotakeavector
andhavetheabilitytochangebothitsdirectionanditsmagnitude,weneedasecondordertensor!

Justlikeavector,thespecificcomponentsofthetensor
willchangewiththecoordinatesystem,butthetensor
isstillthesametensor

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StressTensor

NOTE:Atensorisamatrix(typically3 3matrixbecauseweliveina3Dworld),butamatrixisnot
necessarilyatensor!!!
Anexampleofatensor:ifwehaveaforce(withamagnitudeandadirection),suchasmyfinger
pushingdownward,andweapplyittoasurface(suchasthetable),wedescribethesurfacebya
vectorthatisnormaltothatsurface(i.e.thatpointsoutwardfromthesurface).Thetopsurfaceofa
tablewouldbedescribedbyanormalvectorpointingstraightupintheair.Soourtwovectorsaremy
fingerpointingdownandthetablenormalpointingup,themagnitudeistheamountofforcemy
fingersuppliesdividedbytheareaofthetipofmyfingerthatcontactsthetable.

Becausebothofthesearepoin nginthex3direc on,it

canbedescribedbyonecomponentofthetensor33 the
twosubscripted3sdescribethetwovectorsinour
coordinatesystem.Thisisnowastress(rememberstress
isaforceoveranarea).ThiscomponentisaNORMAL
stress,becausethedirectionoftheforceandthedirection
associatedwiththesurfaceareinthesamedirection.The
fulltensorwouldlooklikethis

StressTensor

17

18

If,instead,Iusedmyfullhandandslideitacrossthetable,thisisapplyingaSHEAR force.

Inthiscasethecomponentofthetensoris32.Thefirstsubscript3representsthe
directionofthenormaltothesurface,thesecondone2representsthedirectionofthe
force.

0
0 0

ij 0 0 23
0 23 0

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PrincipleStressandHydrostaticStateofStress

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PrincipleStress
Thestresstensorisamatrixthatspecifiesthetractionsonthreemutuallyperpendicularfacesofan
infinitesimalcube.Ingeneral,thesetractionsarebothparallelandperpendiculartothenormal
vectorsofthefaces.
Atacertainorientationofthefaces,however,thetractionsareonlyparalleltothenormalvectors.
Thedirectionsofthesenormalvectorsarecalledprincipledirectionsandthestressesarecalled
principlestresses.
Representingthestresstensorintermsofprinciplestressesmakesvisualizingthestateofstress
easier becauseitreducesthestresstensortoonlythreenumbers.Italsomakessomecalculations
easier.

Whenallthreeprincipalstressesareequal,thestateofstressisisotropic andtheprincipal
stressescanbeidentifiedasthepressurep=1 =2 =3.
Inanycoordinatesystemthenormalstressesareequaltothepressure,andtherearenoshear
stresses.
Anysetoforthogonalaxesqualifiesasaprincipalaxiscoordinatesystem.
Thisisalsoreferredtoasahydrostaticstateofstress.
Lithostatic stateofstressisahydrostaticstatewherethestressincreasesproportionallywithdepth
(d)ataratecontrolledbythedensityofrock(),i.e.,gd.

HydrostaticStateofStressandDeviatoric Stress

20

Whenthethreeprincipalstressesarenotequal,thepressure isdefinedtobetheirmean:

Thepressure isinvarianttothechoiceofcoordinatesystem,thatis,totheorientationof
thecoordinateaxes,sothatitisequaltothemeanofthenormalstressesinany
coordinatesystem

Subtractingthemeannormalstressfromthestresstensorproducesthedeviatoric stress:

Representingthestresstensorintermsofisotropicanddeviatoric stressesishelpfulin
determiningthetypeoffaultingproducedbycertainstresses.

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Lothostatic Stress

21

MostofthestresstensorintheEarthiscloseto"lithostatic",

ij gd ij

whereistheaveragedensityoftheoverburden,gisgravitationalacceleration,anddisthedepth
ofthepointunderconsideration;
whereij istheKronecker delta;itequals0ifij andequals1ifi=j.

Typical"tectonic"stresseshavemagnitudesintherange0.3 300MPa(33,000bars).

