16.1.1 Furnaces For Roasting and Calcining: 16.1.1.1 Rotary Kilns

Annexes
16.1.1
16.1.1.1
Furnaces for roasting and calcining

Rotary kilns
Rotary kilns use the same arrangement as a rotary furnace but operate without melting the
charge as shown in Figure 16.1.
Stack
Gas
Filter cooling
Feed
Air
(oil, gas)
Rotary kiln
Slag
Exhaust
fan
Water basin
Figure 16.1:
Rotary kiln
[ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ]
These kilns are used for a variety of fuming and calcining processes. Principal examples are the
production of zinc oxide by fuming in a Waelz kiln; the production of calcine for the ferro
nickel process; the calcination of aluminium hydroxide and the calcination of magnesium
hydroxide to a light burnt magnesium oxide for electrolytic magnesium production. Other
applications are the pretreatment of a variety of raw materials at high temperatures, the
incineration of photographic film and paper and the drying of concentrates and blends of
material at lower temperatures.
16.1.1.2
Fluidised bed reactors
These furnaces are especially suitable when good temperature control is required for example
for the roasting of copper, nickel, cobalt and/or zinc sulphidic concentrates and dead roasting of
zinc concentrates and partial roasting of copper concentrates as well as for Al2O3 calcining.
Combustion air is blown through tuyres in a grid at the bottom of the furnace and through the
fluid bed of material being roasted on the grid (Figure 16.2). The concentrate is fed on to the top
of the bed. The oxygen reacts with the sulphides in the bed to produce oxides (called the
calcine). SO2 gas is formed at about 900 to 1000 C by the oxidation of sulphide to form oxide.
Part of the calcine is removed mechanically from the furnace but some is carried over in the gas
stream and is removed in a waste heat boiler, cyclones or an ESP system. The roasting removes
some minor impurities like chlorine, fluorine, selenium and mercury into the gas phase.
The heat evolved in the roasting is recovered as steam by cooling coils in the bed and in the
waste heat boiler. Utilisation of the steam may vary somewhat depending on the need at the
plant site, but part of it is always used for heating in the process.
MR/GC/EIPPCB/NFM_Draft_3
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Figure 16.2:
Fluidised bed reactors
16.1.1.3
Multiple hearth or Herreshoff furnace
The multiple hearth or Herreshoff furnace consists of a tower that contains 8 to 16 annularshaped refractory brick hearths arranged vertically and enclosed in a cylindrical, refractory-lined
steel shell. Material is usually fed to the outside of the top hearth of the furnace and is moved to
the centre of this hearth by rabble arms where it falls to the centre of the second hearth. The
material flow on the second hearth is from the centre out where it falls to the outside of the third
hearth. This zigzag flow is repeated until the roasted material is discharged. The rabble arms are
attached to a central, vertical rotating tube which is air cooled. Gas or oil burners are provided at
various points in the furnace depending on the combustion characteristics of the material. The
cooling air that is used to cool the central tube normally is used as preheated combustion air for
the furnace.
The furnace is shown in Figure 16.3.
This furnace is used to roast sulphide ores, to produce metal directly in the case of mercury or
an oxide such as molybdenum oxide. Vaporised rhenium that is liberated in the roasting process
of molybdenite can be recovered from the roaster off-gas by using a wet scrubbing system
together with a subsequent rhenium recovery plant.
The multiple hearth furnace is also used to regenerate activated carbon. It is also reported to be
used to treat steelmaking dust, leaching residues and coating sludges to recover zinc as an
alternative to the Waelz process [ 227, IZA Report 2008 ]. It is reported to be used to produce
steel and other metals from the residues in conjunction with a reduction furnace [ 257, Paul
Wurth 2008 ].
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Figure 16.3:
The Herreshoff or multiple hearth furnace
16.1.1.4
Sintering furnaces
The raw materials for the sintering plant are concentrates, ore fines, flue-dusts and other
secondary material. In the sintering plant the material is first agglomerated to the required extent
and may be pelletised. The agglomerated material is fed to the sintering furnace in a layer or in
carriers, heated gases are passed up (up-draught) or down (down-draught) through the bed or
travelling grate sinter machine.
