As the rulers of the mahajanapadas of the Common Era were building huge forts maintaining

big armies, they needed more resources for which they collected taxes. So Taxes on crop
were fixed at a certain share of the total produce and Craft persons were made to pay taxes
Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers. Usually, the tax
was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga or a share. These could have been
in the form of labor. For example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month
for the king.
Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal produce. And
hunters and gatherers also had to provide forest produce to the raja. There were also taxes on goods
that were bought and sold, through trade.
SARISKA TIGER RESERVE
The Sariska Tiger Reserve is an Indian national park and wildlife refuge located in
the Alwar district of the state of Rajasthan.
The most attractive feature of this reserve has always been its Bengal tigers. It is the first
tiger reserve in the world to have successfully relocated tigers
it was declared a wildlife reserve in 1955. In 1978, it was given the status of a tiger
reserve making it a part of India's Project Tiger
The dominant tree in the forests is dhok (Anogeissus pendula).
The area of Sariska, being a part of the Aravalli Range, is rich in mineral resources, such as copper.
The reserve is also the location of several sites of historical importance such as the 16th-century
Kankwadi fort, originally built by Jai Singh II, located near the centre of the park.
Pandupol in the hills in the centre of the reserve is believed to be one of the retreats of
Pandava.
ANIMALS CHANGTHANGI AND CHIRU
The Changthangi or Pashmina goat inhabits the plateaus in Tibet and neighbouring areas
of Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir. They are raised for ultra-fine cashmere wool (pashmina).
Tibetan Antelope of Chiru is native to Tibet.
Chiru is an antelope, whereas Changthangi is a goat. Primate are apes, humans etc. In recent
years Chiru has become endangered due to poaching for their soft and warm wool which is
usually obtained after death. This wool is known as shahtoosh and is used to weave shawls . At
present, international trade in their products is strictly prohibited.
INDEPENDENCE DATE OF INDIA

Indian Independence Bill was introduced in the British House of Commons on July 4, 1947
and passed within a fortnight.
In 1929, when Jawaharlal Nehru as Congress President gave the call for Poorna Swaraj or
total
independence from British colonial rule, January 26 was chosen as the Independence Day. Later it
was declared as the Republic Day. 15 th August was chosen because The date was chosen by Lord
Mountbatten himself because he had considered this date to be lucky. It was on this day during the
World War II, that the Japanese Army surrendered to the allies.
NASA'S FERMI MISSION
It is aimed at understanding Search for signs of new laws of physics and what composes the
mysterious Dark Matter.

Gamma rays are the highest-energy form of light, and the gamma-ray sky is spectacularly
different from the one we perceive with our own eyes.
Fermi data has enabled scientists to answer persistent questions across a broad range of
topics, including supermassive black-hole systems, pulsars, the origin of cosmic rays, and
searches for signals of new physics.

SPOT MARKETS IN INDIA

It is a public financial market in which financial instruments or commodities are
traded for immediate delivery. It contrasts with a futures market, in which delivery is due at a later
date.
There are many players in the sport market, for e.g. NCDEX Spot Exchange Limited, Indian
Bullion Spot Exchange limited. NSEL is only one of them,
Spot Exchange is presently recognized by Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public
Distribution. It was regulated by the Forward Contracts Act earlier by Forward Markets Commission.
Now, since FMC has been merged with SEBI, SEBI regulates it.
The Constitution (122nd Amendment) (GST) Bill, 2014
It must be passed by at least half of all state assemblies in India by Simple majority in form
of a resolution.
Amendments that seek to change federal provisions of the Constitution will be first passed in
the two houses separately by absolute and special majority.
They afterwards also need to be ratified by legislatures of at least half of the states by
resolutions. Only after this, the bill will be sent for presidential assent, and it becomes an Act.
Assam recently became the first state to ratify the GST Bill.

