THERMODYNAMICS OF GAS FLOW

1.1 Introduction
The fluids which are used in the turbomachinery may be
compressible or incompressible in nature. Mostly compressible fluids are
used in the gas turbines. The properties of the fluid which are generally considered in the
compressible flow problems are temperature, pressure, density, internal energy, enthalpy,
entropy and viscosity. Some recent advances made in this area are transonic, supersonic,
hypersonic flows and unsteady flows in rotating and reciprocating machines. Therefore, the
following laws are used in dealing with a variety of compressible flow problems:
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics (Energy Equation)
Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy Equation)
Law of Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)
Newtons Second Law of Motion (Momentum Equation)

1.2 Basic Laws of Thermodynamics

1.2.1 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they must
also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is the basis of temperature measurement
in which thermal equilibrium between two or more bodies.
1.2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics states that when a system executes a cyclic process, the
algebraic sum of the work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers.
Mathematically, it is expressed as

dW

dW
Where,
J Joules Constant in N-m/J
dW Sum of Work Transfer in N-m
dQ Sum of Heat Transfer in J
1.2.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics

dQ

J dQ

It states that it is impossible to transfer the heat from the lower energy level to the
higher energy level with out the aid of any external source.
The following statements are associated with Second Law of Thermodynamics;
Kelvin Planck Statement
It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete cycle if it
exchanges heat only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
Clausius Theorem
It is impossible to construct a device, which operating in a cycle, will produce no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to hotter body.
1.2.4 Law of Conservation of Mass
Energy neither is created nor destroyed but one form energy can be converted into
another form of energy.
1.2.5 Newtons Second Law of Motion
According to Newtons second law of motion, the applied to the force on a body is
directly proportional to its acceleration.
F ma

Where,
F Force Applied on the body in N
m- Mass of the body in Kg
a Acceleration in m/s2

1.3 Properties of Fluid

The properties of fluid which are generally considered in the flow problems are
temperature (T), pressure (p), density ( ), internal energy (U), enthalpy (H), and dynamic
viscosity ( ).
1.3.1 Temperature (T)
The temperature of a system is a property that determines whether a system is in
thermal equilibrium with other systems or not. In order to obtain a quantitative measure of
temperature, a reference body is used, and a certain physical characteristic of this body which
changes with temperature is selected. The changes in the selected characteristic may be taken
as an indication of change of temperature. The selected characteristic is called thermometric
property, and a reference body which is used in the determination of temperature is called the
thermometer. The unit of Temperature is Kelvin in SI units.
1.3.2 Pressure (p)

Pressure is the normal force exerted by a system against unit area of its bounding
force. The unit of pressure is Pascal (N/m2) in SI units. Most instruments indicate pressure
relative to the atmospheric pressure, whereas the pressure of a system is its pressure above
zero, or relative to a perfect vacuum. The pressure relative to atmosphere is called gauge
pressure. The pressure relative to a perfect vacuum is called absolute pressure.
1.3.3 Density ( )
It is the ratio of mass of fluid (m) to the volume of fluid (V). The reciprocal of density
of fluid is referred as specific volume of the fluid (v). The unit of density is Kg/m3 whereas
the specific volume of fluid is m3/Kg.
Mathematically,

m
V

1.3.4 Internal Energy (U)

Internal energy of a gas is the energy stored in it by virtue of its molecular motion. If
the internal energy is taken as zero at the absolute temperature, its value at temperature T is
given by
U = m cv T
u = cv T
Where,
u Specific Internal Energy in KJ/Kg
cv Specific Heat at Constant Volume in KJ/Kg K
T Temperature in K
1.3.5 Enthalpy (H)
In compressible flows internal energy often appears with the quantity (pv). Their sum
is expressed by one single property called enthalpy (h). The unit of Enthalpy is KJ/Kg.
h = u + pv = u + p/
h= cv T + R T

(1.1)
(1.2)

For a perfect gas,

h= (cv + R) T
But,

cp-cv = R

Therefore the specific value of enthalpy becomes

h= cp T

(1.3)

1.3.6 Viscosity ( )
The resistance to the shearing motion of two adjacent layers of the fluid is due to a
fluid property called viscosity.
Mathematically,

u
y

u
y

Or

Where,

- Co-efficient of Viscosity.

1.4 Specific Heat of Gases

Specific heat of a substance is the heat carrying capacity in a given process. It is
defined by the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. In the present work, we shall be dealing gases with their specific
heats under two commonly used processes. The unit of Specific heat is KJ/Kg K.
1.4.1 Specific Heat at Constant Volume (cv)
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a gas by one
degree at constant volume process is known as the specific heat at constant volume.
u

cv

1.4.2 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (cp)

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a gas by one
degree at constant pressure process is known as the specific heat at constant pressure.
h

cp

1.5 Ideal Gas

Ideal gas is a hypothetical gas which obeys Boyles and Charles law. Following
relations hold for such a gas.
Boyles law: It states that at constant temperature,
(pV)T = Constant

(1.4)

Charles law: It states that at constant pressure,

V

p

T

(1.5)

(1.6)

And at constant volume

1.6 Perfect and Semi Perfect Gas

A perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats remain constant at all temperatures.
Such a gas is also referred to as a calorically ideal gas whereas an ideal gas whose specific
heats are functions of temperature is referred to as semi perfect gas.
For perfect gas,
d
cv 0
dT
c v constant

(1.7)
d
cp 0
dT
c p constant

For Perfect gas,

cp cv = R

Where,
R Universal Gas Constant
For semi-perfect gas, cp= f(T) and cv = f(T)

(1.8)

The ratio of two specific heats brings a new relationship as,

cp
cv

1.7 Compressible and Incompressible Flow

Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from
point to point or in other words the density is not constant for the fluid.
Mathematically, the compressible flow can be expressed as,
Constant

If the relative change in density of fluid in a process is negligibly small, then it is said
to be an incompressible flow. Moreover, the velocity of sound is higher than the flow
velocity. When the Mach number is lesser than 0.3, the flow of gases can be assumed as
incompressible in nature.