In the steel belt sintering machine, a multi-compartment oven is used through which the green
agglomerate is carried on a perforated steel conveyor belt. The agglomerate is dried in the
drying compartment by circulating gas from the last cooling compartment. In the preheating
compartment the temperature of the agglomerate is increased so that the material is calcined and
the carbon in the bed is ignited. Heating gas is taken from the second cooling compartment. In
the sintering compartment the sintering temperature is achieved. Heating gas, in addition to the
energy from the burning of carbon and oxidation of iron, is taken from the first cooling
compartment.
The front-end compartments are down-draught, cooling air to the three cooling compartments is
blown through the bed. In case additional energy is required to control the temperature profile in
the compartments, CO gas from the smelting process or natural gas is burnt in the preheating
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and sintering compartments. Part of the product sinter or pellets is used as the bottom layer on
the steel belt to protect it from too high temperatures. The exhaust gases are cleaned in cascade
scrubbers and/or fabric filters. Dusts are recycled back to the agglomeration. The furnace is
shown in Figure 16.4.
.
Figure 16.4:
Steel belt sintering furnace
Sintering furnaces are applied to the sintering of a variety of ores, dusts and sludges. The steel
belt sintering furnace is used for chromite pellets, manganese ore and niobium concentrate but
may have other applications.
16.1.2
Smelting furnaces
Smelting involves the use or production of a lot of heat and much of this heat is recovered from
the off-gases in waste heat boilers. Heat within a furnace, however, should be controlled to
allow effective smelting and, at the same time to protect the furnace. Cooling systems are used
to protect the furnaces and to extend the life of the refractories. Waterfalls can be used to cool
the outer shell or dedicated cooling elements can be used to cool the linings. Long campaigns
are enjoyed when well-designed furnace cooling is employed.
Cooling is also beneficial at the throat of a furnace to prevent the buildup of slag and other
materials that prevent effective sealing of off-gas collection hoods. Developments have
provided reliable and safe cooling systems in these sensitive areas.
16.1.2.1
Reverberatory, hearth or closed-well furnaces
The reverberatory furnace is also known as the hearth or closed-well furnace. It is used for
smelting concentrates and secondary material. Two general types exist, a simple bath furnace
for the smelting of calcine or concentrates and a reverberatory hearth furnace for melting or
refining. Furnaces can sometimes be tilted to pour or blow metal. Tuyres can be used for the
injection of treatment gases or for the addition of fine material.
The furnace is constructed in a number of configurations depending on the particular metal and
application. Variations include the provision of sloping hearths and side-wells for specific
melting purposes; tuyres and lances for the addition of gases.
Slag is usually removed by tapping.
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When sulphide ores are smelted in a reverberatory furnace, the sulphur dioxide concentrations
are normally low due to the high volume of combustion gases and the low rate of sulphur
elimination in the furnace. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.5.
Figure 16.5:
An example of a tilting reverberatory hearth furnace used for secondary materials
[ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ], [ 219, VDI (D) 1999 ]
These furnaces are used for smelting a variety of primary and secondary raw materials and for
fire-refining. The use of a reverberatory (closed-well) furnace for melting and recovering
aluminium is described below in Annex 16.1.4.7.
16.1.2.2
Blast furnaces (and the Imperial Smelting Furnace)
These are shaft furnaces and use a heated air blast from tuyres in the lower part of the furnace
to burn coke that is mixed with the furnace charge of metal oxide or secondary material and
fluxing agents. Materials are often briquetted before charging. The combustion of a portion of
the coke raises the furnace temperature and the remainder produces CO, which, along with
hydrogen produced by the water gas reaction, reduces the metal oxides to metal. The reaction
produces a gas that is rich in carbon monoxide. This can be collected, cleaned and burnt to
preheat the blast air or may be burnt off in a separate afterburner or in an oxygen-rich part of the
furnace. In some instances, raw materials such as zinc oxide dusts are fed via the tuyres.
The metal collects on a hearth or crucible at the bottom of the furnace and may be tapped
continuously or on a batch basis. When tapped batch-wise, the slag floats on top of the metal
and the metal is tapped from a separate tap-hole. Fume extraction and abatement is used during
the tapping process.
