Electronic component

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Various electronic components

An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affectelectrons or their
associated fields. Electronic components are mostly industrial products, available in a singular form and are not to be confused
with electrical elements, which are conceptual abstractions representing idealized electronic components.
Electronic components have two or more electrical terminals (or leads) aside from antennas which may only have one terminal.
These leads connect, usually soldered to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit (a discrete circuit) with a particular
function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Basic electronic components may be packaged discretely, as
arrays or networks of like components, or integrated inside of packages such assemiconductor integrated circuits, hybrid
integrated circuits, or thick film devices. The following list of electronic components focuses on the discrete version of these
components, treating such packages as components in their own right.
Contents
[hide]

1 Classification

2 Active components

2.1 Semiconductors

2.1.1 Diodes

2.1.2 Transistors

2.1.3 Integrated circuits

2.1.4 Optoelectronic devices

2.2 Display technologies

2.3 Vacuum Tubes (valves)

2.4 Discharge devices

2.5 Power sources

3 Passive components

3.1 Resistors

3.2 Capacitors

3.3 Magnetic (inductive) devices

3.4 Memristor

3.5 Networks

3.6 Transducers, sensors, detectors

3.7 Antennas

3.8 Assemblies, modules

3.9 Prototyping aids

4 Electromechanical

4.1 Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators

4.2 Terminals and connectors

4.3 Cable assemblies

4.4 Switches

4.5 Protection devices

4.6 Mechanical accessories

4.7 Other

4.8 Obsolete

5 Standard symbols

6 See also

7 References

Classification[edit]
A component may be classified as passive, active, or electromechanic. The strict physics definition treats passive components
as ones that cannot supply energy themselves, whereas a batterywould be seen as an active component since it truly acts as a
source of energy.
However, electronic engineers who perform circuit analysis use a more restrictive definition of passivity. When only concerned
with the energy of signals, it is convenient to ignore the so-called DCcircuit and pretend that the power supplying components
such as transistors or integrated circuits is absent (as if each such component had its own battery built in), though it may in
reality be supplied by the DC circuit. Then, the analysis only concerns the AC circuit, an abstraction that ignores DC voltages
and currents (and the power associated with them) present in the real-life circuit. This fiction, for instance, lets us view an
oscillator as "producing energy" even though in reality the oscillator consumes even more energy from a DC power supply,
which we have chosen to ignore. Under that restriction, we define the terms as used in circuit analysis as:

Active components rely on a source of energy (usually from the DC circuit, which we have chosen to ignore) and
usually can inject power into a circuit, though this is not part of the definition. [1] Active components include amplifying
components such as transistors, triode vacuum tubes (valves), and tunnel diodes.

Passive components can't introduce net energy into the circuit. They also can't rely on a source of power, except for
what is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a consequence they can't amplify (increase the power of a
signal), although they may increase a voltage or current (such as is done by a transformer or resonant circuit). Passive
components include two-terminal components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

Electromechanical components can carry out electrical operations by using moving parts or by using electrical
connections

Most passive components with more than two terminals can be described in terms of two-port parameters that satisfy the
principle of reciprocitythough there are rare exceptions.[2] In contrast, active components (with more than two terminals)
generally lack that property.

Active components[edit]
Semiconductors[edit]
Diodes[edit]
Conduct electricity easily in one direction, among more specific behaviors.

Diode, Rectifier, Bridge rectifier

Schottky diode, hot carrier diode super fast diode with lower forward voltage drop

Zener diode Passes current in reverse direction to provide a constant voltage reference

Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS), Unipolar or Bipolar used to absorb high-voltage spikes

Varactor, Tuning diode, Varicap, Variable capacitance diode A diode whose AC capacitance varies according to the
DC voltage applied.

Light-emitting diode (LED) A diode that emits light

LASER diode A semiconductor laser

Photodiode Passes current in proportion to incident light

Avalanche photodiode Photodiode with internal gain

Solar Cell, photovoltaic cell, PV array or panel, produces power from light

DIAC (Diode for Alternating Current), Trigger Diode, SIDAC) Often used to trigger an SCR

Constant-current diode

Peltier cooler A semiconductor heat pump

Transistors[edit]
Transistors were considered the invention of the twentieth century that changed electronic circuits forever. A transistor is a
semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power.