Mathematically, the incompressible flow can be expressed as,

Constant

1.8 Steady Flow Energy Equation

When a fluid flows through a certain control volume, its thermodynamic properties
may vary along the space coordinates as well as with time. If the rates of flow of mass and
energy through the control surface change with time, the mass and energy within the control
volume also would change with time.
In most engineering devices, there is a constant rate of flow of mass and energy
through the control surface, and the control volume in course of time attains steady state. At
steady state of the system, any thermodynamic property will have a fixed value at a particular
location, and will not alter with time. Thermodynamic properties may vary along space
coordinates, but do not vary with time. Steady state means that the state is steady or
invariant with time. The steady flow energy equation derived based on the mass balance and
energy balance equation.
According to the mass balance, if there is no accumulation of mass, the mass flow rate
of fluid entering (m1) must be equal to the mass flow rate of fluid leaving (m2).
i.e., m1 = m2
According to the conservation of energy, if there is no accumulation of energy, the
total energy of the fluid entering the system must be equal to the total energy of the fluid
leaving from the system.
From the first law of thermodynamics,
Q=W+E

(1.9)

Where,
Q Heat Transfer in KJ
W Work Transfer in KJ
E Change in Energy in KJ
The energy terms (E) in the above equation (1.9) may include internal energy (U),
gravitational potential energy (mgZ), kinetic energy (
other form of energy, we can write,

1
mc 2 ), magnetic energy etc. Ignoring
2

E = U + mgZ +

1
mc 2
2

(1.10)
The differential form of energy is
dE

dU

mgdZ

md(

1 2
c )
2

(1.11)
Integrating between the two states,
E = E2 E1 = (U2 U1) + mg (Z2 Z1) +

1
2
2
m(c 2 c1 )
2

(1.12)
Substituting the equation (1.12) in (1.9) yields a more general form of the energy
equation.
Q = W + (U 2 U1) + mg (Z2 Z1) +
(1.13)

1
2
2
m(c 2 c1 )
2

It can be rearranged as
Q +U1 + mg Z1 +

1
1
2
2
mc1 = W + U2 + mg Z2 + mc 2
2
2

(1.14)

In terms of specific values,

q + u1 + gZ1 +

1 2
1 2
c1 = w + u2 + gZ2 + c 2
2
2

(1.15)

The expansion of gas or steam in turbines and compression of air in compressor are
examples of flow processes in open systems. In such processes the work term (W) includes
the flow work (P2V2 P1V1) and shaft work (Ws).
W = Ws + (P2V2 P1V1)

(1.16)

The equation (1.14) becomes,

Q +U1 + mg Z1 +

1
1
2
2
mc1 = Ws + (P2V2 P1V1) + U2 + mg Z2 + mc 2
2
2

Q + U1 ++ P1V1+ mg Z1 +
Q + H1 + mg Z1 +

1
1
2
2
mc1 = Ws + U2 + P2V2 + mg Z2 + mc 2
2
2
1
1
2
2
mc1 = Ws + H2 + mg Z2 + mc 2
2
2

In terms of specific values,

q + h1 + g Z 1 +

1 2
1 2
c1 = ws + h2 + g Z2 + c 2
2
2

(1.17)

The above equation is called as steady flow energy equation. Generally in flow
process the magnitude of potential energy is negligible. Then the above equation reduced to

q + h1 +

1 2
1 2
c1 = ws + h2 + c 2
2
2

(1.18)

1.9 Stagnation State

It is the reference state which is obtained by decelerating a gas isentropically to zero
velocity at zero elevation. The stagnation properties are constant through any section of the
flow.
1.9.1 Stagnation Enthalpy (h0)
Stagnation Enthalpy is the enthalpy of a gas or a vapour when it is adiabatically
decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation. Putting h1 = h, Z = Z1 and c1 = c for the initial
state and h2 = h0, Z2 = 0, c2 = 0 for the final state, the value of the stagnation enthalpy (h0) is
obtained.
ho

gZ

1 2
c
2

(1.19)
But as mentioned before the magnitude of gZ compared to other quantities is
generally negligible. Therefore,
ho

1 2
c
2

(1.20)
For an adiabatic energy transformation process stagnation enthalpy remains constant.
Therefore, by differentiation the above equation gives
dh+ cdc = 0

(1.21)

1.9.2 Stagnation Temperature (T0)

Stagnation temperature is the temperature of the gas when it is adiabatically
decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation.
For a perfect gas, this is defined through stagnation enthalpy equation (1.20)
ho = h +

1 2
c
2

cp T0 = cp T +
(1.22)
Dividing both sides by cp,

1 2
c
2

c2
T0 = T +
2c p

(1.23)

c2
The quantity
is known as the velocity temperature (Tc) corresponding to the
2c p

velocity c.
T0 = T + Tc
Now,
T0
c2
1
T
2c p T

(1.24)
From the perfect gas law,
=

cp
cv

and R = cp - cv

(1.25)

Simplifying the above relation,

cp = - 1 R

(1.26)

Substituting the equation (1.26) in equation (1.24),

T0
1
T

c2
2 RT

(1.27)
But,
RT = a2
Therefore, the equation (1.27) becomes,
T0
1 c2
1
T
2 a2

(1.28)

And, c2 / a2 = M2
The stagnation temperature is written as follows
T0
1 2
1
M
T
2

(1.29)

1.9.3 Stagnation Pressure (p0)

It is defined as the pressure of a fluid which is attained when it is decelerated to zero
velocity at zero elevation in a reversible adiabatic process.
For given values of static pressure and temperature, its value can be derived from the
stagnation temperature and substituting in the equation (1.29)

P0
T
0
P
T

1
2

(1.30)

1.9.4 Stagnation Density ( 0 )

For a given values of stagnation pressure and temperature of an ideal gas the
stagnation density is given by
0

p0
RT0

From isentropic relations

0 T0

1
1

1 2
1
M
2

1
1

(1.31)

1.9.5 Stagnation Velocity of Sound (a0)

For a given value of the stagnation temperature gives the velocity of sound for a
perfect gas,
RT0

a0 =
(1.32)

The Universal Gas Constant can be rewritten as,

R

1
cp

The stagnation velocity of sound becomes,

a0

1 c p T0

(1.33)

ao

1 h0

(1.34)

1.10 Mach Number

It is the ratio between square root of inertia force to the elastic force. It is written as,
M2 =

Inertia Force AC 2
C2

Elastic Force
Aa 2
a2

(1.35)

The above equation gives another definition of Mach number; this is the ratio of fluid
velocity (c) to the local velocity of sound (a).
The velocity of sound (a) in a medium at temperature T is given by
a=

RT

(1.36)

(1.37)

RT

Where,
R Universal Gas Constant in KJ/Kg K.
T Temperature of the Medium in K.
1.12.1 Local Velocity of Sound (a)
It is the ratio between fluid velocity and the local velocity of sound is called the local
Mach number.
M = c /a
Where,
c Fluid Velocity.
a - Local Velocity of Sound.
1.12.2 Stagnation Velocity of Sound (a0)
For a given value of the stagnation temperature gives the velocity of sound for a
perfect gas,
a0 =

RT0

Review Questions
1. Define the following terms
a. First law of thermodynamics
b. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
c. Second law of thermodynamics
d. Kelvin-Planck Statement of second law
e. Clausius theorem
f. Ideal gas, perfect gas and semi-perfect gas
g. Mach number
2. Define the following terms and write down its formula
a. Stagnation state.
b. Stagnation enthalpy.
c. Stagnation temperature.
d. Stagnation pressure.
e. Stagnation density.

(1.44)

3. Differentiate compressible and incompressible flow.

4. Derive the steady flow energy equation.
5. What is reason for using Second kind of Mach number?
6. Draw the various regions of flow and mark the subsonic, sonic and supersonic velocity.
7. What are the type of reference velocities used in compressible flow?
8. Effect of Mach number on compressibility and prove it?
9. Define and Derive expression for the velocity of shock wave.
10. Write notes about high speed flows.