Students:ReadT&S2.2,2.4,and2.5

TractionVectorvsStressTensor Again

22

Wevediscussedtwotypesofforces:
SurfaceForce:actsuniformlyonasurface(A),astheareagoestozero,thisbecomesaTraction.
BodyForce:actsuniformlythroughoutaVolume(V)anditisdirectlyproportionaltothevolume
ormass,suchasgravity.

Thereforewhenthevolumegoestozeroandtheareaofeachsidegoestozero,the
tractionsoneithersideofanysurfaceweslicethroughthevolumehavetobeequaland
opposite.Ifwedefineasurfacebyitsnormalnj,wecanfindthetractionvectoronany
surfacebecausethestresstensorprovidestherelationbetweentwovectors:

Ifwewritethisout,wecanseethatitisnowthreeequations,oneforeachdirection:

Thisisusefulforcalculatingthetraction(andthereforethenormalandshearforces)on
anysurfaceinabody.

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TractionVectorvsStressTensor:Example

23

Letscalculatethetraction(andthereforethenormalandshearforces)onanysurfaceina
bodybasedonaknownstresstensor.Forexample,ifweknowanexistingfaultplane,we
candeterminethenormalandshearforcesactingonthatfaultplanefromtheregional
stress.

105Paequals1bar,whichisapproximatelysealevelairpressure.

Ifthereisacrack(plane)inthematerialwithanormalinthedirection:
whatarethenormal andshear stressesactingonthiscrack?
Firstweneedthecalculatetheunitnormaltothecrack:

Thisisthetractionvectoronthecrack,wejustneedtoseparateoutthenormalandshear
componentsofthis.Togetthenormaltraction,wetakethedot productofthetraction
withthenormaltothecrack:

TractionVectorvsStressTensor:Example

24

Theshearstressisthevector differencebetweenthetotaltractionandthenormal
traction,anditactsinadirectionperpendiculartothenormalforce(paralleltothecrack
plane):

Ourquestionintherealworldwouldbe giventhisstressintherockandtheexistenceof
thecrack,willtherockslipalongthecrackornot?Tofigurethisoutweneedtoknowthe
coefficientoffrictionforthecrack,f,whichistheratiooftheshearforcerequiredforitto
fail,S*,tothenormalforce(thenormalforceissqueezingthecrackshut,alarger
compressivenormalforcemeansweneedalargershearstresstomakeitfail):

Where|N| isthemaximumcompressivestressinthiscase.Ifweassumethatffor
thematerialis1then:|S| =|N|
Inthiscase,thefaultwouldnotfailbecause|S|<|S| :1.78<1.94.

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25

TractionVectorvsStressTensor:Example

Ifweaddthepossibilityforfluidpressureforcingopenthecrack:

wherepisthefluidpressureinthecrack.

Thisfluidpressurecountersthenormalstress,creatinganeffectivenormalstress:

Ifthepressureispumpedupto0.16(=1.941.78),thecrackwouldfail.
Reducingthecoefficientoffrictionwillalsomakethecrackfail.

Effectivenormalstress=|N| p

TransformingTensorsintoDifferentCoordinateSystems

26

Students:ReadT&S2.3.
Inordertotransformatensorintoadifferentcoordinatesystem,onemustfirst
understandhowtotransformthecoordinatesystemitself.
If xi ' and x j represent unit vectors that are the axes of two coordinate systems with the
same origin, they are related by the equation:

xi' ij xj
where ij is the cosine of the angle between the primed axis xi ' and the unprimed axis x . For
example, 12 is the cosine of the angle between x1 ' and x 2 . ji represents a 9-component matrix
called the transformation matrix. Unlike the stress tensor, it is not symmetric (ij ji).
j

In matix equations, the transformation law is written

orX=AX

The inverse transformation law is written

xi ji xj '

orX=ATX

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TransformingTensorsintoDifferentCoordinateSystems

27

Anexampleofcoordinatetransformations

cos 30

cos 60 0

ij cos120 cos 30 0

The explicit transformation equations are

x1 ' cos 30x1 cos 60x2

x 2 ' cos120x1 cos 30x2
Firstordertensorsorvectorshavetwocomponents
in2Dcoordinatesandthreecomponentsin3D
coordinates.Theytransformaccordingtothesame
lawsascoordinateaxesbecausecoordinateaxesare
themselvesvectors.