TARGETING DIESEL CARS MORE THAN PETROL CARS

It is because of two reasons:
Diesel cars have higher emissions of NOx and particulate matter than petrol cars.
High sulphur content emitted by Diesel cars lead to acid rain
Naturally occurring crude can be burnt directly to produce energy, but because different
hydrocarbons
have different boiling points, the combustion will be very uneven.
As such, crude oil is refined into compounds like kerosene, LPG, paraffin wax, naphtha, etc., apart
from petrol and diesel.
Longer the carbon chain, higher is the probability of finding other elements like sulphur and
nitrogen
attached to it. Petrol is a more uniform carbon compound than diesel as petrol has shorter chains than
Diesel.
Crucially, diesel has higher sulphur content.
CO2 is a greenhouse gas, and contributes to global warming; NOx and particulate matter
carry major health risks.
Primary Health Centres (PHCs)

They serve in many villages in a rural area. At the village level there are sub-health centres
where there is usually a nurse and a village health worker. They are trained in dealing with
common illnesses.
They work under the supervision of doctors at the Primary Health Centre (PHC) which is next
in the hierarchy. Such a centre covers many villages in a rural area.
At the Block level, there is usually a Community Health Centre with more facilities than at
PHC.

 At the district level is the District Hospital that also supervises all the health centres.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere does not absorb the incoming visible radiations coming from the
sun blocks the out going infrared radiations radiated by earth. By absorbing infrared radiations, the
atmosphere
gets heated. This is known as Green house Effect. The heated atmosphere keeps the earthworm. Thus
carbon
dioxide helps in keeping the earth warmer by blocking the infrared radiations.
Statement 4: When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that
reduce seawater
pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate
minerals. It is called "ocean acidification".
Calcium carbonate minerals are the building blocks for the skeletons and shells of many marine
organisms.
Learning: Volcanic outgassing and wildfires are two significant natural sources of CO2 in Earth's
atmosphere.
Respiration, the process by which organisms liberate energy from food, emits carbon dioxide.
Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)
USSD is a GSM based technology i.e. used to send text between a mobile phone and an application
program in the network.
Unlike Short Message Service (SMS) messages, USSD messages create a real-time
connection during a USSD session. So they are more responsive than services that use SMS.
So, it can be used even without any internet connection as it does not require any data
The Union Bank of India (UBI) has recently launched an Unstructured Supplementary
Service Data
(USSD) based *99# mobile application for their customers for basic banking needs. It was launched
in partnership with National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), the umbrella organisation for all
retail payments system in the country

BURZAHOM SITE
It has been named as the Northern Neolithic Culture in view of its distinctive structural
features with profusion of tools made of bones and stones and tools representing the
ritualistic practice.
MOHENJODARO
The Archaeological Ruins of the location comprise the first great urban centre of the Indus civilization
with burnt brick structures.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro are the best
preserved urban settlement in South Asia dating back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium
BC, and exercised a considerable influence on the subsequent development of urbanization.
The archaeological ruins are located on the right bank of the Indus River
It was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
The Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro are being protected by National and Regional laws
including the Antiquities Act 1975.

The discovery of Moenjodaro in 1922 revealed evidence of the customs, art, religion and
administrative abilities of its inhabitants.

GEOLOGY OF INDIA
Geoglogy of India can be categorized in following eras, in increasing chronological order.
Precambrian super-eon
Phanerozoic
Palaeozoic
Lower Paleozoic
Upper Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
Tertiary period
Quaternary period
Khasi hills, one of youngest, belong to Tertiary period (to which a large area in North-east
also belong
Shiwaliks are part of Himalayas, so given the reasoning below, this (b) will also be incorrect.
The alluvium which is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain belongs to the Quaternary period. It
was eroded from the Himalayas by the rivers and the monsoons. Since Himalayas were
formed after Deccan traps, and are very young, (c) cant be the answer.
The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus in India made mainly from igneous
rocks.
UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (CSD).
It was established by the UN General Assembly in December 1992 to ensure effective
follow-up of United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as
the Earth
Summit.
At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio 20), Member States
agreed to establish a high level political forum that replaced the Commission on Sustainable
Development. The body no longer exists.
The Commission was responsible for reviewing progress in the implementation of Agenda 21
and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; as well as providing policy
guidance to follow up the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) at the local, national,
regional and international levels.
The CSD met annually in New York, in two-year cycles, opening its sessions to broad
participation from both governmental and non-governmental actors.

What is the COP?

The COP is the supreme decision-making body of the Convention. All States that are
Parties to the Convention are represented at the COP, at which they review the
implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP
adopts and take decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the
Convention, including institutional and administrative arrangements.

Kyoto protocol under UNFCC COP

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding
emission reduction targets.

Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of
GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the
Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but
differentiated responsibilities."

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into
force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were
adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh
Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.