Numerical Exercises
1. In a settling chamber air is at Po =5 bar and temperature To =500 K. Determine the values
of ho, ao, cmax, T*, c* and a*
2. The conditions of an air stream at entry to a duct are P 1 =1 bar, T1 = 300 K, M1 = 1.3. If the
mach number at exit of the duct is 0.6. Determine for adiabatic flow the temperature and
velocity of the air at the duct exit.
3. Steam at a section of a pipe has pressure = 10 bar, temperature =600K, velocity =120m/s,
datum head =10 m. taking cp =2.150KJ/Kg K, cv =1.615 KJ/Kg K.
Determine
a. The Mach number, stagnation pressure and temperature.
b. Compare the stagnation pressure values with that obtained from the Bernoullis equation
and comment on the difference.
4. An air craft flies at 800 Km/hr at an altitude of 10,000 meters (T = 223.15 K, P = 0.264
bar). The air is reversibly compressed in an inlet diffuser. If the mach number at the exit of
the diffuser is 0.36. Determine
a. entry Mach number b. Velocity, pressure and temperature of the air at the diffuser exit.
5. Air (cp =1.05 KJ/KgK, =1.38) at P1 = 3 bar and T1 = 600K flows with a velocity of 500
m/s in a diameter duct. Calculate
a. Mass flow rate
b. Stagnation temperature
c. Mach number
d. Stagnation pressure values assuming the flow as compressible and incompressible.

6. A conical diffuser has entry and exit diameters of 15 cm and 30 cm respectively. The
pressure and temperature and velocity of air at entry are 0.69 bar, 340 K and 180 m/s.
Determine
a. The Exit pressure
b. The Exit velocity
c. The Force exerted on the diffuser walls.
Assume isentropic flow, 1.4 = , cp=1.00 KJ/Kg K.
7. A nozzle in a wind tunnel gives a test-section Mach number of 2.0. Air enters the nozzle
from a large reservoir at 0.69 bar and 310 K. the cross-sectional area of the throat is 1000
cm2. Determine the following quantities for the tunnel for one dimensional isentropic flow:
a. Pressures, Temperatures and Velocities at the throat and test sections
b. Area of cross-section of the test section
c. Mass flow rate
d. Power required to drive the compressor
8. The jet of a gas at 593 K (469 ,1.4- J/Kg K) has a mach number of 1.2. Determine for
local and stagnation conditions velocity of sound and enthalpy. What is the maximum
attainable velocity of this jet?
9. The Mach number and pressure at the entry of a subsonic diffuser are 0.9 and 4.165 bar.
Determine the area ratio required and the pressure rise if the Mach number at the exit of the
diffuser is 0.20. Assume isentropic diffusion of the air.
10. The pressure, velocity and temperature of air (1.4-, cp- 1 KJ/Kg K) at the entry of a
nozzle are 2 bar, 145 m/s and 300 K; the exit pressure is 1.5 bar.
a. What is the shape of nozzle?
b. Determine for isentropic flow
c. Mach number at entry and exit
d. Mass flow rate.
11. A supersonic nozzle expands air from p0 25 bar and T0 1050 K to an exit pressure of
4.35 bar; the exit area of the nozzle is 100 cm2. Determine
a. Throat area
b. Pressure and temperature at the throat
c. Temperature at exit
d. Exit velocity as fraction of the maximum attainable velocity

PRINCIPLES OF TURBOMACHINERY
2.1 Introduction
The word turbo or turbinis is of Latin origin and implies that which spins or whirls
around. A turbomachine is a power or head generating machine which employs the dynamic
action of one or more moving blade rows, changes the energy level of the flowing fluid
through in it. Essentially, a rotating blade row, a rotor or an impeller changes the stagnation
enthalpy of the fluid moving through it by either doing positive or negative work, depending
upon the effect required of the machine. This enthalpy changes are intimately linked with the
pressure changes occurring simultaneously in the fluid. Two main categories of turbomachine
are identified: firstly, those which absorb power to increase the fluid pressure or head (ducted
fans, compressors and pumps); secondly, those that produce power by expanding fluid to a
lower pressure or head (hydraulic, steam and gas turbines). The reason is that so many
different types of either pump (compressor) or turbine are in use is because of the almost
infinite range of service requirements. Generally speaking, for a given set of operating
requirements there is one type of pump or turbine best suited to provide optimum conditions
of operation.
Turbines
It is the device used to convert head or energy level of the working fluid passing
through them into mechanical energy. Ex: steam, hydro, gas, wind and solar turbines.
Compressor/Pumps
It is the device used to increase the head or pressure of the fluids passing through
them.
Fans and Blowers
A fan continuously moves a mass of air, gas or vapour at the desired velocity by the
action of its rotor. There is a slight increase in the gas pressure across the fan rotor.
The device which develops an appreciable increase in gas pressure flowing though it,
is called blowers.

2.2 Compressible and Incompressible Flow Machines

In the case of compressible flow machines there is a change in pressure, temperature

and density when it passing through steam and gas turbines. They are characterized by higher
temperatures and speeds of the rotor. Therefore their design and operation are complicated.
Hydraulic pumps and hydraulic turbines are the examples of the incompressible flow
machines. In this case there is no change in pressure, temperature and density of the working
fluids. Turbomachines with gases over a small pressure difference may consider as
incompressible flow machines.

2.3 Extended Turbomachines

Most of the turbomachines are enclosed in casings which guide a finite flow through
them. In contrast to these machines, air craft propellers and wind mills are open and interact
with infinite sea of air as shown in fig.2.1. These machines are called extended turbo
machines.

Fig.2.1 Extended Turbomachine

2.4 Work and Efficiencies in Turbine Stages

Turbines are the device used to convert heat or head or pressure energy of the working
fluid into mechanical energy. A stage of turbomachines consist of a ring of moving blades
along with a ring of fixed blades. The moving blades are also called as rotor blades whereas
fixed blades are also called as nozzle blades. The flow of fluid enters to the nozzle blade row
first, where the pressure energy of the fluid is converted into kinetic energy and then it passes
through rotor blade row in which the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into mechanical
energy. The actual work at the turbine shaft can be determined from the difference in actual
stagnation enthalpies at the entry (h01) and exit (h02).
Mathematically,

wa h01 h02

(2.1)
For perfect gas,
wa c p T01 T02

(2.2)
If there is no pressure change of the fluid in the rotor blade row then it is said to be
impulse stage and if there is a pressure change in the rotor blade row then it is said to be
reaction stage. The turbines are generally classified as follows
i. Axial Flow Turbine Stage
The flow of fluid enters into the turbine axially and leaves axially. Hence the name
axial flow turbine. The stage of an axial flow turbine is as shown in fig.2.2.