If uj is a vector in the x coordinate system and ui is a

vector in the xi ' coordinate system, then the following
equations describe their transformation:

ui ' ij u j
ui ji u j '
Note that ij is positive if the angle is measured
counterclockwise from xi ' to x j . It is negative if the angle is
measured clockwise.

TransformingTensorsintoDifferentCoordinateSystems*

28

The transformation law for second-order tensors like stress and strain is more complicated
than the transformation law for first-order tensors. It may be derived as follows
Begin with the vector transformation of traction Ti to Tk:
Tk ' kiTi
Rewrite Tk and Ti using Cauchys formulas:
Tk ' ' kl nl ' and Ti ij n j
Substitute Cauchys formulas into the original transformation equation:

' kl nl ' ki ij n j
Transform the normal vector nj to nl and substitute into the previous equation:

Cancel the nl term on each side and group the s

Note that changing the position of the last term changes the order of its subscripts.

In vector notation, the equation is

where the double underbars denote second-rank tensors and the superscript T denotes the
transpose of matrix

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29

StressTransformationEquations
y1

yx

yx

x1y1

x1
x1

x
x1

xy

y1x1

xy

y1

x
y1x1

x1y1

y1

If we vary from 0 to 360, we will get all possible values of x1 and x1y1 for a
given stress state. It would be useful to represent x1 and x1y1 as functions of
in graphical form.
To do this, we must re-write the transformation equations by eliminating
through squaring both sides of each equation and adding the two equations
together such as the following:
Beware compressive is defined as negative!

30

MohrsCircle

Ifwedefine

Weobtain

This circle is usually referred to asMohrscircle,aftertheGermancivilengineerOttoMohr

(18351918),whodevelopedthegraphicaltechniquefordrawingthecirclein1882.
TheconstructionofMohrscircleisoneofthefewgraphicaltechniquesstillusedin
engineering.Itprovidesasimpleandclearpictureofanotherwisecomplicatedanalysis.

which is the equation for a circle with center(avg,0) and radius R.

Notice that shear stress is plotted as

positive downward. The reason for
doing this is that 2 is then positive
counterclockwise, which agrees with
the direction of 2 used in the
derivation of the transformation
equations and the direction of on
the stress element.

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MohrsCircle

31

Goal: Locate the centre of the circle c at the point having coordinates x1 avg and x1y1 0.
1. Draw a set of coordinate axes with x1 as abscissa (positive to the right) and x1y1 as
ordinate (positive downward).
3. Locate point A, representing the stress conditions on the x face of the element by
plotting its coordinates x1 x and x1y1 xy. Note that point A on the circle corresponds
to = 0.
4. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the y face of the element by
plotting its coordinates x1 y and x1y1 xy. Note that point B on the circle
corresponds to = 90.
5. Draw a line from point A to point B,
a diameter of the circle passing
through point c. Points A and B
(representing stresses on planes at
90 to each other) are at opposite
ends of the diameter (and therefore
180 apart on the circle).
6. Using point c as the center, draw
Mohrs circle through points A and
B. This circle has radius R.
Step-by-step illustration can be found at
http://www.esm.psu.edu/courses/emch13d/desi
gn/animation/animation.htm

StressesonanInclinedElement

32

1. On Mohrs circle, measure an angle 2 counterclockwise from radius cA, because

point A corresponds to = 0 and hence is the reference point from which angles
are measured.
2. The angle 2 locates the point D on the circle, which has coordinates x1 and x1y1.
Point D represents the stresses on the x1 face of the inclined element.
3. Point E, which is diametrically opposite point D on the circle, is located at an angle 2
+ 180 from cA (and 180 from cD). Thus point E gives the stress on the y1 face of the
inclined element.
4. So, as we rotate the x1y1 axes counterclockwise by an angle , the point on Mohrs
circle corresponding to the x1 face moves counterclockwise through an angle 2.