The furnace shell is normally water cooled either over its entire height or in the lower part. The
blast furnace can also be called a water jacket furnace. There are two variations of the blast
furnace depending on the feeding method and the operating temperature used to melt the metal.
Furnaces can be:
hot top where the charge material is fed via a bell or a conveyor via a transfer lock;
cold top where the furnace is charged from a hopper and the feedstock provides the top
seal itself.
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The furnaces are shown in Figure 16.6 and Figure 16.7.

.
Figure 16.6:
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Blast furnace for primary copper smelting
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Blast
furnace
Afterburning
chamber
Input
materials
Burner air
Water
Steam
Cooler
Hood off gas
Filter
Lime/coke
Oxide
Air
Input to blast
furnace
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Filter
Natural
gas
Hood off gas
Off gas
Wasteheat
boiler
Flue dust
(input to
blast furnace )
Ventilation
Stack
Slag metal
(70 80 % Cu)
Figure 16.7:
Blast furnace for secondary copper production
[ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ], [ 219, VDI (D) 1999 ]
Blast furnaces are used to smelt and recover a variety of metals including precious metals,
copper and lead from primary and secondary raw materials as well as high carbon ferromanganese. Developments allow the charging of fine materials into the furnace via the tuyres
and this can avoid briquetting and reduce the handling of dusty material.
One specific application of the blast furnace is the Imperial Smelting Furnace (ISF) that is used
for mixed lead and zinc concentrates. This furnace uses a molten lead splash condenser after the
blast furnace section to collect zinc vapour released in the gases while lead collects on the
hearth. The zinc and cadmium collected in the condenser is purified in a fractional distillation
system (New Jersey distillation column).
16.1.2.3
Electric reduction furnaces
The process in an electric reduction furnace is normally to reduce an element in an oxide state
into metallic form. The process normally involves adding the oxide and a reducing agent, often
carbon, to the furnace. Metallic components can also be added. To bring the reactants up to the
reaction temperature as well as to support the endothermic reactions, electrical energy is added.
This electrical energy is converted to heat energy in a concentrated reaction zone near the
electrode in the furnace. The furnaces are shown in Figure 16.8, Figure 16.9 and Figure 16.10.
Some furnaces will use a slag layer to develop the necessary energy. Others are based on
resistance in the burden itself or in a coke bed. Some processes seem to clearly keep a plasma
arc from the electrode tip to the coke bed or crater. Such electric reduction furnaces are
sometimes called submerged arc furnaces. The reason is that the submerged arc is an important
part of the conversion from electrical energy to heat energy in the reaction zone of the process.
The electrical supply is normally based on a three-phase electrical power supply. The electrical
power supply will be transformed from high voltage to low voltage. A DC (direct current)
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electrical supply can also be used and, in this case, the arc strikes between the electrodes and the
carbon furnace lining or the electrodes and the raw materials in the lower part of the furnace.
The electric reduction furnace can be divided into the following main components shown
below:
equipment for adding raw materials such as ores, concentrates and reducing agents or a
mix of raw material to the furnace;
equipment to supply electrical energy to the furnace consisting of an electrical grid,
transformers, bus bars and electrodes;
the furnace body or shaft consisting of a shell, the lining and the furnace hood that
protects the equipment from the heat;
equipment for tapping the metal and slag from the furnace. Often the metal should be
sized afterwards in a crushing process;
the off-gas system (off-gas ducts connected to cleaning facilities such as cyclones,
scrubbers or filters) here with an energy recovery unit as well as the filter for the gascleaning.
Figure 16.8:
Electric reduction furnace process and auxiliary equipment
The raw material may be charged to the furnace in different ways. For smaller furnaces, the raw
material can be charged by using a charging car. The charging car may sometimes also be used
for the necessary stoking in order to break down crust formation in the upper part of the furnace
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charge. Large electric arc furnaces are normally charged by charging tubes where the charge
flows from the tubes to the furnace charge level.
The electrical supply system will transform the electrical energy that normally is at high voltage
down to low voltage/high current level that is required for the process. The furnace transformers
are normally situated symmetrically around the furnace in order to obtain electrical symmetry
and short electrical connection lines to avoid unnecessary losses. On smaller, older furnaces a
single three-phase transformer is sometimes used. The operation of single-phase transformers
has some advantages on the furnace control. The electrodes are connected to the electrical
supply system through the bus bar. The electrodes can be prebaked or of the Sderberg type.