In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted. The
amendment includes:

PARIS AGREEMENT
At COP 21 in Paris, Parties to the UNFCCC reached a historic agreement to combat climate
change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low
carbon future. The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through
nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead.

NPA
It results in inflating the cost of capital for economic activities and banks may charge higher interest
rates on some products to compensate NPAs.
NPA is any asset of a bank which is not producing any income. It affects the profitability &
liquidity of the banks.
It adversely affects the value of bank in terms of market credit and widens assets and liability
mismatch. This may even lead to bank defaults. It shakes consumers confidence in the
banking deposits, and forces them to withdraw savings in banks, thus lowering the savings
ratio.
Learning: Savings ratio is the total amount of a persons income not spent on consumption and
invested in either bank deposits, bonds or other market instruments.
In any economy, savings finance investments. Higher savings increase liquidity in the market and
reduce the cost of credit resulting in higher economic growth. So, it is very important that the banking
system of an economy is robust.

Berring strait
The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle and surrounds the North Pole. It is connected
with the Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water. This strait separates the United States
and Russia by around 85 km, with a water depth that measures only 3050 meters!

It is a strait connecting the Pacific and Arctic oceans between Russia and the United States.
In the last few decades some factions have discussed the construction of a bridge over the
strait, however, financial and weather concerns have continually stalled the project.

Norton Sound

Norton Sound is an inlet of the Bering Sea on the western coast of the U.S.
state of Alaska, south of the Seward Peninsula. It is about 240 km (150 mi) long and

200 km (125 mi) wide. The Yukon River delta forms a portion of the south shore and
water from the Yukon influences this body of water. It is ice-free from June to
October.

Norton Sound was explored by Captain James Cook in September 1778.

61st Constitutional Amendment, 1989

The 61st Amendment Act lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years thus introducing adult
suffrage. But, women already enjoyed the right to vote in India.

Government of India Act 1935

The Government of India Act 1935 was originally passed in August 1935 (25 & 26 Geo. 5
c. 42), and is said to have been the longest (British) Act of Parliament ever enacted by that
time.It had 231 sections and 10 schedules.Because of its length, the Act was retroactively
split by the Government of India (Reprinting) Act 1935 (26 Geo. 5 & 1 Edw. 8 c. 1) into two
separate Acts

Background to the Act

Indians had increasingly been demanding a greater role in the government of their country
since the late 19th century. The Indian contribution to the British war effort during theFirst
World War meant that even the more conservative elements in the British political
establishment felt the necessity of constitutional change, resulting in the Government of India
Act 1919. That Act introduced a novel system of government known as provincial "diarchy",
i.e., certain areas of government (such as education) were placed in the hands of ministers
responsible to the provincial even for those areas over which they had gained nominal control,
the "purse strings" were still in the hands of British officialdom.

The intention had been that a review of India's constitutional arrangements and those princely
states that were willing to accede to it. However, division between Congress and Muslim
representatives proved to be a major factor in preventing agreement as to much of the important
detail of how federation would work in practice.

Against this practice, the new Conservative-dominated National Government in London decided
to go ahead with drafting its own proposals (the white paper). A joint parliamentary select
committee, chaired by Lord Linlithgow, reviewed the white paper proposals at great length. On
the basis of this white paper, the Government of India Bill was framed. At the committee stage and
later, to appease the diehards, the "safeguards" were strengthened, and indirect elections were
reinstated for the Central Legislative Assembly (the central legislature's lower house). The bill
duly passed into law in August 1935.

As a result of this process, although the Government of India Act 1935 was intended to go some way
towards meeting Indian demands, both the detail of the bill and the lack of Indian involvement in drafting
its contents meant that the Act met with a lukewarm response at best in India, while still proving too
radical for a significant element in Britain.

Government of India Act 1858

Government of India Act 1858[1]

Parliament of the United Kingdom

Long title

An Act for the better Government of India

Citation

21 & 22 Vict. c. 106

Dates

Royal assent

2 August 1858

Commencement

1 November 1858

The Government of India Act 1858 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & 22 Vict. c.
106) passed on August 2, 1858. Its provisions called for the liquidation of the British East India
Company (who had up to this point been ruling British Indiaunder the auspices of Parliament) and the
transference of its functions to the British Crown.[2] Lord Palmerston, then-Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom, introduced a bill for the transfer of control of the Government of India from the East India
Company to the Crown, referring to the grave defects in the existing system of the government of India.

