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polyhedra
11
Val and Peter want to
replace their front gate with
another of the same design.
What shapes are formed by
the metal bars of the gate?
To have this gate made,
they need to supply a
diagram of it with all
measurements and angles
shown. In this chapter, you
will look at different shapes
and their properties,
including angles.
422
Introduction
The world around you is filled with many different shapes and objects. The roof of this
house in Falls Creek is shaped as a triangle when viewed from the front. This lets the
winter snow slide off the roof.
423
Types of triangles
The word triangle means 3 angles. Every triangle has 3 angles and 3 sides.
Capital letters of the English alphabet at the
vertices of triangles can be used to identify
B
triangles. When identifying triangles, the vertices
are listed in either a clockwise or anticlockwise
direction, beginning with any vertex. Instead of
the word triangle the symbol L is used.
For example, the triangle shown at right can be
A
C
referred to as LABC. However, it would be
equally appropriate to name it LBCA, LCAB,
LACB, LBAC or LCBA.
Triangles can be classified according to the length of their sides or the size of their
angles.
424
WORKED Example 1
Classify each of these triangles according to the lengths of their sides.
a
b
c
N
R
B
S
A
THINK
WRITE
425
WORKED Example 2
Classify each of the triangles in worked example 1 according to the size of their angles.
THINK
WRITE
remember
remember
1. According to the lengths of the sides, a triangle can be classified as being:
(a) equilateral (3 equal sides)
(b) isosceles (2 equal sides)
(c) scalene (no equal sides).
2. A triangle can be classified according to the angle size, as being:
(a) acute-angled (all 3 angles are acute)
(b) right-angled (1 angle is a right angle)
(c) obtuse-angled (1 angle is obtuse).
11A
WORKED
Example
Types of triangles
11.1
Classifying
triangles
(sides)
426
WORKED
Example
Classifying
triangles
(angles)
2 Classify each of the triangles in question 1 according to the size of their angles.
U
R
O
A
4 multiple choice
a Which of these triangles is an equilateral triangle?
A
B
5 multiple choice
a Which of these triangles is both right-angled and scalene?
A
427
428
QUEST
GE
EN
MAT H
CH
AL
429
Angles in a triangle
Sum of angles in a triangle
You will need: a ruler and a protractor.
1. Draw an acute-angled triangle in your workbook.
2. Use a protractor to measure each of the 3 angles.
3. Find the sum of the 3 angles.
4. Draw up a table like the one shown below and write in your results.
Triangle
First angle
Second
angle
Third angle
Sum of
angles
1. Acute-angled
2. Obtuse-angled
3. Right-angled
4. Isosceles
5. Scalene
6. Write down any patterns that you have observed in relation to the sum of the
angles in a triangle.
As a result of this investigation you should have discovered the rule that is stated below.
It can be shown that the sum of the 3 angles in any
triangle is equal to 180.
This rule can be used to find missing angles in triangles, as shown in the following
examples.
430
WORKED Example 3
Find the value of the pronumeral in this triangle.
35
THINK
1
2
3
58
WRITE
b + 35 + 58 = 180
b + 93 = 180
b = 180 93
b = 87
+ 93
b + 93
87
180
93
In the previous section it was discussed that the angles at the base of an
isosceles triangle are equal in size. Worked examples 4 and 5 illustrate the use of
this property.
WORKED Example 4
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following triangle.
B
h
A
74
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
BAC = 74
431
WORKED Example 5
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following triangle.
N
40
a
M
THINK
WRITE
NPM = a
+ 40
2a
2a + 40
70
140
180
2a + 40 = 180
2a = 180 40
2a = 140
140
a = ----------2
a = 70
40
B
exterior
angles
Interior angle
Exterior angle
C
HACB + HBCD = 180
432
WORKED Example 6
THINK
1
WRITE
125 p
A
83
C
remember
remember
1. The sum of the interior angles in any triangle is equal to 180.
2. The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal in size.
3. An exterior angle of a triangle, and an interior angle adjacent to it, are
supplementary (that is, add up to 180).