Fig.2.2 An Axial Flow Turbine Stage

The radial component of the fluid velocity is negligible in this turbine. The change in
radius between the entry and exit of the stage is small. An axial turbine can be easily
connected with other components. For the same reason, axial stages are widely employed in
multi-stage turbomachines.
ii. Radial Flow Turbine Stage
The flow of fluid enters into the turbine in radial direction as shown in fig.2.3, i.e.
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Therefore, the change of radius between the entry and
exit of the stage is finite. This causes a finite change in the energy level of the fluid due to the
centrifugal energy.
A radial flow turbine may be inward flow or outward flow type. Generally, radial flow
turbines are of the inward flow type. Radial stages employ one piece rotors in which the
blades are an integral part of the main body. This makes a radial rotor mechanically stronger
than an axial type in which the blades are separately fixed. Therefore, radial machines can
employ higher peripheral speeds.

Fig.2.3 Radial Flow Turbine Stage

2.4.1 Total to Total Efficiency
It is the ratio between actual shaft work (wa) to the ideal shaft work (ws) between total
conditions at entry and exit.
t-t =

wa
h h02
01
ws h01 h02 s

(2.3)

Where,
h01 - h02 - Actual Change of Enthalpy between the total condition at the entry and exit
h01 h02s - Isentropic Change of Enthalpy between the total condition at the entry and
exit.
As we know that,
h = cp T
t-t

c p T01 c p T02
c p T01 c p T02 s

(2.4)
T01 T02s = T01 [1 - T02s / T01]
The pressure ratio (rp) between the stages is written as,
Pro =

T01
p
rp 01
p 02 s
T02 s

The equation (2.5) can be rewritten as,

(2.5)

T01 T02s = T01

1
T01
T02 s

= T01

(2.6)
Therefore, Total to Total Efficiency is obtained as
t-t =

T01 T02

1 rp

(2.7)

2.4.2 Total to Static Efficiency

It is the ratio between the actual shaft work to the ideal shaft work between total
conditions at the entry and static conditions at the exit.
t-s =

h01 h02
T01 T02
=
h01 h2 s
T01 T2 s

(2.8)

Where,
h01 - h02 - Actual Change of Enthalpy between the total condition at the entry and exit
h01 h2s - Isentropic Change of Enthalpy between the total condition at the entry and
static condition at exit.
2.4.3 Finite Stage Efficiency
A stage with finite pressure drop is called as finite stage. It is the ratio between actual
temperature drop and isentropic temperature drop.
2.4.4 Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency
A finite stage of the turbine can be divided into number of small stages of the same
efficiencies as shown in fig.2.4. It is called as infinitesimal stage efficiency or small stage
efficiency. Therefore, the infinitesimal stage efficiency can be expressed as that of finite stage
efficiency. It is nothing but the ratio between actual temperature drop (dT) to the isentropic
temperature drop (dTs).
p

dT
dTs

(2.9)

T dTs
p dp

T
p

This can be written as

dTs

dp

1
T
p

dTs
dp 1
1
T
p

(2.10)
By simplifying the equation (2.10), we get,
dTs
dp 1

T
p

(2.11)

The equation (2.9) can be written as,

dTs

dT
p

(2.12)

Fig.2.4 Infinitesimal Stage Expansion Process

Substituting equation (2.12) in equation (2.11)
dT
dp 1
p
T
p

(2.13)

Integrating on both sides,

dT 1
dp
1 T p 1 p
2

ln T 1
2

T
ln 2
T1

1
2
p ln p 1

p2
ln

p1

 p2
T2

T1
p1

(2.14)
Finally the infinitesimal efficiency can be expressed in terms of stage efficiency.

st

T1 T2
T1 T2 s

T
T1 1 2
T1

T
T1 1 2 s
T1

(2.15)

By substituting equation (2.14) in equation (2.15),

st

p
1 2
p1

p
1 2 s
p1

(2.16)

This is called as infinitesimal stage efficiency.

2.5 Work and Efficiencies in Compressor Stages

It is a machine which is used to compress the air and to raise its pressure. The
compressor sucks the air from the atmosphere and compresses it and then delivers the same
under a high pressure to a storage vessel. It consists of a ring of inlet guide vanes (IGV), a
rotor blade followed by a diffuser blade ring as shown in fig.2.5.
Inlet

Out let
Fig.2.5 Stage of a Compressor
Since the compression of air requires some work to be done on it, therefore a
compressor must be driven by some prime mover. In case of turbine only nozzle blade and
rotor blade rows are available. But in compressor, rotor blade, stator blade row and in
addition to this Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) are used. IGVs are used to deflect the air or gas

medium at a right angle to the rotor section. The actual work is very high as compared to
ideal work in compressor stages. It is because of friction losses and other losses in the
compressor. It is used for many purposes such as for operating pneumatic drills, riveters,
paint spraying, IC engines, in gas turbine plants, jet engines etc.
The actual work of compressor can be determined from the difference in actual
stagnation enthalpies at the entry (h01) and exit (h02).
wa h02 h01

(2.17)
For perfect gas,
wa c p T02 T01

(2.18)
The compressors are classified according to the following ways.
i. According to working

Reciprocating Compressor

Rotary Compressor

ii. According to action

Single acting

Double acting

iii. According to the number of stages

Single Stage Compressors

Multi Stage Compressors

2.5.1 Total to Total Efficiency

It is the ratio between ideal work (ws) between the stagnation stages and actual work
(wa) between the stagnation stages.

t t

ws
wa

t t

h02 s h01
h02 h01
t t =

(2.19)
By rearranging,

T02 s T01
T02 T01

 t t

T02 s

1
T01

=
T

T01 02 1
T01

T01

(2.20)

The pressure ratio (rp) between the stages is written as,

p ro

T
p
rp 02 s 02 s
p 01
T01

1
T02 s
p ro
T01

The equation (2.20) becomes,

t t

T01

p ro

T 02T01

(2.21)
2.5.2 Static to Static Efficiency
It is the ratio between the ideal work between the static stages and the actual work
between the static stages.
s s

h2 s h1
h2 h1

T2 s T1
T2 T1

(2.22)

The static pressure ratio between the stages can be written as,
T
p
p r 2 s 2 s
p1
T1

(2.23)

Therefore, the static to static efficiency can be obtained as,

s s

T2 s

1
T

1
T

T1 2 1
T1

T1

pr

1
T2

1
T1

(2.24)

2.5.3 Finite stage efficiency

A stage with finite temperature rise is called as finite stage of compressor. It is the
ratio between the ideal temperature drop (dTs) to the actual temperature drop (dT).
2.5.4 Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency
A finite stage of a compressor can be divided into number of small stages of the same
efficiencies as shown in fig.2.6. It is called as infinitesimal stage efficiency or small stage

efficiency. Therefore, the infinitesimal stage efficiency can be expressed as that of finite stage
efficiency. It is nothing but the ratio between isentropic temperature drop (dTs) to the actual
temperature drop (dT).

dTs
dT

(2.25)

From the isentropic process,

1

p2
T2

T1
p1

(2.26)

Fig.2.6 Infinitesimal Stage Compression Process

For the small amount of compression in the process,
1

T dTs
p dp

T
p

dTs

dp

1
1
T
p

We know that,

1 x n

1 nx n n 1

x2
.....
2!