Provisions of the bill:

The Company's territories in India were to be vested in the Queen, the Company
ceasing to exercise its power and control over these territories. India was to be governed
in the Queen's name.

The Queen's Principal Secretary of State received the powers and duties of the
Company's Court of Directors. A council of fifteen members was appointed to assist the
Secretary of State for India. The council became an advisory body in India affairs. For all
the communications between Britain and India, the Secretary of State became the real
channel.

The Secretary of State for India was empowered to send some secret despatches to
India directly without consulting the Council. He was also authorised to constitute special
committees of his Council.

The Crown was empowered to appoint a Governor-General and the Governors of the
Presidencies.

An Indian Civil Service was to be created under the control of the Secretary of State.
Hereto all the property and other assets of the East India Company were transferred to
the Crown. The Crown also assumed the responsibilities of the Company as they related
to treaties, contracts, and so forth.[3]

The Act ushered in a new period of Indian history, bringing about the end of Company rule in
India. The era of the new British Raj would last until Partition of India in August 1947, at
which time all of the territory of the British Raj was granted dominion status within
the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India.[3]
Northern blot

It is a laboratory method used to detect specific RNA molecules among a mixture of RNA.
Northern blotting can be used to analyze a sample of RNA from a particular tissue or cell type
in order to measure the RNA expression of particular genes
Application: Northern blotting allows one to observe a particular gene's expression pattern
between tissues, organs, developmental stages, environmental stress levels, pathogen
infection, and over the course of treatment.
Learning: Some other related terms are:
A microarray is a laboratory tool used to detect the expression of thousands of genes at the
same time.
A proteome is the complete set of proteins expressed by an organism.

FINANCIAL ACTION TASK FORCE (FATF), ESTABLISHED IN 1989 BY G-7

The objectives of the FATF are to set standards and promote effective implementation of
legal, regulatory and operational measures for combating money laundering, terrorist financing and
other related
threats to the integrity of the international financial system.
The FATF is therefore a policy-making body which works to generate the necessary
political will to bring
about national legislative and regulatory reforms in these areas.
The FATF has developed a series of Recommendations that are recognised as the international
standard for combating of money laundering and the financing of terrorism and proliferation
of weapons of mass destruction
The FATF monitors the progress of its members in implementing necessary measures, reviews
money laundering and terrorist financing techniques and counter-measures, and promotes the
adoption and implementation of appropriate measures globally.
In collaboration with other international stakeholders, the FATF works to identify nationallevel vulnerabilities with the aim of protecting the international financial system from misuse.
The FATF's decision making body, the FATF Plenary, meets three times per year.

FORESTS LOCATIONS IN INDIA

Mangroves are found in A&N islands and even near the western coast of India, but not in
NE states, or on the Western slope of Western Ghats.

Temperate forests are found in temperate latitudes or at higher altitudes. A&N islands do not
host
temperate forests.
Corals are found largely in A&N, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar (near TN) and Gulf of
Kutch.
Tropical moist forests include evergreen forests; Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests, Tropical
Moist Deciduous Forests and Littoral and Swamp Forests.
The Middle Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterised by
the wet evergreen type.
Western Ghats and NE states harbour both deciduous and evergreen forests.

ANIMALS

Elephants and one-horned rhinoceroses (categorized vulnerable as per IUCN) are found in the
forests of Assam, especially Kaziranga national park.
Camels and wild asses are found in the Great Indian desert and the Rann of Kuchchh, which
is also the largest wildlife sanctuary in India. As of 2016, the Indian wild ass is listed as Near
Threatened by IUCN.
Wild goats, snow leopards, bears, etc. are found in the Himalayan region. Some of these wild
goats are reared for the famous Pashmina wool.

EARTH SUMMIT RIO 2012

Major outcomes of that conference include the Johannesburg Declaration and almost 300
international partnership initiatives meant to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals.

The Future We Want document was a result of this summit

Objectives
Demonstration at Rio+20 - Picture shows effigy of Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff with a chainsaw
embracing the statue of liberty Demonstration against the President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during
the conference

The conference had three objectives:

1. Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development
2. Assessing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges.

Conference themes
The official discussions had two main themes:

1. How to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift people out of
poverty, including support for developing countries that will allow them to find a green
path for development.
2. How to improve international coordination for sustainable development by building an
institutional framework.