11B
11.2
WORKED
Example
Angles in a triangle
Angle sum
of a triangle
30
55
25
40
68
e
60
f
33
30
54
Triangles
k
60
60
433
2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following right-angled triangles.
a
b
c
45
40
25
d
b
WORKED
Example
52
55
WORKED
Example
28
48
f
57
32
70
b
70
60
p
434
d
p
62
50
100
6 a
b
c
d
WORKED
Example
62
An isosceles triangle has 2 angles of 55 each. Find the size of the third angle.
An isosceles triangle has 2 angles of 12 each. Find the size of the third angle.
Two angles of a triangle are 55 and 75 respectively. Find the third angle.
Two angles of a triangle are 48 and 68 respectively. Find the third angle.
b
158
130 p
130
60
125
50
s
y
130
f
b
26
55
34
72
120
56
11.1
9 Below are sets of 3 angles. For each set state whether or not it is possible to construct
a triangle with these angles. Give a reason for your answer.
a 40, 40, 100
b 45, 60, 70
c 45, 55, 85
d 111, 34.5, 34.5
10 Explain in your own words why it is impossible to construct a triangle with 2 obtuse angles.
435
1
1 Name the triangle shown at right based on
the length of the sides.
2 Name the triangle in question 1 based on the size of its angles.
3 A triangle has angles of 35 and 76. Find the third angle.
4 One angle of a right-angled triangle is 37. Find the third angle.
In questions 5 to 9, find the missing angle in each triangle.
5
6
72
38
48
a
57
j
64
y
22
118
41
436
Types of quadrilaterals
Any 2-dimensional closed shape with 4 straight sides is called a quadrilateral. Quadmeans four, as in quadruplets (four babies), or quadriplegic (paralysed in all four
limbs). Lateral means sides, as in lateral movement (sideways movement) or lateral
thinking (thinking sideways, or around, a problem).
All quadrilaterals can be divided into 2 major groups: parallelograms and other
quadrilaterals.
Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with both pairs of opposite sides being parallel
to each other. Parallelograms include rectangles, squares and rhombuses
(diamonds).
The table below shows different parallelograms and their properties. Note that
parallel sides are marked with identical arrows.
Parallelogram
Shape
Properties
Parallelogram
Rectangle
Rhombus
Square
Quadrilaterals
Rectangles
Rhombuses
Squares
Other
quadrilaterals
Shape
437
Properties
Trapezium
Kite
Irregular
quadrilateral
WORKED Example 7
Name the following quadrilaterals, giving reasons for your answers.
a
b
THINK
WRITE
remember
remember
1. A quadrilateral is a 2-dimensional closed shape with 4 straight sides.
2. All quadrilaterals can be divided into 2 major groups: parallelograms and other
quadrilaterals.
3. Parallelograms have 2 pairs of parallel sides and include rectangles, squares
and rhombuses.
4. Other quadrilaterals include trapeziums, kites and irregular quadrilaterals.
438
11C
Types of quadrilaterals
WORKED
Example
Quadrilaterals
Rectangles
Rhombuses
Squares
2 multiple choice
a
This quadrilateral is a:
A square
B rectangle
D rhombus
E parallelogram
This quadrilateral is a:
A trapezium B parallelogram
D irregular quadrilateral
This quadrilateral is a:
A trapezium B square
C irregular quadrilateral
E parallelogram
C kite
C rhombus
E kite
D kite
439
4 multiple choice
A rectangle is a quadrilateral because:
A it has 4 right angles
B it has 2 pairs of parallel sides
C its opposite sides are equal in length
D it has 4 straight sides
E it has 2 pairs of parallel sides and 4 right angles.
5 Draw 4 equilateral triangles with side lengths 4 cm and cut them out.
a Use 2 of these triangles to make a rhombus. Draw your solution.
b Use 3 of these triangles to make a trapezium. Draw your solution.
c Use all 4 triangles to make a parallelogram. Draw your solution.
6 Copy and cut out the following set of shapes.
Arrange the shapes to form a square.
Draw your solution.