Therefore, the equation (2.28) can be simplified as,

1

dTs
1 dp

1
T

dTs 1 dp

T
p

(2.27)
(2.28)

dT
1 1 dp

T
p
p

Integrating between the states 1 and 2

T2
T1

ln

1 1 p2

ln
p
p
1

By rearranging,
T2 p 2

T1 p1

1 1
p

The infinitesimal efficiency is expressed in terms of stage efficiency

1

st

T2 s

1
T
T T1

2s
1
T2 T1
T2

1
T1

p2

p1

1 1

p2

p1

2.6 Applications of Turbomachinery

The following are the applications of turbomachinery devices.
2.6.1 Power Generation
Electric power is generated by all turbines like steam, gas and hydro turbines.
Combined gas and steam turbines are used in power generations. Large fans and blowers are
used for developing the draught required in the boilers of steam power plants.
2.6.2 Air Craft Propulsion
The smaller and low speed air crafts employ the shaft power for driving the air screws
or propellers through reduction gears.
2.6.3 Industrial
High pressure multi stage centrifugal pumps and compressors are widely used in
petrochemical industries. Industrial furnaces employ the fan and blowers of various sizes for
producing the draught.
2.6.4 Miscellaneous
i.

Small fans are used to cool electrical and optical equipments.

ii.

The drills used by dental surgeons are driven by tiny air turbines. The low temperature
expanded air is used for cooling the drilled area.

iii.

High speed small radial turbines are used in cryogenic engineering.

2.7 Difference between Positive Displacement and Turbomachines

Tab.2.1 Difference between Positive Displacement Machines and Turbomachines
Sl.No

Positive Displacement Machines

1.

Turbomachines

These are generally low speed High speed machines with out any
machine on account of mechanical mechanical problems and volumetric
and volumetric efficiency.

2.

efficiency are very close to 100%.

If the reciprocating machines are The gas will change in its state by the
stopped, the working gas trapped surroundings.
inside the cylinder stays there in the
same state.

3.

It handles only smaller flow rates of Flow rates of turbo machines are very
fluids through it.

higher

compared

to

positive

displacement machines.
4.

Rotary piston engine, reciprocating Steam turbines, gas turbines and hydro
compressors etc are the examples of turbines are the examples of this
this type.

turbomachines.

Numerical Examples
Ex:2.1 The inlet stagnation pressure and temperature of a gas turbine are 10 bar and 340 0C.
The exit pressure of the turbine is 0.8 bar. Find
a. The actual work done, take cp = 1.005 KJ/KgK
b. If the mass flow rate is 0.75 Kg/s, find the power developed by the turbine.
Solution
m = 0.75 Kg/sec, P02 = 0.8 bar, T01 = 3400C = 340 + 273 = 613 K, P01 = 10 bar,
R = 287 J/Kg K
Actual work done
W = cp (T01 T02)
P
T02
02
T01
P01
T 02
0 .8

613 10

T02 = 613

0.2857

0.4859 = 297.9 K

Therefore,
W = 1.005

(613 297.9) = 316.67 KJ/Kg

Power developed by the turbine:

P=m

W = 0.75

316.67 = 237.50 KW.

Ex:2.2 The inlet stagnation pressure and temperature of turbine are 15 and 380 0C. The exit
pressure of the turbine is 0.85 bar. The total to static efficiency of the turbine is 0.78. Find the
exit static temperature.
Solution
P02 = 0.85 bar, T01 = 3800C = 380 + 273 = 653 K, P01 = 15 bar, R = 287 J/Kg K, t-s = 0.78
P
T02
02
T01
P01

T02
0.85

653 15

0.2857

T02 = 653 X 0.4403 = 287.56 K

Exit static temperature:
t-s =

h01 h02
T01 T02
=
h01 h2 s
T01 T2 s

0.78

653 287.56
653 T 2 s

T2s = 184.48 K.
Ex:2.3 A centrifugal compressor delivers 50 Kg of air per minute at a pressure of 2 bar and
970C. The intake pressure and temperature of the air is 1 bar and 15 0C. If no heat is lost to the
surrounding, take R = 287 J/KgK. Find
a. Index of compression
b. Power required
c. Total to total efficiency.
Given:
m = 50 Kg/min, P02 = 2 bar, T02 = 970C = 97 + 273 = 370 K, T01 = 150C = 15 + 273 = 288 K,
P01 = 1 bar, R = 287 J/Kg K
Solution:
a. Index of compression:
n Index of compression
T02 p 02

T01 p 01

n 1
n

1.285 = 2

n 1
n

370 2

288 1

n 1
n

log 1.285 =

n 1
log 2
n

n = 1.57
b. Power required:
P = m cp (T01 T02)
=

50
1.005 ( 288 370) - 68.675 KW
60

Here the negative sign indicates the power is given to the system.
c. Total to total efficiency:

t t

T01

p ro

1.4 1

288 2 1.4 1

= 76.91%
370 288

T 02T01

Ex:2.4 A centrifugal compressor is having a compression ratio of 5 which compresses the air
at the rate of 10 Kg/s. If the initial pressure and temperature of the air is 1 bar and 200C, find
a. The final temperature of the gas
b. Power required to drive the compressor. Take 1.4 = , Cp = 1 KJ/KgK.
Solution
P02 / P01 = 5, m = 10 Kg/s,
P01 = 1 bar,
T01 = 200C = 20 + 273
= 293 K, 1.4 = ,
Cp = 1 KJ/KgK.
a. Final temperature of the gas
1.4 1

p 02 1.4
T02
0.2857

5
1.584
T01
p
01

T02 293 1.584 464 K .

b. Power required to drive the compressor

W mc p T02 T01 10 1 464 293 1.71 MW

Review Questions
1. Differentiate Compressible and Incompressible flow machines
2. What do you meant by extended turbomachines?
3. Define the following terms

a. Turbine
b. compressors
c. Stage of a turbine
d.

stage of a compressor

4. Derive the expression for the following turbine efficiency

a. Total to total efficiency
b. Total to static efficiency
5. Derive the expression for total to total efficiency of a compressor stage.
6. Show that the total to Static to static efficiency

s s

T2 s

1
T

1
T

T1 2 1
T1

T1

pr

1
T2

1
T1

7. Differentiate Positive displacement machine and turbomachines.

8. What are the applications of turbomachinery?
9. Show that the infinitesimal stage efficiency of a turbine as,

st

p
1 2
p1

p
1 2 s
p1

Numerical Exercises
1. A Freon-turbine has to use a maximum flow rate of 50 kg/s of Freon employing a ring of
convergent nozzles of total exit area of cross-section of 100 cm 2. The pressure in the nozzle
entry space is 2 bar. Taking cp = 0.845 KJ/Kg K, 1.2 = calculate
a. Stagnation temperature
b. Static pressure and temperature at the exit of the nozzle
c. Mach number at the nozzle exit.
2. An air compressor has eight stages of equal pressure ratio 1.35. The flow rate through the
compressor and its overall efficiency are 50 kg/s and 82% respectively. If the conditions of
air at entry are 1 bar and 40 0c, determine the state of the air at the compressor exit, Polytropic
efficiency, Efficiency of each stage and Power required to drive the compressor assuming the
overall efficiency of 90%.