Transistors

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT, or simply "transistor") NPN or PNP

Photo transistor Amplified photodetector

Darlington transistor NPN or PNP

Photo Darlington Amplified photodetector

Sziklai pair (Compound transistor, complementary Darlington)

Field-effect transistor (FET)

JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) N-CHANNEL or P-CHANNEL

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) N-CHANNEL or P-CHANNEL

MESFET (MEtal Semiconductor FET)

HEMT (High electron mobility transistor)

Thyristors

Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) Passes current only after triggered by a sufficient control voltage on its gate

TRIAC (TRIode for Alternating Current) Bidirectional SCR

Unijunction transistor (UJT)

Programmable Unijunction transistor (PUT)

SIT (Static induction transistor)

SITh (Static induction thyristor)

Composite transistors

IGBT (Insulated-gate bipolar transistor)

Integrated circuits[edit]

Digital

Analog

Hall effect sensor Senses a magnetic field

Current sensor Senses a current through it

Optoelectronic devices[edit]

Optoelectronics

Opto-Isolator, Opto-Coupler, Photo-Coupler Photodiode, BJT, JFET, SCR, TRIAC, Zero-crossing TRIAC,
Open collector IC, CMOS IC, Solid state relay (SSR)

Opto switch, Opto interrupter, Optical switch, Optical interrupter, Photo switch, Photo interrupter

LED display Seven-segment display, Sixteen-segment display, Dot-matrix display

Display technologies[edit]
Current:

Filament lamp (indicator lamp)

Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) (preformed characters, 7 segment, starburst)

Cathode ray tube (CRT) (dot matrix scan, radial scan (e.g. radar), arbitrary scan (e.g. oscilloscope))
(monochrome & colour)

LCD (preformed characters, dot matrix) (passive, TFT) (monochrome, colour)

Neon (individual, 7 segment display)

LED (individual, 7 segment display, starburst display, dot matrix)

Flap indicator (numeric, preprinted messages)

Plasma display (dot matrix)

Obsolete:

Filament lamp 7 segment display (aka 'minitron')

Nixie Tube

Dekatron (aka glow transfer tube)

Magic eye tube indicator

Penetron (a 2 colour see-through CRT)

Vacuum Tubes (valves)[edit]

Based on current conduction through a vacuum (see Vacuum tube)

Diode or Rectifier tube

Amplifying tubes

Triode

Tetrode

Pentode

Hexode

Pentagrid

Octode

Microwave tubes

Klystron

Magnetron

Traveling-wave tube

Optical detectors or emitters

Phototube or Photodiode tube equivalent of semiconductor photodiode

Photomultiplier tube Phototube with internal gain

Cathode ray tube (CRT) or Television picture tube

Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) Modern non-raster sort of small CRT display

Magic eye tube Small CRT display used as a tuning meter (obsolete)

X-ray tube Produces x-rays

Discharge devices[edit]

Gas discharge tube

Obsolete:

Mercury arc rectifier

Voltage regulator tube

Nixie tube

Thyratron

Ignitron

Power sources[edit]
Sources of electrical power:

Battery acid- or alkali-based power supply

Fuel cell an electrochemical generator

Power supply usually a mains hook-up

Photo voltaic device generates electricity from light

Thermo electric generator generates electricity from temperature gradients

Electrical generator an electromechanical power source

Piezoelectric pressure - creates electricity from mechanical strain

Physically carrying electrons - Van de Graaff generator or essentially creating voltage from friction

Passive components[edit]
Resistors[edit]

SMD resistors on a backside of a PCB

Pass current in proportion to voltage (Ohm's law) and oppose current.

Resistor fixed value

Power resistor larger to safely dissipate heat generated

SIP or DIP resistor network array of resistors in one package

Variable resistor

Rheostat two-terminal variable resistor (often for high power)

Potentiometer three-terminal variable resistor (variable voltage divider)

Trim pot Small potentiometer, usually for internal adjustments

Heater heating element

Resistance wire, Nichrome wire wire of high-resistance material, often used as a heating element

Thermistor thermally sensitive resistor whose prime function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in
electrical resistance when subjected to a corresponding change in body temperature.

[3]

Humistor humidity-varied resistor

Varistor, Voltage Dependent Resistor, MOV Passes current when excessive voltage is present

Capacitors[edit]

Some different capacitors for electronic equipment

Capacitors store and release electrical charge. They are used for filtering power supply lines, tuning resonant circuits, and for
blocking DC voltages while passing AC signals, among numerous other uses.

Capacitor

Integrated capacitors

MIS capacitor

Trench capacitor

Fixed capacitors

Ceramic capacitor

Film capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

Tantalum electrolytic capacitor

Niobium electrolytic capacitor

Polymer capacitor

OS-CON

Electric double-layer capacitor

Nanoionic supercapacitor

Lithium-ion capacitor

Mica capacitor

Vacuum capacitor

Variable capacitor adjustable capacitance

Tuning capacitor variable capacitor for tuning a radio, oscillator, or tuned circuit

Trim capacitor small variable capacitor is usually for slight internal adjustments made with a small
screw driver turned into the right position.