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Principal Stresses & Maximum Shear Stress

33

MohrsCircle:Example

34

Example: The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress

element below. Draw the Mohrs circle, determine the principal stresses and
the maximum shear stresses, and draw the corresponding stress elements.

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9/1/2016

MohrsCircle:Example

Example: The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress

element below. Draw the Mohrs circle, determine the principal stresses and
the maximum shear stresses, and draw the corresponding stress elements.

MohrsCircle:Example

35

36

Example: The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress

element below. Draw the Mohrs circle, determine the principal stresses and
the maximum shear stresses, and draw the corresponding stress elements.

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Coulomb'sLawofFailure

37

The critical shear stress (c) required to break a rock by shear failure is equal to the
cohesive strength of the rock (0) plus another increment of shear equal to the friction
of the rock (N tan
o = angle of internal friction
o tan = coefficient of internal
friction (slope of failure line)
c
0
N
o c = critical shear stress
required for faulting
o o = cohesive strength
o = normal stress

tan ( )

The slope and straightness of the

envelope reveal that compressive
strength of a rock increases linearly
with increasing confining pressure.

The angle of envelope slope is

called angle of internal friction ().

The envelope is called the Coulomb

envelope.

A law that describes the conditions

under which a rock will fail by shear
fracturing under compressive stress
conditions.

Coulomb'sLawofFailure

c 0 tan ( N )

38

When the Mohr circle becomes tangent

to the envelope, then the c at that point
causes a fracture. 2there gives the
failure and the point gives the n and
at failure
All of the normal and shearing stresses
inside the envelope are stable no
fractures produced.
All of the stresses on or outside the
envelope will produce fracturing.

Example:

The point of failure on the Coulomb

envelope reveals magnitudes of N =
43 MPa and = s = 47 MPa.
In terms of Coulomb Law of failure,
the shear stress value of 47 MPa is
the critical shear stress (c)
necessary for fracturing to occur.
Part of its magnitude is cohesive
strength (0) expressing in units of
stress, read directly off of the Mohr yintercept of the envelope of failure.

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39

Coulomb'sLawofFailure

c 0 tan ( N )
Compressivestrengthtestsshow
failureenvelopesfordifferent
rocksaresimilarandthefractures
formatanglesof25to35degrees
from1 thedirectionofthemost
compressivestress!

40

Coulomb'sLawofFailure

c 0 tan ( N )
Question:Howmuchshearstressis
neededtocausemovementalonga
preexistingfracturesurface,subjectedto
acertainnormalstress?
Answer:SimilartoCoulomblaw
withoutcohesion,o =0;preexisting
fracturesofsuitableorientationmayfail
beforeanewfractureisformed.
Question:whataboutporefluid
pressure?
Answer:Increasingporefluidpressure
favorsfailure aseffectivestress =n P
(fluidpressure).Aqualitative
explanationoftheeffectofporefluid
pressureisthatthefluidhelpsto
"support"someofthenormalstress
thatisotherwisecarriedbysolidgrains.

porefluid

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41

StrainTensor

Students:ReadT&S2.7.
Strainisdefinedastheamountofdeformation anobjectexperiencescomparedtoits
originalsizeandshape.InGeodynamics,wefocusoninfinitesimal strain(smallerchanges
inshape)thatcausesquaredandhigherordertermsinthestrainequationtobenegligible.
Stressisa secondorder tensorthatprovidesa relationship between a normal vector and a
tractionvector. Strain isalsoa secondorder tensor thatprovides a relationship between
two vectors: a position vector dxi and a displacement vectordui.

42

StrainTensor

Assuming that the deformation is continuous, du is related to dx by the equation:

Thecomponentsofstrain
inthex,y,andzdirections
areproportionaltothe
derivativesofthe
associateddisplacementsin
therespectivedirections.