3. If all stages in the compressor of problem 2 have the same temperature rise, determine the
pressure ratio and efficiency of each stage. Comment on the results.
4. Show that the index n of polytropic expansion in a turbine of infinitesimal stage efficiency
p is

1 p

5. A gas turbine has a pressure ratio of 1.8. The initial pressure and temperature are 3.5 bar
and 1050 K. The gas velocity at exit is 548 m/s. Determine the efficiency of the nozzle and
the exit Mach number. Take R = 287 J/Kg K, 1.4 = .
6. The inlet and exit stagnation enthalpy of the steam are 4230 KJ/kg and 450 KJ/Kg. find the
work done of the turbine. If the isentropic temperature at the exit is 120 0C, calculate the total
to total efficiency of the turbine. Take cp = 2.1 KJ/Kg K.
7. How is the efficiency of an infinitesimal compression stage defined? Prove that:

pr
p

1
k

k 1
p
r

1
1

1 1
p

And p

Const T

8. A centrifugal compressor receives air at a pressure of 1 bar and 17 0C, and delivers it at a
pressure of 6 bar. Determine, per Kg of air delivered, work done by the compressor and heat
exchanged with the jacket water when the compression is isentropic.
9. A centrifugal compressor receives the air at 1.01325 bar and 32 0C, and delivers it at a
pressure of 8 bar. Determine the exit temperature of the compressor. Also find the total to
total efficiency.
10. A low pressure air compressor develops a pressure of 1500 mm of W.G. If the initial and
final states of air are P1 =1.02 bar, T1 = 300 K and T2 = 315 K, determine the compressor and
infinitesimal stage efficiencies.
11. The output of a three stage gas turbine is 30 MW at the shaft coupling at an entry
temperature of 1500 K. The overall Pressure ratio across the turbine is 11 and efficiency 88%.
If the pressure ratio of each stage is the same, determine Pressure ratio of each stage, Poly
tropic efficiency, Mass flow rate, power of each stage and the efficiency.

ENERGY EXCHANGE IN TURBOMACHINERY

3.1 Introduction
Energy is the capacity of doing work. The state of a system can be changed by adding
or extracting energy. Energy transfer (shaft work input or output) in a turbo machine stage is
possible only in rotor, where as energy transfer can occur both in moving and fixed blades.
Thermodynamics and aerodynamic analyses of turbines, pumps, compressor, fans and
blowers require the relation between force, mass and velocity. The following laws are
frequently used in dealing with the problems of design and operation of these machines.
First law of thermodynamics energy equation in its various forms
Second law of thermodynamics entropy and loss relationship
Law of conservation of mass continuity relation
Newton second law of motion momentum equation
In this chapter we shall begin with some basic definitions used in the fluid mechanics.
The analysis of flow in turbomachines requires the application of Newtons second law of
motion along with the equations of continuity and energy. Newtons second law of motion
provides the equations of motion which are also known as Eulers momentum equations.

3.2 Basic Definitions

3.2.1 Fluid
A fluid is a substance which continuously deforms when shearing forces are applied.
Liquids, gases and vapours are all fluids. A non-viscous or inviscid fluid is referred as an
ideal fluid.
3.2.2 Fluid Velocity

The instantaneous velocity of the fluid particle passing through a point is known as
the fluid velocity at that point.
3.2.3 Stream Line
A curve in a flow field which is always tangent to the direction of flow is referred to
as a stream line.
3.2.4 Stream Tube
A stream tube is an infinitesimal portion of the flow field. It is a collection of a
number of streamlines forming as imaginary tube. There is no flow through the walls of a
stream tube. The properties of the flow are constant across the section of a stream tube.
Therefore, the flow in a stream tube is one-dimensional.
3.2.5 Incompressible Flow
If the relative change in the density of a fluid in a process is negligible, it is referred to
as an incompressible process. In such a flow (or process) the fluid velocity is much smaller
than the local velocity of sound in it.
The flow of gases and vapours at Mach number less than 0.30 can be assumed as to be
incompressible without much sacrifice in accuracy.
3.2.6 Compressible Flow
In compressible flows the relative changes in the fluid density are considerable and
cannot be neglected. The fluid velocities in such flows are appreciable compared to the local
velocity of sound. If the Mach number in a flow is higher than 0.3, it is considered to be
compressible.
3.2.7 Steady Flow
A flow is known to be steady if its properties do not change with the time. The shape
of the stream tube does not change in steady flow.
c p T
m

... 0
t
t

(3.1)
3.2.8 Unsteady Flow
If one or more parameters (c, p, T, , m, etc) in a flow change with time, it is known as
unsteady flow.
3.2.9 Viscosity
Viscosity is the property which resists the shearing motion of two adjacent layers of
the fluid. All real flows experience fluid viscosity. Therefore, their behavior is influenced by

the viscous force. A fluid is known as a Newtonian fluid if relation between the shear stress
and the angular deformation in it is linear.
The shear stress is given by

du
dy

du
dy

(3.2)

The constant of proportionality is known as the co-efficient of viscosity or

dynamic viscosity.
The kinematic viscosity () is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity and the density of the
fluid.
Mathematically,

(3.3)

3.2.10 Inviscid Flow

If the viscosity of the fluid is assumed to be absent, the flow is referred to as inviscid
flow. Such a flow glides freely over its boundaries without experiencing viscous forces.
3.2.11 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
well-defined paths or stream line and all stream line are straight and parallel whereas
turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in Zig-Zag way. Due to
the movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, eddies formation takes place which are
responsible for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a nondimensional number called Reynolds Number.
3.2.12 Discharge (Q)
It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe
or a channel. For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed
as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second. For compressible fluids, the rate
of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid flowing across the section. Thus For
liquids the units of Q are in m3 /s or lit / s. For gases the units of Q is Kgf/s or N/s.
Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which
A C.S. area of the pipe
V- Average Velocity of Fluid across the section
Therefore Discharge,

Q = A V

(3.4)

3.6 Eulers Equation for Turbomachinery

The flow of fluid flowing through the rotor is shown in fig.3.2. In turbo machinery the
energy transformation occurs in both stator and rotor blades. But energy transfer occurs in
rotor only. The velocity vectors of the flowing fluid are assumed as constant over the entire
entry and exit sections. The entry and exit sections are denoted by the symbols 1 and 2. The
angular velocity of the rotor is radians per second. The equation for the specific work can
be obtained by using the Newtons second law of motion.
=

2 N
rad / sec
60

(3.15)

The peripheral velocities (Tangential Velocity) of the blades at the entry and exit are
u1=

d1 N
60

m/s

(3.16)
u2=
(3.17)
Where,
cr1, cr2 are the radial velocities at inlet and outlet
c1, c2 are the absolute velocity of the fluid at inlet and outlet
1, 2 are the relative velocity of the fluid at inlet and outlet.
c1, c2 are the tangential component of velocity at inlet and outlet
d1, d2 are the inlet and outlet diameter of the rotor section
N is the speed of the rotor

d2 N
m/s
60

Fig.3.2 Energy Transfer During Flow through a Turbomachine Rotor (Control Volume)

For a control volume the Newtons second law of motion can be written as
FXr

cdAc r t c r dV

cr

cv

(3.18)

Since for steady flow t c

Therefore the above equation (3.18) becomes,

F r

cdAc r

cr

(3.19)

We know that,
.

m cA
.