Vacuum variable capacitor

Capacitors for special applications

Power capacitor

Safety capacitor

Filter capacitor

Light-emitting capacitor

Motor capacitor

Photoflash capacitor

Reservoir capacitor
Capacitor network (array)

Varicap diode AC capacitance varies according to the DC voltage applied

Magnetic (inductive) devices[edit]

Electrical components that use magnetism in the storage and release of electrical charge through current:

Inductor, coil, choke

Variable inductor

Saturable Inductor

Transformer

Magnetic amplifier (toroid)

ferrite impedances, beads

Motor / Generator

Solenoid

Loudspeaker and microphone

Memristor[edit]
Electrical components that passes charge in proportion to magnetism or magnetic flux and has the ability to retain a previous
resistive state, hence the name of Memory + Resistor.

Memristor

Networks[edit]
Components that use more than one type of passive component:

RC network forms an RC circuit, used in snubbers

LC Network forms an LC circuit, used in tunable transformers and RFI filters.

Transducers, sensors, detectors[edit]

1. Transducers generate physical effects when driven by an electrical signal, or vice-versa.
2. Sensors (detectors) are transducers that react to environmental conditions by changing their electrical properties or
generating an electrical signal.
3. The transducers listed here are single electronic components (as opposed to complete assemblies), and
are passive (see Semiconductors and Tubes for active ones). Only the most common ones are listed here.

Audio (see also piezoelectric devices)

Loudspeaker Magnetic or piezoelectric device to generate full audio

Buzzer Magnetic or piezoelectric sounder to generate tones

Position, motion

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) Magnetic detects linear position

Rotary encoder, Shaft Encoder Optical, magnetic, resistive or switches detects absolute or relative angle or
rotational speed

Inclinometer Capacitive detects angle with respect to gravity

Motion sensor, Vibration sensor

Flow meter detects flow in liquid or gas

Force, torque

Strain gauge Piezoelectric or resistive detects squeezing, stretching, twisting

Accelerometer Piezoelectric detects acceleration, gravity

Thermal

Thermocouple, thermopile Wires that generate a voltage proportional to delta temperature

Thermistor Resistor whose resistance changes with temperature, up PTC or down NTC

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) Wire whose resistance changes with temperature

Bolometer Device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation

Thermal cutoff Switch that is opened or closed when a set temperature is exceeded

Magnetic field (see also Hall Effect in semiconductors)

Magnetometer, Gauss meter

Humidity

Hygrometer
Electromagnetic, light

Photo resistor Light dependent resistor (LDR)

Antennas[edit]
Antennas transmit or receive radio waves

Elemental dipole

Yagi

Phased array

Loop antenna

Parabolic dish

Log-periodic dipole array

Biconical

Feedhorn

Assemblies, modules[edit]
Multiple electronic components assembled in a device that is in itself used as a component

Oscillator

Display devices

Liquid crystal display (LCD)

Digital voltmeters

Filter

Prototyping aids[edit]

Wire-wrap

Breadboard

Electromechanical[edit]

2 crystalline type oscillators

Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators[edit]

Passive components that use piezoelectric effect:

Components that use the effect to generate or filter high frequencies

Crystal a ceramic crystal used to generate precise frequencies (See the Modules class below for complete
oscillators)

Ceramic resonator Is a ceramic crystal used to generate semi-precise frequencies

Ceramic filter Is a ceramic crystal used to filter a band of frequencies such as in radio receivers

surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters

Components that use the effect as mechanical transducers.

Ultrasonic motor Electric motor that uses the piezoelectric effects

For piezo buzzers and microphones, see the Transducer class below

Terminals and connectors[edit]

Devices to make electrical connection

Terminal

Connector

Socket

Screw terminal, Terminal Blocks

Pin header

Cable assemblies[edit]
Cables with connectors or terminals at their ends

Power cord

Patch cord

Test lead

2 different tactile switches

Switches[edit]
Components that can pass current ("closed") or break the flow of current ("open"):

Switch Manually operated switch.

Electrical description: SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT, NPNT (general)

Technology: slide switches, toggle switches, rocker switches, rotary switches, pushbutton switches

Keypad Array of pushbutton switches

DIP switch Small array of switches for internal configuration settings

Footswitch Foot-operated switch

Knife switch Switch with unenclosed conductors

Micro switch Mechanically activated switch with snap action

Limit switch Mechanically activated switch to sense limit of motion

Mercury switch Switch sensing tilt

Centrifugal switch Switch sensing centrifugal force due to rate of rotation

Relay Electrically operated switch (mechanical, also see Solid State Relay below)

Reed switch Magnetically activated switch

Thermostat Thermally activated switch

Humidistat Humidity activated switch

Circuit Breaker Switch opened in response to excessive current: a resettable fuse

Protection devices[edit]
Passive components that protect circuits from excessive currents or voltages:

Fuse over-current protection, one time use

Circuit Breaker resettable fuse in the form of a mechanical switch

Resettable fuse or PolySwitch circuit breaker action using solid state device

Ground-fault protection or residual-current device circuit breaker sensitive to mains currents passing to ground

Metal oxide varistor (MOV), surge absorber, TVS Over-voltage protection.