WARSAW CLIMATE CHANGE AGREEMENT

Conclusion[edit]
The conference ran beyond the scheduled end date of 22 November by a day [17] before some consensus was
reached. Member states agreed to work towards curbing emissions as soon as possible, with an idea date
targeted at the first quarter of 2015.

Talk however continued on the aid that developed countries would pay to help emissions cuts by
developing countries. Having previously promised US$100 billion a year after 2020 from the
US$10 billion a year between 2010-2012, they resisted calls to set targets for the rest of the
decade. The draft resolution of the conference, though, only mentioned setting "increasing levels"
of aid.

Further the Warsaw Mechanism was proposed, which would provide expertise, and possibly aid,
to developing nations to cope with loss and damage from such natural extremities as heatwaves,
droughts and floods and threats such as rising sea levels and desertification.

HISTORICAL INSCRIPTIONS IN INDIA.

Quoting verbatim from ASIs website, The language of the earliest written records,
viz., the Asokan edicts, is Prakrit. Besides Prakrit, Asokan edicts are written in Greek
and Aramaic languages also.
All the edicts of Asoka engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the
Prakrit language. Thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was
Prakrit and Sanskrit was adopted in the inscriptions only at a later period.
After the period of Asoka, the use of the Prakrit language continued in inscriptions
for a few more centuries. In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit about the
end of 3rd century A.D. while this change took place about a century later in south
India.
From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the
predominant language of Indian epigraphs.. This is because Guptas were great
patrons of Brahmanism and Sanskrit language.

Learning: The contemporary rulers of the Guptas, in central India and parts of the Deccan,
like the Vakatakas, the Kadambas and later Gangas of Karnataka and the Pallavas in south
India also employed Sanskrit in their inscriptions. The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas,
the Cholas and the Pandyas are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil languages.
ABOUT THE ROCK SHELTERS OF BHIMBETKA
Mesolithic as well as Medieval period rock paintings can be found in the caves. It is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Bhimbetka owes its name to the characters of the longest epic in the world, the Mahabharata.
It is believed that when the five brothers, called Pandavas, were banished from their kingdom,
they came here and stayed in these caves, the massive rocks seating the gigantic frame of
Bhima, the second Pandava.
Animals such as bison, tiger, rhinoceros, wild boar, elephants, monkeys, antelopes, lizards,
peacocks etc. have been abundantly depicted in the rock shelters. Popular religious and ritual
symbols also occur frequently.

Mikir hills, Mishmi hills and Barail range

Mikir Hills are a group of hills located to the south of the Kaziranga National Park, Assam. It
is part of the Karbi Anglong Plateau.

Mishmi Hills are on the Northeastern tip of India, in central Arunachal Pradesh.
[1]

They are also a part of Shan-Malaysia plate. [2]It is recorded that their height is

5140 ft.[3] The hills are a southward extension of the Great Himalayan ranges and its
northern and eastern parts touch China. It is divided into three geographical
distributions.

These hills occur at the junction of Northeastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma ranges.
The Himalayan arc takes a sharp turn and meets Indo-Burma ranges. The rocks of
eastern lesser Himalaya and the central crystallines appear to be largely attenuated
and truncated in Mishmi Hills.

BARAIL RANGE

The highest peak is 1,959 m near Laike, while Hamplopet (1,867 m) is the second
highest, both of which are outside reserve forests. The climate is tropical monsoon type.
The Barail forests are biologically important, with a number of endangered species
(Choudhury 1993). Hill rivers and streams such as the Simleng (Luva), Jatinga and
Modhura rivers are the main water sources, along with an unrecorded number of nullahs
that feed the rivers. The annual rainfall varies from 2,000 mm to more than 6,000 mm.
The westernmost part of the range receives the heaviest rainfall in Assam (Choudhury
1993). The undulating foothills in the south and the plains beyond have been extensively
converted to tea gardens and settled cultivation, respectively.

S.A.M.O.A. Pathway.