(3.20)

dm cdA

By substituting equation (3.20), in equation (3.19),

.

F r crd m
cr

(3.21)
The velocity of the fluid is mainly depends on the tangential component of velocity.

Therefore,
.

F r c r d m
cr

c r d m c r d m

exit

in

(3.22)
.

Since the mass flow rate is constant. i.e. m m1 m 2

.

m c 2 r2 c 1 r1
(3.23)
The work of the turbomachinery can be written as
W

(3.24)
By substituting equation (3.24) in equation (3.23)
.

(3.25)

W m c r c r
2 2
1 1
.

W m c 2 u 2 c 1u1

Since u = r

The specific work of the general turbomachinery can be written as

w c 2 u 2 c 1u1

(3.26)
This is the Eulers equation for the general turbomachinery equation. Since
compressor has high energy at the outlet as compared to the inlet. The specific work for the
compressor can be expressed as
wc = u2 c2 u1 c1

(3.27)

Similarly, the turbine has high energy at the inlet as compared to the outlet. The
specific work for the turbine can be written as
wT = u1 c1 - u2 c2

(3.28)

3.6.1 Forces on the Rotor Blades

The resultant force acting on the rotor blade has three components tangential, axial
and radial. The tangential thrust is developed due to change in the momentum of the fluid in
the peripheral direction. This is the driving force on the rotor. Efforts are made in the design
to maintain tangential thrust for given flow conditions. The axial thrust arises due to change
of static pressure and momentum in the axial direction. This does not contribute to the motion
of the rotor and has to be taken by thrust bearings. Therefore, efforts must be made to
minimize it. The radial thrust is due to changes in static pressure and momentum of the fluid

in the radial direction. This also does not contribute to the motion of the rotor and must be
minimized. The thrust appears as the load on the rotor shaft bearings.

3.6.2 Components of the Energy Transfer

For better understanding of the energy transfer of the turbo machinery processes, it is
written here in a different form.
From the inlet velocity triangle, refer fig.3.1.
c12 = cr12 + c12
c12 - c12 = cr12

(3.29)

Similarly,
w12 c r21 u1 c 1

c r21 w12 u1 c 1

(3.30)

From equation (3.29) and (3.30)

c12 c21 w12 u1 c 1

c12 c21 w12 u12 c21 2u1c 1

Therefore,
2u1c 1 c12 u12 w12
u1c 1

(3.31)

1 2
c1 u12 w12
2

Similarly,
u 2 c 2

1 2
c2 u 22 w22
2

From the Eulers turbomahcinery equation, we obtained

w c 2 u 2 c 1u1

It can be rearranged by for compressor as

wc

wc

1 2
1

c2 u 22 w22 - c12 u12 w12

2
2

1 2
c2 c12 12 u 22 u12 12 w12 w22
2

(3.32)

Similarly it can be rearranged for turbine as

wT

1 2
1
1

c1 c 22 u12 u 22 w22 w12

2
2
2

(3.33)

The total energy components for is made up of three components which is mentioned
below.
i.

The quantity (c12 c22) is the change in the kinetic energy of the fluid through the
machine in the absolute frame of coordinates.

ii.

The quantity (u12 u22) is the change in the centrifugal energy of the fluid in the
machine.

iii.

The quantity (w22 w12) is the change in the kinetic energy of the fluid through the
machine in the relative frame of coordinates.

3.6.3 Eulers Work

The work done by the fluid during an isentropic flow through a turbine stage with
perfect guidance by its blades is the maximum work that can be expected in the stage. In such
a case the deflection of the fluid through the rotor provides ideal values of the tangential
velocity components c1, c2. The value of the work given by wT = u1c1- u2c2 is the ideal
work with perfect guidance by the blades. This is known as Eulers work and corresponds to
the following pressure and enthalpy drops.
Eulers enthalpy drop,
hE = wT = u1c1- u2c2

(3.34)

Eulers pressure drop,

(p)ET = p1 - p2E

(3.35)

3.6.4 Isentropic Work

The deflection of the fluid in an actual turbine stage with isentropic flow is not the
same as dictated by its blades. This is due to the imperfect guidance given by the blades to the
fluid. The inability of the blade passages to provide sufficient constraint on the flow leads to
lesser pressure drop and work in the stage. This will happen regardless of the fact whether the
flow is reversible or irreversible. Thus in a reversible adiabatic flow with imperfect
deflection, the stage work (wET). The isentropic pressure drop is
(p)sT = p1 p2s = p1 p2a

(3.36)

3.6.5 Actual Work

An actual stage with irreversible adiabatic flow produces lesser work for the same
pressure drop than the isentropic work (wsT) on account of losses. This work is known as the
adiabatic or actual work (waT) and is lesser than the Eulers work on account of both
imperfect guidance and irreversibility of the flow. Its values can also be calculated from
waT = u1c1- u2c2

(3.37)

Where,
c1 and c2 represent the actual values of the tangential velocity components.
The Eulers and actual pressure rises are
Eulers pressure rise,
(p)Ec = p2E p1

(3.38)

Actual pressure rise,

(p)sc = (p)ac = p2 p1

(3.39)

It is seen that, on account of the inability to fully enforce its geometry on the flow, the
compressor stage develops a lesser pressure rise than the Eulers pressure rise during an
isentropic compression process.

3.7 Degree of Reaction (R)

The degree of reaction can be defined in number of ways. It can be expressed in terms
of pressures or velocities or enthalpies or the flow geometry in the stage. The degree of
reaction prescribes the distribution of the stage pressure rise between the rotor and diffuser
blade rows. This in turn determines the cascade losses in each of the blade rows. For a turbine
or compressor stage it can be defined in the following ways.
i.

It is defined as the ratio of the static or pressure head change occurring in the rotor to
the total change across in the stage.

ii.

It is also defined as the ratio between the changes in the static enthalpy of the rotor to
the total change in the stagnation enthalpy across the stage.

iii.

It is the ratio of isentropic change of enthalpy in the rotor to the isentropic change of
enthalpy in the stage.