Inrush current limiter protection against initial Inrush current

Gas discharge tube protection against high voltage surges

Spark gap electrodes with a gap to arc over at a high voltage

Lightning arrester spark gap used to protect against lightning strikes

Mechanical accessories[edit]

Enclosure (electrical)

Heat sink

Fan

Other[edit]

Printed circuit boards

Lamp

Waveguide

Memristor

Obsolete[edit]

Carbon amplifier (see Carbon microphones used as amplifiers)

Carbon arc (negative resistance device)

Dynamo (historic rf generator)

Coherer

Standard symbols[edit]
Main article: Electronic symbol
On a circuit diagram, electronic devices are represented by conventional symbols. Reference designators are applied to the
symbols to identify the component.

Basic Electronic Components and What They Do

By Doug Lowe from Electronics All-in-One For Dummies
You will work with a number of basic electronic components when building electronic circuits, including resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits. Here is a brief overview of the functions of each of these basic electronic components.

Resistors
A resistor is a component that resists the flow of current. It's one of the most basic components used in electronic circuits. If you put
resistors next to a penny, you get an idea of how small they are.

Resistors come in a variety of resistance values (how much they resist current, measured in units called ohms and designated by the
symbol and power ratings (how much power they can handle without burning up, measured in watts).

Capacitors
Next to resistors, capacitors are probably the second most commonly used component in electronic circuits. A capacitor is a device that
can temporarily store an electric charge.

Capacitors come in several different varieties, the two most common being ceramic disk andelectrolytic. The amount of capacitance of
a given capacitor is usually measured in microfarads, abbreviated F.

Diodes
A diode is a device that lets current flow in only one direction. A diode has two terminals, called theanode and the cathode. Current will
flow through the diode only when positive voltage is applied to the anode and negative voltage to the cathode. If these voltages are
reversed, current will not flow.

Light-Emitting Diodes
A light-emitting diode (or LED) is a special type of diode that emits light when current passes through it.

Transistors
A transistor is a three-terminal device in which a voltage applied to one of the terminals (called thebase) can control current that flows
across the other two terminals (called the collector and theemitter). The transistor is one of the most important devices in electronics.

Integrated Circuits
An integrated circuit is a special component that contains an entire electronic circuit, complete with transistors, diodes, and other
elements, all photographically etched onto a tiny piece of silicon. Integrated circuits are the building blocks of modern electronic
devices such as computers and cellphones.

A resistor is a piece of material that obeys Ohm's Law. The name comes from
its main property, it resists the flow of charge through itself, hence allowing us
to control the current. Resistors can be made of various kinds of material, but
whatever the choice it must conduct some electricityotherwise it wouldn't be
of any use..
Two wires are connected to opposite ends of the resistor. When we apply a
potential difference between the wires we set up a current from one wire to the
other, through the resistor. The size of the current is proportional to the
difference in voltage between the wires. The resistance (in units of Ohms)
is defined as the ratio of the applied voltage, V (in Volts), divided by the
current, I (in Amps), produced by the applied voltage. Resistors come in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes, but the most common type is a cylinder with wires
at the ends.
The value is usually displayed using standard colour code. Most resistors have
a value in the standard E12 series.
Most of the resistors used in electronics have 'fixed' values, but resistors can
also be made which have a controlled, variable resistance. These are
sometimes called pots, and they're used for tasks like the volume control on a
Hi-Fi amplifier.

If you look at a catalogue of electronic components you'll find an enormous

variety of sizes and types of capacitor. However, for most purposes we can
divide capacitors into two basic types:- dielectric and electrolytic.
A capacitor acts as a charge store. It contains a pair of metal plates separated
by a thin sheet of insulating material. Left to themselves the plates are
electrically neutral - the number of positive protons in each exactly equals the
number of negative electrons. However, if we connect wires to the plates and
apply and external voltage we can drag electrons off one plate and push them
on to the other.
This takes energy, i.e. we have to do work charging the capacitor. The result is
a capacitor with one plate positively charged and the other negatively charged.
The energy used to move charge is stored by this imbalance. If we connect
two plates together with a resistor, the electrons 'rush back
home' releasing their energy again. The voltage between the plates of a
charged capacitor is proportional to the amount of charge moved. The
charge/voltage ratio for any specific capacitor is called it's capacitance.