SAMOA was an outcome document of the Third International Conference on Small

Island
Developing States (SIDS), the 'SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA)
Pathway.
The Samoa Pathway recognizes the adverse impacts of climate change and sea-level rise
on SIDS efforts to
achieve sustainable development as well as to their survival and viability, and addresses
economic development, food security, disaster risk reduction (DRR) and ocean
management, among other issues.
Since the agreement came about in 2014, it cannot be a part of the Paris Climate
agreement 2015

COMMUNITIES

These are people with a nomadic pastoralist lifestyle. They are the principal inhabitants of
the vast Sahara Desert.
They raged the Tuareg Rebellion (2012) which was an early stage of the Northern Mali
conflict waged against the Malian government. Their goal was attaining independence for
the northern region of Mali, known as Azawad.
Sinhalas are the major community of Sri Lanka often in conflict with the Tamils of SL.
Rakhine is a state in Myanmar, and also a principal ethnic community. The 2012 Rakhine
State riots were a series of conflicts primarily between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and
Rohingya Muslims in northern Rakhine State.

EINSTEIN RING

Einstein Ring was discovered recently by an Institute of Chile.

"Einstein Ring", first predicted by Einstein's theory of General Relativity, is a rarely observed,
astronomical phenomenon that occurs when two distant galaxies are perfectly aligned,
millions of light years apart.
Because the two galaxies are aligned so perfectly, light from the most distant, or source
galaxy, is being bent by the gravity of the closer one.
This makes the light from the furthest galaxy appear as an almost perfect circle when viewed
from Earth. An Einstein ring is a distorted image of a very distant galaxy, which is termed 'the
source'.

KANISHKA
The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalvana, Kashmir in 72 AD under the patronage of
Kushan king Kanishka. The president of this council was Vasumitra.
This council distinctly divided the Buddhism into 2 sects Mahayanaand Hinayana. Another
Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Tambapanni (one name of Sri Lanka) at Aloka Lena
under the patronage of Vattagamani-Abaya. This was Theravada Buddhist council.
SOME OF THE OFFICIALS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIA

Important men probably had a say in local administration. These included the nagarashreshthi
or chief banker or merchant of the city, the sarthavaha or leader of the merchant caravans, the
prathama-kulika or the chief craftsman, and the head of the kayasthas or scribes.
Sometimes, one person held many offices. For instance, besides being a maha-dandanayaka,
Harishena was a kumar-amatya, meaning an important minister, and a sandhivigrahika,meaning a minister of war and peace.

NATIONAL MINERAL EXPLORATION TRUST (MET)

It carries out detailed exploration for minerals using the funds accrued to it. Major minerals
are administered by the Central government. Moreover, this body doesnt give sanction for
mining leases.
The Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015, (MMRDA)
mandated the setting up of Mineral Exploration Trust.
It is a non-profit body by the Central Government for the purposes of regional and detailed
exploration of minerals using the funds accrued to it and in such manner as prescribed by the
Central Government.

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms (biotic) with each other
and with the physical and chemical factors (abiotic) of the environment in which they live, all linked
by transfer of energy and material.
Biome is a larger region than ecosystem, and comprises many such ecosystems.

STATE ADMINISTRATION

Governor is appointed by the President. State has no say in either the appointment or removal
of the Governor.
Governor doesnt consult the Union government in making state appointments, even though
the Governor is an agent of the Centre.
She is bound to choose the leader of the largest party/coalition as the CM and others
recommended by the CM as ministers.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS GRID PROPOSED BY THE NHAI

The grid will connect 12 major ports, 26 state capitals and more than 45 cities and thus help in quick
evacuation and transport of cargo from one end to the other.
In India the lack of scientific road network pattern has created a problem for drivers who can't
take a straight road to reach from one place to the other.
National Highway Authority of India is proposing a National Highway Grid which will
include 27 horizontal and vertical highway corridors spread across the country. The corridors,
spaced at a distance of 250 kilometres, will crisscross and connect with each other.
The preparation of the grids will help the government re-designate the NHs for easy
identification. For example, all even number NH grids can be identified for roads connecting
east to west and odd number for corridors joining north end to south.
GREENHOUSE GASES
CFC is a manmade gas, and so all options containing CFC will be wrong.

Methane is emitted by rice field, animals (digestive tracts), coal mines etc.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced by fertilizer use, animal waste management, fossil fuel
combustion, industrial activities, soils under natural vegetation and the oceans. So, it is
produced by both natural and human activities.
SF6 is an inorganic extremely potent greenhouse gas, which is an excellent electrical
insulator. It is a manmade gas.
Oxygen (O2) is not a GHG, ozone (O3) is
Water vapour is a very important GHG, and it is obviously natural.

OPTICALLY-STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE
It is the last time quartz or feldspar sediment was exposed to light.