Thematrixequationiswritten:

Thestraintensorlookscomplicated.Whatitmeansintermsofstretching,twisting,and
rotatingabodyisnotobvious.Afewsimpleexamples,however,helpillustratewhatits
componentsmeanintermsofdifferentkindsofdeformation:

The nine-term matrix is the strain tensor

Translations
Rotations
Elongation and Compression
Shear

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StrainTensor

43

1. Translations
In the case of rigid-body translations, du equals zero.
The strain tensor has no sensitivity to them.

2.Rotations

Twoexpressionsfor canbewrittenintermsof:

Because rotations in infinitesimal strain are small,

the equations can be approximated using a smallangle identity:

These equations can be combined to give a single

expression for

StrainTensor

44

Thisexpressioncanbegeneralizedtorepresentanyrotation:

Thestraintensorcanberewrittentoexplicitlyincludetheaboveexpression:

In this form, the second part of the strain tensor wij represents only rigid-body rotations.
It is anti-symmetric. The first part ij represents elongation, compression, and shear. It
is symmetric.
Therigidbodyrotationswij donotalterdistancesbetweenneighboringelementsofasolid
and,therefore,donotinvolvestresses.Accordingly,thestraincomponentsandtheir
associatedstressesareofourprimaryconcern.

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StrainTensor

45

3.ElongationandCompression

Since both dx and du are in the x2 direction, the

first part of the strain tensor ij is given by

Consequently, ij i=j can be thought of as a

measure of elongation in the direction i. It is
equal to a change in length per unit length of a
material. For example, if a metal rod of length l
is stretched to a new length l+l, the elongation
ij is equal to l /l.

StrainTensor

46

4. Shear

Just as in the case of rigid-body rotation, two expressions for can written in terms of
using small-angle approximations:

These equations can be combined to give a single expression for

Consequently, while ij i=j is a measure of elongation, ij ij is a measure of shear.

Thesheartrainisdefinedtobeonehalf
ofthedecreaseintherightangle;
negativeiftheoriginalrightangleis
alteredtoanacuteangle(inT&Sbook)

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StrainTensor

47

We have explained a simple and convenient way to find the stress on an arbitrary plane
given the stress tensor ij. The technique involved writing equations for how the shear
stress and normal stress on the xi' plane vary when the coordinate system is rotated to xi'.
These equations plotted as Mohrs circle in stress space (,) and gave the tractions on plane xi'
at angle to the most compressive principle stress.

Since strain is a second-order tensor like stress, the same technique can be applied.
Equations for the normal strain and shear strain on a plane at angle to the most
compressive principle strain may be derived in the same way the equations for stress
were derived. Consider the following transformation of coordinates:
The strain tensor in the xi coordinate system is transformed to the strain tensor in the
xi' coordinate system by the equation

where the double underbars denote second-rank tensors,

represents the transformation matrix, and the superscript
T denotes the transpose of matrix

StrainTensor

48

Since the coordinate system is rotated about the x3 axis, the transformation matrix is

The equations for the normal strain and shear strain on the xi' plane in the new
coordinate system are

The derivation for these equations follows the derivation for the Mohrs circle equations
of stress in the previous lecture.
Dilation = xx + yy + zz=V/V
In the principal strain axis coordinate system, the shear components are zero.

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MeasuringStrain

49

Measurementofsurfacestraincanprovideimportantinformationon fundamental
geodynamicprocesses.
Leveling:usesaleveltelescopeandtwomeasuringstickstomeasuretheverticaldistance
betweentwopoints.

Triangulation:usesatelescopemountedonaprotractortomeasuretheanglebetween
twopoints.

MeasuringStrain

50

Trilateration: uses a laser mounted on a protractor to measure the distance to two

objects and the angle between them.

VeryLongBaselineInterferometry(VLBI)andtheGlobalPositioningSystem
(GPS):measurethelocationofobjectsontheEarthssurfacebyusingantennaetoread
signalsfromspace.InVBLI,thissignalcomesfromquasars.InGPS,thesignalcomesfroma
satellite.