7 State the types of quadrilaterals that can be seen in each of the following pictures.
a
8 In your house, find an example of each type of quadrilateral discussed in this section.
Write down the type of quadrilateral and where you found it.
9 The picture at right is made up of equilateral triangles.
How many rhombuses can you find in the picture?
(One rhombus that is made up of 2 triangles is shown.)
440
Angles in a quadrilateral
Sum of angles in a quadrilateral
You will need a ruler and a protractor.
1. Draw an irregular quadrilateral in your workbook.
2. Measure each of the 4 angles using a protractor.
3. Find the sum of the 4 angles.
4. Record your results for the irregular quadrilateral into the table below.
Quadrilateral
First
angle
Second
angle
Third
angle
Fourth
angle
Sum of
angles
Irregular
quadrilateral
Trapeziums
Parallelogram
Trapezium
Kite
Parallelograms
Kites
Square
Angle sum in a
quadrilateral
441
[2]
[1]
[2]
Comparing [1] and [2] we observe that the left-hand sides of both equations are the
same. Therefore, the right-hand sides of the equations must also be equal and so the
sum of angles in a quadrilateral = 360.
We can use this rule to find missing angles in quadrilaterals, as shown in the
examples that follow.
WORKED Example 8
Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram at right.
120
80
75
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
b + 80 + 75 + 120 = 360
b + 275 = 360
b = 360 275
b = 85
WORKED Example 9
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following
diagram, giving a reason for your answer.
72
THINK
WRITE
442
WORKED Example 10
Find the value of the pronumerals in the following diagram.
THINK
1
3
4
5
50
WRITE
136
k + t + 50 + 136 = 360
t = 136
remember
remember
The sum of angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360.
11D
WORKED
Example
8
Angle sum in a
quadrilateral
Angles in a quadrilateral
42
138
b
18
Angles in a
quadrilateral
50
f
54
120
107
107
t
m
20
p
127
250
32
c
k
110
12
93
443
WORKED
Example
2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following diagrams, giving reasons for
your answers.
a
b
m
75
78
u
d
132
108
t
f
f
63
73
z
p
WORKED
Example
10
m
c
82
64
36
106
p
96
91
115
75
m
t
4 multiple choice
The value of t in the following diagram is:
A 360
B 112
C 222
D 138
E 180
t
42
444
5 multiple choice
117
me
E ti
Polygons and
polyhedra 01
Constructing quadrilaterals
1. (a) Is it possible to construct a quadrilateral with:
(i) 2 obtuse angles?
(ii) 3 obtuse angles?
(iii) 4 obtuse angles?
(b) Explain your answer in each case. If possible, construct one quadrilateral
of each type in your book.
(c) Based on your answers to part (a), complete the following sentence: The
maximum possible number of obtuse angles in a quadrilateral is . . .
2. Is it possible to construct a quadrilateral with 4 acute angles? If this is possible,
construct one such quadrilateral in your book. If this is not possible, explain
why it is so.
3. Construct quadrilaterals with exactly 2 right angles so that these right angles are:
(a) adjacent (that is, next to each other)
(b) opposite to each other.
Name the shapes that you have constructed.
4. Is it possible to construct a quadrilateral with:
(a) exactly 1 right angle?
(b) exactly 3 right angles?
Give reasons for your answers.
445
131
64
75
E
A
100
77
40
B
81
125
87
87
36
D
A
48
42
64
15
C
103
96
59
71
U
61
42
37
72
39
123
28
86
96
43
94
56
R
78
40
58
86
41
55
27
38
84
68
82
150
80
145
78
20
35
199
15
91
130
65
60
206
446
8 cm
27
18 cm
60 cm
1m
1. There are 4 different shapes formed by the metal bars of the gate. How many
different types of triangles are there? Can you name them?
2. How many types of quadrilaterals are there? Name them.
3. Draw a diagram of the gate showing the length measurements and the one angle
that is given.
4. Use this angle to calculate all the remaining angles in the diagram.
5. Explain how you were able to achieve this.
Your turn!