There are a number of different electronic

devices which tend to be called diodes. Although they're made differently they
all have three things in common.
They have two leads like a resistor.
The current they pass depends upon the voltage between the leads.
They do not obey Ohm's law!

As an example we will use a typical diode called a pn-junction. This allows us

to explain behaviour of diodes. Remember, however, that there are other sorts
of diodes which are built differently but show the same general behaviour.
We create a pn-junction by joining together two pieces of semiconductor, one
doped n-type, the other p-type. This causes a depletion zone to form around
the junction (the join) between the two materials. This zone controls the
behaviour of the diode.

Characteristic curves
Graph showing how the current
through a diode varies with the
applied voltage .

Follow this link

to see in detail how a diode works.

The animation shows the general behaviour of a pn-junction.

When we apply a potential difference between the two wires in
one direction we tend to pull the free electrons and holes away from the
junction. This makes it even harder for them to cross the depletion zone.
When we apply the voltage the other way around we push electrons and holes
towards the junction, helping to give them extra energy and giving them a
chance to cross the junction.

The polarity of applied voltage which causes charge to flow through the diode
is called Forward Bias.
The polarity of applied voltage which can't produce any current is
called Reverse Bias.

Although we've imagined 'bringing together' two pieces of semiconductor, one n-type and the
other p-type, real diodes are normally made by taking a single piece of pure material and doping
two adjacent regions differently. This means that we do not actually have to 'glue together' two
bits of silicon. However, some other forms of diode are created by depositing one material onto
another e.g. Schottky diodes are made by placing some metal in contact with a
semiconductor. In general, whenever we join two different, very pure, materials we're likely to
make some sort of diode.

INDUCTOR

Introduction
Inductors are components that are simple in their construction, consisting of coils of insulated copper wire wound around a former
that will have some type of core at its centre. This core might be a metal such as iron that can be easily magnetised; or in high
frequency inductors, it will more likely to be just air.

Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic field that is present around any conductor when it is carrying a current. If the wire
coil is wound around a core made of a material that is easily magnetised, such as iron, then the magnetic field around the coil is
concentrated within the core; this greatly increases the efficiency of the inductor.

Inductors in AC Circuits.
Inductors are extensively used in alternating current (AC) applications such as radio, TV and communications equipment, and in
these systems, how inductors react to AC signals of different frequencies is very useful.

Chokes.
Another name used for an inductor is a "Choke". Inductors, being just coils of copper wire, will allow DC to pass easily, but when AC
is applied, inductors create an opposition to current flow that increases, as the frequency of the alternating current increases.
Therefore AC is prevented from flowing or is "Choked off" while DC is allowed to pass. This effect is used in power supply circuits
where the public AC mains (line) supply has to be converted to a DC supply suitable for powering electronic circuits.

Energy Storage.
The magnetic field around an inductor is a store of energy (from the current that caused the field). When the current is turned off, the
energy stored in the magnetic field is returned to the inductor, causing a current to flow in the opposite direction. This can produce a
pulse of high voltage across the coil. The pulse of energy can be a problem in some electronic circuits and can easily destroy other
components if not properly controlled, but it can also be extremely useful; such high voltage pulses produced by an inductor are used
to create the spark that ignites the petrol in automobile engines.

Inductors of many types.

The physical size of inductors varies greatly, depending on the power being handled, and on the frequency of the AC being used;
from huge power transformers in power stations and the electricity supply grid, to tiny inductors in radio equipment consisting of a few
turns of wire and only a few millimetres across.

TRANSISTORS
V. Ryan 2002 - 09

PDF FILE - CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE VERSION OF WORKSHEET BASED ON EXERCISE BELOW

Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic components. They are used in a variety of circuits
and you will find that it is rare that a circuit built in a school Technology Department does not contain at least one transistor.
They are central to electronics and there are two main types; NPN and PNP. Most circuits tend to use NPN. There are
hundreds of transistors which work at different voltages but all of them fall into these two categories.
TWO EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT
SHAPES OFTRANSISTOR

Transistors are manufactured in different shapes but they have three leads (legs).
The BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the negative lead.
The diagram below shows the symbol of an NPN transistor. They are not always set out as
shown in the diagrams to the left and right, although the tab on the type shown to the left is
usually next to the emitter.

The leads on a transistor may not always be in this arrangement. When buying a transistor, directions will
normally state clearly which lead is the BASE, EMITTER or COLLECTOR.