Indian researchers have used dating techniques on animal remains and pottery fragments to
conclude that the Indus Valley settlements could be older than previously believed.
They also used the technique called Optically-Stimulated Luminescence.
It is a late Quaternary dating technique used to date the last time quartz sediment was exposed
to light.
As sediment is transported by wind, water, or ice, it is exposed to sunlight and zeroed of any
previous luminescence signal.
Once this sediment is deposited and subsequently buried, it is removed from light and is
exposed to low levels of natural radiation in the surrounding sediment.
The technique measures their age using ionizing radiation.

KUJI MENDHA
It is a breed of sheep found only in coastal Odisha. It has some rare genetic traits which lead to
multiple birth syndromes in it.
They are well adapted to high ambient temperature, high humidity and heavy rains.
They are found in Jagatsinghpur and Kendrapara districts of Odisha.
The National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) has accorded the genetic
recognition. With NBAGR conferring it genetically rare status, conserving these domesticated
species would receive a boost.

SHIFT TO CYCLOPENTANE

The shift will be made from Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) which are ozone depleting.
HCFC is a commonly used refrigerant gas. It is also used in foam blowing agents, solvents,
aerosols and fire extinguishers.
India is in the process of phasing out HCFC by 2030 as per the existing agreement signed by
India in the Montreal protocol.
The transition will be funded by the Executive Committee of the Multilateral fund as per the
Montreal Protocol Agreement in the second stage of HCFC phase out. SMEs will encouraged
to shift to cyclopentanes.
Cyclopentane is a cheaper alternative (HCFC is patented and expensive) without any patents
associated with it. But, some SMEs also expressed their reservations against using
cyclopentane
due to its flammability and the need for skilled technicians to handle it.

IMPEYAN MONAL

It is found in temperate forests in the Himalayan region

Himalayan monal is also known as the Impeyan monal or pheasant is state bird of
Uttarakhand and national bird of Nepal, where it is known as Danphe. It was also the state
bird of Himachal Pradesh, until 2007.
The bird's natural range extends from eastern Afghanistan through the Himalayas in Pakistan,
Kashmir region and the Republic of India (states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal, southern Tibet, and Bhutan.
It occupies upper temperate oak-conifer forests interspersed with open grassy slopes, cliffs
and alpine meadows In some areas, the species is threatened due to poaching and other
anthropogenic factors.

TROPICAL SAVANNAHS AND TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

Temperate grasslands are drier and receive lesser rainfall than savannas.
Temperate grass here is short and nutritious, not longer than Savannah.
Savannah is Grassland characterized by scattered trees that are not able to form a canopy. As
there is no canopy, the surface gets sufficient light, and the area supports grasses.
Temperate grasslands are characterized by grasses of different types with no trees and only a
few types of shrubs.
The reason of no trees lies in the fact that temperate grasslands receive lesser rainfall and are
drier.
These grow on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics. This vegetation grows in
the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
Temperate Grasslands are found in the mid-latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents.
Apart from Wheat, Crops that are usually grown in the plains of India are Maize,
Sorghum, Milletsand Sugarcane.
Factors that affect the formation of tides in the Ocean are
1. Alignment of Earth, Sun and Moon.
2. Relative distance between the Moon, Earth and Sun .
3. Shape of bays and estuaries where tides are formed.
4. Local wind and weather patterns in Ocean.
The strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon on the earthssurface causes the
tides.
The water of the earth closer to the moon gets pulled under the influence of the moons gravitational
force and causes high tide.
During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line and the
tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides.
But when the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally
opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides. These
tides are called neap tides.
The shape of bays and estuaries also can magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays in
particular can dramatically alter tidal magnitude.

 The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia is the classic example of this effect, and has the highest
tides in the world - over 15 meters. Narrow inlets and shallow water also tend to dissipate
incoming tides.
In estuaries with strong tidal rivers, such as the Delaware River and Columbia River,
powerful seasonal river flows in the spring can severely alter or mask the incoming tide.
Strong offshore winds can move water away from coastlines, exaggerating low tide
exposures. Onshore winds may act to pile up water onto the shoreline, virtually eliminating
low tide exposures.
High-pressure systems can depress sea levels, leading to clear sunny days with exceptionally
low tides. Conversely, low-pressure systems that contribute o cloudy, rainy conditions
typically are associated with tides than are much higher than predicted.