Using a ruler and protractor, design a fence that is to be constructed using metal
bars. Include different triangles and quadrilaterals to make your design as
interesting as possible. Write a short report describing the shapes you have used
and important angles which need to be marked on your design to assist in the
construction of the fence.
447
Polygons
A polygon is any closed shape with 3 or more sides, each of which is a straight line.
WORKED Example 11
Which of the following shapes are polygons?
a
b
THINK
WRITE
Naming polygons
Polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles in the shape. (Note that
the number of sides in any polygon is equal to the number of angles in the polygon.)
The table below gives the names of the most common polygons.
Number of sides
Name
Number of sides
Name
triangle
nonagon
quadrilateral
10
decagon
pentagon
11
undecagon
hexagon
12
dodecagon
heptagon
20
icosagon
octagon
448
Can you see why this famous building in the USA is called the Pentagon?
WORKED Example 12
Name the following polygons.
a
b
THINK
WRITE
a Number of sides = 5
1
2
b Number of sides = 10
The polygon is a decagon.
c Number of sides = 8
The polygon is an octagon.
remember
remember
1. A polygon is a closed shape with straight sides.
2. Polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles in the shape.
11E
WORKED
Example
11
449
Polygons
Polygons
Regular
polygons
WORKED
Example
12
b quadrilateral
nonagon
d pentagon
e octagon
triangle
450
A quadrilateral
C octagon
E heptagon
B hexagon
D pentagon
C octagon
6 These patterns are made up of different polygons. Can you name them all?
11.2
7 Name one place where you can find these polygons in your home or school.
a a triangle
b a quadrilateral
c a hexagon
d an octagon
451
Constructing polygons
Trace this shape, cut it out and cut along the dotted lines
to make 3 pieces. Rearrange the pieces to make the
following polygons. (Draw the solutions in your workbook).
(a) triangle
(b) square
(c) rectangle
(d) trapezium
(e) pentagon
(f) parallelogram
2
1 Name the quadrilateral shown, giving a reason for
your answer.
94
117
61
71
109
77
65
w
39
6 A quadrilateral has 3 angles measuring 56, 102 and 79. Find the size of the fourth
angle.
7 A rhombus has two angles each of size 78. Find the size of each of the other two
angles.
8 Name the polygon at right.
9 Draw two different examples of an octagon.
10 What name is given to a polygon with 11 sides?
452
A. van Leeuwenhoek
Leeuwenhoek of Holland was
the first person to do this in 16
1676.
7 TRAPEZIUM
8 EQUILATERAL
TRIANGLE
1 PARALLELOGRAM
9 OBTUSE-ANGLED,
SCALENE TRIANGLE
2 RIGHT-ANGLED,
SCALENE TRIANGLE
10 RHOMBUS
3 ACUTE-ANGLED,
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
11 REGULAR PENTAGON
4 SQUARE
12 OBTUSE-ANGLED,
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
5 REGULAR HEXAGON
13 RECTANGLE
6 ACUTE-ANGLED,
SCALENE TRIANGLE
14 RIGHT-ANGLED,
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
U
N
C
G
H
P
T
S
I
1
13
11
M
5
10
7
4
8 6
5
9 10 11 12 11
2
11
4
14
8
6
453
Constructing polygons
In the preceding exercises there were some questions involving construction of triangles and quadrilaterals. In this section we will discuss further ways of constructing
polygons using a ruler, compass and protractor.
A polygon with all sides equal in length and all angles equal in size is called a
regular polygon.
A regular polygon can be constructed in a circle as shown in the following worked
example.
WORKED Example 13
Construct a regular nonagon in a circle of radius 5 cm.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE/DRAW
90
40
remember
remember
1. A regular polygon has all sides of equal length and all angles of equal size.
2. To construct a regular polygon in a circle, first divide 360 by the number of
sides. This gives you the angle between the vertices. Then mark off the points
on the circumference of the circle and join them together with straight lines.
454
11F
11.3
WORKED
Example
Constructing polygons
13
GAM
me
E ti
Polygons and
polyhedra 02
C A rhombus
455
WORKED Example 14
The following object is made from 4 cubes.