SIMPLE USE OF A TRANSISTOR

DIAGRAM 'A'

DIAGRAM 'B'

Diagram 'A' shows an NPN transistor which is often used as a type of switch. A small current or voltage at the base allows
a larger voltage to flow through the other two leads (from the collector to the emitter).
The circuit shown in diagram B is based on an NPN transistor. When the switch is pressed a current passes through the
resistor into the base of the transistor. The transistor then allows current to flow from the +9 volts to the 0vs, and the lamp
comes on.
The transistor has to receive a voltage at its base and until this happens the lamp does not light.
The resistor is present to protect the transistor as they can be damaged easily by too high a voltage / current. Transistors are
an essential component in many circuits and are sometimes used to amplify a signal.

The operation of a NAND gate

Lets look at the functionalities of the following circuit. Both inputs of NI1 are connected to each other, so
when input P is HIGH, output is zero. This logic zero is passed on to NI2, so no matter what is on the input
6, output 4 is logic one. This means that, between the ground and pin 4, the voltage is equal to 12V.

Fig. 7.5: Sensor switch using a 4011

Current flows through capacitor C and resistor R, so capacitor begins to charge. Every uncharged capacitor
behaves like a short circuit. Because of that, when 12V appears on pin 4, it is also present on resistor R
and also on pins 8 and 9. Pin 10 shows logic zero because of this which is connected to pin 6. From now
on, logic zero on pin 5 is no longer needed because only one input needs to be zero for the output to be
logic one. So input P is no longer needed. Gates NI2 and NI3 maintain logic zero on pin 4. How long will
this last? It depends on the value of the capacitor and resistor. As the capacitor charges, the voltage on
the resistor drops and when it falls to 1/2 of the supply voltage (6V in our case), NI3 detects a low on its
inputs so logic one appears on pin 10. Since logic one is now on input 5 (no logic one present on P), and
on input 6, output 4 is zero, capacitor dumps its charge via diodes on the inputs on pins 8 and 9 and the
circuit starts operating again.
As we saw, for a certain period of time, which is equal to T=0.7*RC output of pin 10 was logic zero.
During that time output E (pin 11) is logic one. For example, if R = 2M2 and C=47F, for time T =
2.2*10^6*47*10^-6 = 94 sec from the moment impulse on input P subsided, voltage on output E is 12V.
The end result of our experiment is on diagram 7.5a. Short positive pulses appearing on P in the time t1
caused a longer variable ulse on output E.
Schematic 7.5b displays this circuit which allows us to light a bulb using four NAND gates interconnected
in the way shown on picture 7.5a.
The sensor is two copper (or some other conducting material) plates glued to some non-conducting
material (plastics, wood, etc.) in close proximity to each other. So, when we touch the sensor with the tip

of our finger, we close the circuit. 12V appears on input P, which in turn conducts the voltage to the output
E, resistor R = 22k conducts base current and the bulb lights. When we remove our finger, output E will
last for 94 seconds, after which it goes to logic zero and the light goes out.
Transistor T is selected so that its maximum allowed collector current is higher than the current of the
globe.
(The globes current flow value is found by dividing its power by its voltage. For example, if its power is P
= 6W and voltage is U = 12V, current through the globe is I = P/U = 6W/12V = 0.5A or higher. One thing
you must remember with a globe is the starting or "turn-on" current. It is about six times the operating
current and the transistor must be able to pass this current for the globe to illuminate.

7.3 Practical examples

Diagram 7.6 shows a circuit for a stereo audio-amp using a TDA4935 IC. It is a modern integrated circuit
with two separate pre-amps and stereo outputs.
Left and right input signals are marked UL and UD, which are brought to two inputs of the amplifier. The
chip also has built-in heat and overload protection. Maximum output for each amplifier is 15W, so they can
be used in stereo mode of 2x15W amplifiers.

Fig. 7.6: Stereo audio-amplifier using the TDA4935

Another example is an audio amplifier using an LM386 circuit, with a preamp using a BC107 transistor. The
series connected capacitor and resistor between pins 1 and 5 produces low frequency amplification
(around 100Hz) improving the characteristics of the circuit. This amplifier could be used with any low
frequency source (gramophone, microphone, etc.).

Fig. 7.7: complete audio-amplifier using the LM386

The third example is a simple alarm, shown in figure 7.8. It uses a CD4011 IC. Gates NI3 and NI4 form a
600Hz audio oscillator. This signal is amplified using an NPN transistor and passed to an 8R speaker. To
hear the 600Hz tone, remove the connection to pin 8 and connect pin 8 to pin 9. This produces a constant
tone. Gates NI1 and NI2 form a 4Hz oscillator, whose output is connected to pin 8. This turns the 600Hz
tone on and off at 4Hz. To use this alarm in your home, on doors for example, connected pin 1 to 7 via a
switch.