VLBI

GPS

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51

MeasuringStrain
VLBI
InVLBIasignalfromanastronomicalradiosource,suchasa
quasar,iscollectedatmultipleradiotelescopesonEarth.The
distancebetweentheradiotelescopesisthencalculated
usingthetimedifferencebetweenthearrivalsoftheradio
signalatdifferenttelescopes.
VLBIismostwellknownforimagingdistantcosmicradio
sources,spacecrafttracking,andforapplicationsin
astrometry.
However,sincetheVLBItechniquemeasuresthetime
differencesbetweenthearrivalofradiowavesatseparate
antennas/telescopes,itcanalsobeused"inreverse"to
performearthrotationstudies,mapmovementsoftectonic
platesprecisely(mmlevel),andperformothertypesof
geodesy(rotationrates,elasticresponsetotides,etc).Using
VLBIinthismannerrequireslargenumbersoftime
differencemeasurementsfromdistantsources(suchas
quasars)observedwithaglobalnetworkofantennasovera
periodoftime.
VLBIprovidedthefirstdirectconfirmationofplatemotion.

*Quasar "qausistellarradiosources",
extragalatic starlikeobjectsthatarethe
verybrightcentersofsomedistant
galaxies,wheresomesortofenergetic
actionisoccurring,mostprobablydueto
thepresenceofasupermassiveblackhole
atthecenterofthatgalaxy.
51

52
52

MeasuringStrain
GPS

Anavigationandprecisepositioningtool
developedbytheDept.ofDefensein1973

Highlyaccuratemethodofsurveyingand
measuringtectonicmotions
Spacesegmentconsistsofaconstellationof24
(andmore)satellitesorbitingat20,200km
altitude.
~5to8satellitesvisibleatanygiventimefrom
anypointonEarth.

Fuzzylinesnotduetoorbit
perturbations,butduetosatellites
beingin6planesat55o inclination

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MeasuringStrain

53

WhenGPSReceivesaSignal

Itcomparesthatsignalwithalltheknownsatellitecodesandthereceiverdetermineswhich
satelliteitis
Pseudorangepositioning
o Itdecodesthetimeinformation:timedifferencebetweensignaltransmissionfromsatellite
anditsarrivalatgroundstationisusedtoobtainpseudorangepreciseto0.110m.
o Forpseudorangetobeusedforpointpositioningweneed:
o Knowledgeoferrorsinsatelliteclocks
o Knowledgeofpositionsofsatellites
o Theaboveinformationistransmittedbysatelliteinbroadcastephemeris
o Oncethepseudorangehasdonethatfor3ormoresatellites,the3dimensionalposition
oftheGPSreceivercanbedetermined
Carrierphasepositioning
o Carrierphasedifferencebetweentransmitterandreceiver
o Simultaneousmeasurementsallowphaseerrorsinclockstoberemoved,i.e.theclock
phaseerroristhesamefortwogroundreceiversobservingasatelliteatthesametime
o Totakeadvantageofthisprecision,measurementsat2frequenciesL1(~1.5GHz)andL2
(~1.25GHz)areneeded.
o Useofcarrierphasemeasurementsallowspositioningwithmillimeterlevelaccuracyand
submillimeterifmeasurementsareaveragedfor24hours.
53

MeasuringStrain

54

ExampleofGPSApplication:Churchill,Canada
Churchill,Manitoba

Eachreddottellsyouthe
positionofaGPSreceiverona
singleday.
Churchillismoving1.9cm/yr
west,0.6cm/yr south,and1.1
cm/yr up(why?).
54

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9/1/2016

55

MeasuringStrain
InterferometricSyntheticApertureRadar(InSAR):measuresdistancechangesby
transmittingelectromagneticradiationandobservingthereturnsignal
o Sincetheoutgoingradarwaveisproducedby
thesatellite,theoutgoingphaseisconstant.
o Thereturnphasedependsonthedistancetothe
ground

InSAR deformation map

o Thephasedifference(phaseshift)betweenthe
outgoingandreturnwavecanbemeasured
extremelyaccurately
o Interferometryusestwoimagesofthesame
areatakenfromthesamepositionandfindsthe
differenceinphasebetweenthem

Shaded view of deformation

Vertical exaggeration: 20,000

o Phasedifferenceisinradiansandduetocyclical
natureofphase,isrecordedasrepeating
fringes.Eachfringeisa2cycle
Distorted street map

Ground subsidence over Pomona, CA:

October 1993 December 1995

28