Draw plans of it showing:
a the front view
b the right view
c the top view.
THINK
DRAW
Front
Front view
Right view
Top view
Front
456
WORKED Example 15
Draw:
i the front view
ii the right view
iii the top view of this solid.
THINK
1
2
DRAW
Front view
Right view
Top view
WORKED Example 16
The front, right and top views of a solid are shown.
Use cubes to construct the solid.
Front
Front
view
THINK
1
2
CONSTRUCT
Front
Right
view
Top
view
457
remember
remember
1. The front view, or front elevation, is what you see if you are standing directly in
front of an object.
2. The side view, or side elevation, is what you see if you are standing directly to
one side of the object. You can draw the left view or the right view of an object.
3. The top view, or birds eye view, is what you see if you are hovering directly
over the top of the object looking down on it.
11G
1 The following objects are made from cubes. For every object draw the plans, showing
the front view, the right view and the top view. (You may wish to use a set of cubes or
14
building blocks to help you.)
a
b
c
WORKED
Example
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
458
Front
Front
WORKED
Example
15
2 Draw the front, right and top views of each solid shown.
a
3 The front, right and top views of a solid are shown. In each case, use cubes to construct
the solid.
16
a
b
WORKED
Example
Front view
Front view
Right view
Right view
Top view
Top view
Front
Front
d
Front view
Front view
Right view
Right view
Top view
Top view
Front
Front
459
4 multiple choice
The front, right and top views of a solid are shown. Which of the given drawings could
represent the solid?
Front view
Right view
Top view
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
Front
Right view
Top view
Front
460
Edge
Vertex
Face
WORKED Example 17
For the polyhedron shown, write down:
a the number of faces and the shape of each face
b the number of edges
c the number of vertices.
THINK
WRITE
a Number of faces = 5
Shape of the faces: 1 square and 4 triangles
b Number of edges = 8
c Number of vertices = 5
461
Naming polyhedra
The table below gives the names of some common polyhedra that you might often see.
The names are often associated with the number of faces of the polyhedron.
Polyhedron
Number of
faces
Name
tetrahedron, or triangular-based
pyramid
square-based pyramid
cube
octahedron
12
dodecahedron
20
icosahedron
462
Poly
Option 4:
Option 5:
3-dimensional vertices
Option 6:
2-dimensional net
Poly can be used to assist you in counting the number of faces, edges and vertices as
well as view the shape of each face.
For the polyhedron in worked example 17, follow these steps:
1. Select Johnson Solids and Square Pyramid (J1)
2. Press the icon
count the number of faces and to see the shape of each face. (You can rotate the solid
by placing your mouse arrow over the solid then clicking and holding down the
mouse while moving the arrow.)
(wireframe). Rotate until all edges are clearly seen and can be
counted.
4. Press the icon
463
Nets of polyhedra
A 2-dimensional plan that can be folded to construct a 3-dimensional polyhedron
is called a net of that polyhedron.
(2-dimensional
net). You can also see how the solid unfolds into a net and then folds back into a polyhedron by moving the button forward and backwards along the horizontal slot when
using option
Poly
remember
remember
A polyhedron is a 3-dimensional shape in which every flat surface is a polygon.
The flat surfaces that form a polyhedron are called faces.
The lines where 2 faces of the polyhedron meet are called edges.
The points where 3 or more edges of the polyhedron meet are called vertices.
The net is a 2-dimensional plan, which can be folded to form a 3-dimensional
object.
11H
WORKED
Example
You may wish to use the program Poly to assist you in completing this exercise.
1 i
ii
iii
17
Poly
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
464
Cut out the net and fold it to construct the icosahedron. Look at the icosahedron and
write down:
a the number of faces
b the number of vertices
c the number of edges.
465
7 a Copy this table into your workbook. Use the answers to questions 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 (or
the program Poly) to complete the table.