Fig. 7.8: Alarm using a CD4011 IC

The last circuit in this chapter is an example of a mono FM receiver using a TDA7088T IC, which can be,
along with the SMD components, housed in a match-box along with two miniature watch batteries. You
can purchase a ready-built scanning radio in a "junk shop" for as little as $5.00 with stereo head-phones
Always look in the toy sections of large stores for the latest technology at the cheapest price.

Fig. 7.9: Mono FM radio receiver with an electronic preset

Tuning to a low frequency station is done automatically by pressing the RUN button. This turns on the part
of the integrated circuit which is designated for scanning over a given range. When it finds a station it
locks on until the RUN button is pressed again. When it reaches 108MHz it waits for the RESET signal
which returns the scan to 88MHz.

Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit, or IC, is small chip that can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer,microprocessor, or
even computer memory. An IC is a small wafer, usually made of silicon, that can hold anywhere from hundreds
to millions of transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These extremely small electronics can perform calculations
and store data using either digital or analog technology.
Digital ICs use logic gates, which work only with values of ones and zeros. A low signal sent to to a component
on a digital IC will result in a value of 0, while a high signal creates a value of 1. Digital ICs are the kind you
will usually find in computers,networking equipment, and most consumer electronics.
Analog, or linear ICs work with continuous values. This means a component on a linear IC can take a value of
any kind and output another value. The term "linear" is used since the output value is a linear function of the
input. For example, a component on a linear IC may multiple an incoming value by a factor of 2.5 and output
the result. Linear ICs are typically used in audio and radio frequency amplification.

The function of an integrated circuit (IC) is to be a single component that can perform high-level tasks such as
amplification, signal processing, or even sophisticated digital calculations as in the case of microprocessors. Few
electronic circuits do not use an IC or a chip or microchip. Furthermore, the function of an integrated circuit includes
miniaturization, cost reduction, and performance enhancement among others.
In terms of cost reduction, the function of an integrated circuit is to provide a relatively cheap alternative to gathering
a huge amount of semiconductor parts and electrical parts, and mounting on a circuit board and soldered. If an
electronics design were to implement in discrete components, the parts count could be, for instance, 250. With ICs,
the parts count can drop to 10. This means the total materials count has dropped and every part of the production
process is greatly simplified. By selecting the right IC, new features can be added using less resources.

The performance enhancement function of an integrated circuit is made possible by the specialized circuit
implementation inside the chip. Several radio frequency applications were too expensive to implement as discrete
components. When there was a high demand for a specific feature, the semiconductor industry finds a way to get
funding and builds ICs for special applications. For instance, when sound cards for personal computers (PCs) were
introduced, there were many manufacturers that decided to build medium-scale integration (MSI) chips that support
PC sound applications. Another performance enhancement is the lowered power consumption for the same results,
which brings higher power efficiency.
There are several ICs and even several microcomputers right inside computers, cell phones, and other digital
devices. In a hand-held gaming gadget, there is a graphics processor that drives the colored screen. This processor
is usually a large-scale integration (LSI) chip with its own miniaturized and super low-power digital processing
system. Another computer the main computer handles the task of running user applications.
The trend in electronics has always been to miniaturize circuits, while the bottom-line costs are low. Any popular
equipment will usually justify the amount of resources spent in conceptualizing, designing, and implementing new
integrated circuits meant to optimize the manufacture of products. Given the trends in miniaturization, there seems
to be endless possibilities in delivering electronic products that perform even better in all aspects.
There are standard ICs that work as amplifiers, power regulators, and simple signal processors. These ICs usually
range from 8-pin to about 16-pin packages. The common package has two rows of pins, so a 20-pin dual-in-line
(DIL) package will have two rows of 10 pins. Bigger chips are used mostly for complex digital applications such as
customized or application-specific IC (ASIC), which can contain an entire microcomputer for all kinds of applications
in telecommunications, automation, and power control.