3.8 Utilization Factor ( )

It is defined as the ratio between rotor blade work to the energy supplied to the rotor
blades which is an index of the energy utilizing capacity of the rotor blades. It is also called
as blade efficiency. While the blade and stage works are the same, the blade efficiency and
stage efficiency are not equal. This is because the energy inputs to the rotor blades and the
stage (fixed blade ring plus the rotor).
Therefore, to avoid the confusion between the blade efficiency and stage efficiency,
the term utilization factor will be used in place of blade or stage efficiency.
Mathematically,

w
ei

Where,
w Rotor Blade Work
ei Energy Supplied to the Rotor Blades
The energy supplied to the rotor blades is the sum of kinetic energy at the entry of the
jet and the change in kinetic energy of the rotor blades whereas the blade work is the sum of
change in the various kinetic energies.

3.9 Impulse Stage

Fig.3.3 An Impulse Stage Turbine

Machines in which there is no change in static head or pressure of the fluid in the
rotor is known as impulse stage machines. The rotor blades cause only energy transfer
without any energy transformation whereas the energy transformation from the pressure head
to kinetic energy or vice versa takes place in the fixed blades which is shown in fig.3.3.
Paddle wheel, Pelton wheel and Curtis turbine are the examples of impulse turbine stage.

3.10 Reaction Stage

Turbomachines in which changes in static or pressure head occur both in the rotor and
stator passages are known as reaction machines or stages. Here the energy transformation
occurs in both fixed and moving blades. The rotor experiences both energy and energy
transformation. Therefore the reaction turbines are expected to more efficient than impulse
machines. The pressure and velocity changes of reaction stage machines are shown in
fig.3.4.Some examples of the reaction turbine stage are Heros turbine, lawn sprinkler, and
Parsons steam turbine.

Fig.3.4 Reaction Stage Turbine

Numerical Examples
Ex:3.1 An inward flow radial turbine has the following data:
Power: 150 KW, Speed: 32000 rpm, Outer diameter of the impeller: 20 cm, inner diameter of
the impeller: 8 cm, Absolute velocity of gas at entry: 387 m/s, Absolute velocity of gas at
exit: 193 m/s (radial). The gas enters impeller radially. Construct the velocity triangles at the
entry and exit of the impeller and determine
Mass flow rate, the percentage energy transfer due to the change of radius
Solution
u1=

d1 N 0.2 32000

335.1 m/s
60
60

u2=

d 2 N 0.08 32000

133.97 m/s
60
60

As per the given data, the velocity triangles at entry and exit are right angle triangle
The work done in the stage is,
waT

1 2
1
1

c1 c 22 u12 u 22 w22 w12

2
2
2

waT = u12 = 335.12 / 1000 = 112.292 KJ/Kg

Power = m

waT = 150 KW

Therefore,
m = 150 / 112.292 = 1.335 Kg/s
The energy transfer due to the change in radius is
1 2
1

u1 u 22 335.12 134.04 2 47.16 10 3 J / Kg 47.16 KJ / Kg

2
2

Therefore the percentage of this part of the total energy transfer is

47.16
100 42%
112.292

Ex:3.2 A radial tipped blade impeller of a centrifugal blower has the following data:
Speed: 3000 rpm, outer diameter: 40 cm, inner diameter: 25 cm, impeller width at entry: 8
cm, stage efficiency: 70%. The absolute velocity component at the impeller entry is radial
and has a magnitude of 22.67 m/s. if the radial velocity remains constant through the
impeller, determine the pressure developed and the power required. Assume a constant
density of air of 1.25 Kg/m3
Solution
u1=

d1 N 0.25 3000

62.83 m/s
60
60

u2=

d 2 N 0.4 3000

39.27 m/s
60
60

Therefore the actual work of the stage,

wac = u22 = (62.83)2 = 3947.61 J/Kg
The ideal enthalpy change is,
hs st wac = 0.7

3947.61 = 2763.33 J/kg

For isentropic flow,

p hs 1.25 2763.33 3454.16 N / m 2

Area of impeller normal to the radial component at the entry is

A1 = d1b1 = 3.14

0.25

0.08 = 0.0628 m2

The mass flow rate is

.

m c1 A1 1.25 22.67 0.0628 1.78 Kg / s

The power required is,
.

P m wac 1.78 3.947 7.02 KW

Ex:3.3 The rotor of an axial flow fan has a mean diameter of 30 cm. it runs at 1470 rpm. Its
velocity triangles at entry and exit are described by the following data: Peripheral velocity
components of the absolute velocities at entry and exit are cy1 = 1/3 u, cy2 = 2/3 u
a.

Draw the inlet and exit velocity triangles for the rotor and prove that the work is given
by

wc= 1/3 u2

b.

Calculate the pressure rise (mm of W.G.) taking a constant density of air, = 1.25
Kg/m3
Notation used has its usual meaning.

Solution
a. The velocity triangle is as shown in figure.
From Eulers equation for compressor is
wc = u c y 2 c y1 u

1
1
2
u u u2
3
3
3

b. The following formula is used for the pressure rise:

p
1
h wc u 2

3
dN 0.3 1470
u

23.091 m / s
60
60
1
1
p u 2 1.25 23.0912 222.164 N / m 2
3
3

We know that, 1.01325

105 N/m2 = 10.363 m of WG

Therefore, 222.164 N/m2 = 22.72 mm of WG.

Review Questions
1. Define the following
a. stream lines
b. Stream tube
c. Discharge
d. Continuity equation
e. Velocity potential and stream function
2. Define the following
a. Incompressible
b. Compressible
c. Steady
d. Unsteady
e. inviscid
f. Viscous
g. Laminar
h. Turbulent flows. Give examples of each of these flows in turbomachines
3. With neat sketch, derive the Eulers equation for turbomachinery.

4. Derive an expression for the component of energy transfer.

5. Differentiate Impulse and Reaction turbine stage.
6. Define the following
a. Utilization factor
b. Degree of reaction

Numerical Exercises
1. Determine Eulers isentropic work and actual work for the IFR turbine.
Speed: 24000 rpm, Outer diameter: 30 cm, Inner diameter: 15 cm, Rotor blade angle at entry:
700, Rotor blade angle at exit: 250, actual air angle at entry: 750, actual air angle at exit:
350(from the tangential direction), radial velocity at entry and exit: 100 m/s, stage efficiency:
91%.
2. A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having diameters, 20 cm and 10 cm at the crosssections 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is given as 4 m/s. find the
velocity head at sections 1 and 2 and also rate of discharge.
3. Show velocity triangles at the entry and exit of a general inward flow turbomachine.
Identify turbines and compressors from the following data for various turbomachine:
a. u1 = u2 = 50 m/s, cy1 = 4 m/s, cy2 = 5 m/s
b. cy1 = cy2 = 12 m/s, u1 = 102 m/s, u2 = 118 m/s
c. h02- h01 = -4 KJ/Kg
d. p02 p01 = 37.5 mm of WG
4. Show the Eulers, Isentropic and actual values of work in turbines and compressors on h-s
co-ordinates. Show the corresponding exit pressures in each case.