Question
number
Name of polyhedron
1i
cube
1 ii
octahedron
1 iii
dodecahedron
tetrahedron
parallelepiped
truncated tetrahedron
icosahedron
Number
of faces
(F)
Number
of vertices
(V)
Number
of edges
(E)
F+VE
The pattern that you have discovered is known as Eulers rule. (Euler is pronounced Oiler.) Copy the rule into your workbook for future reference.
In other words, the number of faces plus the number of vertices minus the number of
edges equals 2.
8 Use Eulers rule, established in the previous question, to check whether it is possible
for a polyhedron to have:
a 6 faces, 8 vertices and 10 edges
b 9 faces, 12 vertices and 19 edges.
9 Use Eulers rule to answer each of the following questions.
a A polyhedron has 10 faces and 16 vertices. How many edges does it have?
b A polyhedron has 12 faces and 18 vertices. How many edges does it have?
c
A polyhedron has 10 edges and 6 vertices. How many faces does it have?
d A polyhedron has 8 faces and 12 vertices. How many edges does it have?
Using
Eulers
rule
466
10 a Use straws and plasticine (or any other suitable material) to construct these polyhedra:
i a square-based pyramid
ii a nonahedron
11.3
QUEST
GE
EN
MAT H
b For each model count the number of faces, edges and vertices and hence verify
Eulers rule.
CH
AL
L
2 Show how to cut this rectangle into 2 pieces that fit together to form a
square?
Poly
467
summary
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
An obtuse-angled triangle has one angle
90.
An
triangle has two sides equal in length and two angles
equal in size.
An equilateral triangle has all sides
in length and all angles
equal in size.
An
triangle has all angles less than 90.
A
triangle has no equal sides or angles.
A right-angled triangle has one angle equal to 90 (that is, a
angle).
A kite has two pairs of
sides, equal in length. The angles
between
sides of a kite are equal in size.
A
has two pairs of opposite sides equal in length and four 90 angles.
A square has four
and four 90 angles.
A
has one pair of parallel sides.
A rhombus has four equal sides. Opposite angles of a rhombus are
.
A parallelogram has two pairs of
sides. Opposite sides of a
parallelogram are equal in length and
angles are equal in size.
A polygon is any
2-dimensional shape with
edges.
A
polygon has all sides equal in length and all angles equal in size.
A polyhedron is a
object. Each face of a polyhedron is a
.
The sum of the angles in any triangle is equal to
degrees.
An
angle of a triangle and an interior angle adjacent to it are
.
The sum of the angles in any quadrilateral is equal to
degrees.
A plan which can be cut out and folded to make a
is called
a
of that shape.
The birds eye view of an object is its
view.
The
view is drawn when standing directly in front of an object.
The
is the left, or the right view of an object.
Eulers rule for a polyhedron states that the number of
plus the
number of
minus the number of
equals 2.
WORD
faces
adjacent
polygon
closed
net
supplementary
acute-angled
rectangle
LIST
right
opposite
vertices
polyhedron
greater than
180
straight
top
edges
side elevation
unequal
equal sides
equal in size
equal
360
3-dimensional
front
regular
exterior
isosceles
scalene
parallel
trapezium
468
CHAPTER
review
11A
11A
11B
62
40
b
48
65
11B
65
52
n
62
11B
5 The Indian teepee shown has an angle of 46 at its peak. What angle
does the wall make with the floor?
46
85
120
x
11C
11D
c
36
240
105
80
469
42
11D
110
k
w
68
65
65
t
11D
126
74
11E
11E
470
11F
12 Draw a circle of radius 5 cm. Mark points on its circumference every 120. Join the dots
together to construct a triangle.
11F
11G
14 Draw the front, side and top views of each of these solids.
a
b
Front
Front
11G
15 The front, side and top view of a solid are shown. Construct this solid, using blocks.
a
b
Front view
Front view
Right view
Right view
Top view
Front
Top view
Front
11H
17 a A polyhedron has 10 faces and 8 vertices. How many edges does it have?
b A polyhedron has 6 faces and 12 edges. How many vertices does it have?
c Is it possible to have a polyhedron with 10 faces, 6 edges and 4 vertices? Give reasons
test
for your answer.
yourself
CHAPTER
11H
11