Description

fig.1 - Intrgrated circuits

Integrated Circuit, tiny electronic circuit used to perform a specific electronic function, such as amplification; it is usually
combined with other components to form a more complex system.
It is formed as a single unit by diffusing impurities into single-crystal silicon, which then serves as a semiconductor
material, or by etching the silicon by means of electron beams. Several hundred identical integrated circuits (ICs) are
made at a time on a thin wafer several centimeters wide, and the wafer is subsequently sliced into individual ICs called
chips. In large-scale integration (LSI), as many as 5000 circuit elements, such as resistors and transistors, are combined
in a square of silicon measuring about 1.3 cm (.5 in) on a side. Hundreds of these integrated circuits can be arrayed on a
silicon wafer 8 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) in diameter. Larger-scale integration can produce a silicon chip with millions of circuit
elements. Individual circuit elements on a chip are interconnected by thin metal or semiconductor films, which are
insulated from the rest of the circuit by thin dielectric layers. Chips are assembled into packages containing external
electrical leads to facilitate insertion into printed circuit boards for interconnection with other circuits or components.
What can a IC do ?
In consumer electronics, ICs have made possible the development of many new products, including personal calculators
and computers, digital watches, and video games. They have also been used to improve or lower the cost of many
existing products, such as appliances, televisions, radios, and high-fidelity equipment.
Computer technology, in particular, has benefited greatly. The logic and arithmetic functions of a small computer can now
be performed on a single VLSI chip called a microprocessor, and the complete logic, arithmetic, and memory functions of
a small computer can be packaged on a single printed circuit board, or even on a single chip.
IC types
Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of transistors and other electronic components they contain:

SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip

MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip

LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip

VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip

ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chip

There are two major kinds of ICs:

analog (or linear) which are used as amplifiers, timers and oscillators

digital (or logic) which are used in microprocessors and memories

Some ICs are combinations of both analog and digital.

Description of a few types of chips
CMOS, in computer science, acronym for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. A semiconductor device that
consists of two metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), one N-type and one P-type, integrated on a
single silicon chip. Generally used for RAM and switching applications, these devices have very high speed and extremely
low power consumption. They are, however, easily damaged by static electricity.
Digital Signal Processor (DSP), an integrated circuit designed for high-speed data manipulations, used in audio,
communications, image manipulation, and other data-acquisiton and data-control applications.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) in computer science, a form of semiconductor random access memory (RAM). Dynamic RAMs
store information in integrated circuits that contain capacitors. Because capacitors lose their charge over time, dynamic
RAM boards must include logic to "refresh" (recharge) the RAM chips continuously. While a dynamic RAM is being
refreshed, it cannot be read by the processor; if the processor must read the RAM while it is being refreshed, one or more
wait states occur. Because their internal circuitry is simple, dynamic RAMs are more commonly used than static RAMs,
even though they are slower. A dynamic RAM can hold approximately four times as much data as a static RAM chip of the
same complexity.
EPROM, in computer science, acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory. Also called reprogrammable readonly memory (RPROM). EPROMs are nonvolatile memory chips that are programmed after they are manufactured.
EPROMs are a good way for hardware vendors to put variable or constantly changing code into a prototype system when
the cost of producing many PROM chips would be prohibitive. EPROMs differ from PROMs in that they can be erased,
generally by removing a protective cover from the top of the chip package and exposing the semiconductor material to
ultraviolet light, and can be reprogrammed after having been erased. Although EPROMs are more expensive than
PROMs, they can be more cost-effective in the long run if many changes are needed.
PROM, acronym for programmable read-only memory. In computer science, a type of read-only memory (ROM) that
allows data to be written into the device with hardware called a PROM programmer. After a PROM has been programmed,
it is dedicated to that data, and it cannot be reprogrammed. Because ROMs are cost-effective only when produced in
large volumes, PROMs are used during the prototyping stage of the design. New PROMs can be created and discarded
as needed until the design is perfected.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), a type of microprocessor that focuses on rapid and efficient processing of a
relatively small set of instructions. RISC design is based on the premise that most of the instructions a computer decodes
and executes are simple. As a result, RISC architecture limits the number of instructions that are built into the
microprocessor but optimizes each so it can be carried out very rapidly-usually within a single clock cycle. RISC chips
thus execute simple instructions faster than microprocessors designed to handle a much wider array of instructions.
ROM, acronym for read-only memory. In computer science, semiconductor-based memory that contains instructions or
data that can be read but not modified. To create a ROM chip, the designer supplies a semiconductor manufacturer with
the instructions or data to be stored; the manufacturer then produces one or more chips containing those instructions or
data. Because creating ROM chips involves a manufacturing process, it is economically viable only if the ROM chips are
produced in large quantities; experimental designs or small volumes are best handled using PROM or EPROM. In general
usage, the term ROM often means any read-only device, including PROM and EPROM.
Static RAM (SRAM), in computer science, a form of semiconductormemory (RAM). Static RAM storage is based on the
logic circuit known as a flip-flop, which retains the information stored in it as long as there is enough power to run the
device. A static RAM chip can store only about one-fourth as much data as a dynamic RAM chip of the same complexity,
but static RAM does not require refreshing and is usually much faster than dynamic RAM. It is also more expensive. Static
RAMs are usually reserved for use in caches.