They are made from graphite or carbon material and are consumed in the process and they have
to be replaced continuously.
Figure 16.9:
Sderberg electrode system in an electric arc furnace
The Sderberg system that is shown in Figure 16.9 is based on an outer steel electrode casing
which acts as a mould for the carbon paste. The carbon paste is baked to a solid electrode inside
the steel casing when the electrode is heated, passing the upper contact clamp area. The solid
carbon electrode will be consumed in the furnace partly by thermal reaction and partly by
oxidation. Significant concentrations of carbon monoxide can be produced. Some installations
use hollow electrodes which allow material to be fed into the furnace through the electrode.
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The raw material provides part of the resistance in the electrical circuit and promotes the
formation of the electric arc, which produces the high temperatures needed. The depth of
insertion of the electrodes regulates the resistance. Direct current arc furnaces exist and use
anode pins or conducting hearths. The electric arc furnaces can be operated batch-wise or
continuously.
The furnaces can be open, semi-closed or totally closed using feed chutes and sealing valves for
charging. In the latter case, all of the furnace gases are extracted efficiently, cleaned and can be
used as a source of fuel using the high concentrations of CO or to preheat feed materials using
the heat content [ 112, Outokumpu Oy (SF) 1998 ]. The hoods and occasionally the furnace
body can be water-cooled to control the process and prevent damage.
Raw Materials
Electrical Energy
Ferro-Alloy
Off-gas (dust and fume)
Figure 16.10:
Rotary electric reduction furnace
Molten or solid raw materials are fed in a number of ways using launders, feed pipes or through
a hollow electrode. Closed or semi-closed conditions are easy to maintain. In smelting
processes, the roasted ore concentrates are transferred on to the liquid melt either through the
top of the furnace or sideways by individual chargers and the electrodes are immersed in the
molten slag layer.
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These furnaces are used for smelting a range of ferro-alloys and can be used to preheat or prereduce material to exploit the CO content. They are also used for melting and refining refractory
metals and high temperature alloys and, in these cases, they are operated under vacuum.
16.1.2.4
Electric (resistance) furnaces
This type of furnace uses a similar arrangement to the electric reduction furnace. Depending on
the size of the furnace, three to six Sderberg or prebaked electrodes are immersed into the
liquid layer. The melting temperature is maintained by means of electric resistance heating. The
furnace is usually operated continuously. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.11.
Molten or solid raw materials are fed in a number of ways using launders, feed pipes or through
a hollow electrode. Sealed or semi-sealed conditions are easy to maintain. In smelting processes
the roasted ore concentrates are transferred on to the liquid melt either through the top of the
furnace or sideways by individual chargers and the electrodes are immersed in the molten slag
layer.
Off gas
Fettling
pipes
Converter slag
launder
Dry/calcine
feed
Electric
power
Electrodes
Matte
Matte
Slag
Figure 16.11:
Feed
Slag
Electric furnace for concentrate or calcine smelting
Electric furnaces can be operated in a number of ways using coke and slagging agents
depending on the application. The carbon electrodes are consumed as oxides and are reduced
but the gas volumes produced during operation are kept to a minimum as there are no gases
produced by the combustion of a fuel. These furnaces are usually sealed and the gases are easily
collected and treated to remove and, if possible to reuse dust, CO and sulphur dioxide.
These furnaces are used in the production of a number of metals from primary and secondary
raw materials including precious metals, lead and copper and can be used for slag cleaning [
121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ]. Some slags from primary smelting, e.g. copper, are usually cleaned
in circular furnaces. They are also used for the recovery of precious metals, particularly silver.
In principle, electric furnaces process the same types of secondary raw materials. Reducing
agents used in electric furnaces likewise include coke but also other materials. The heat required
for smelting is generated exclusively by electrical energy which is introduced by electrodes
immersed in the molten slag which acts as electrical resistance. The burden is prepared with a
composition to suit the specific smelting programme and is fed to the furnace via an enclosed
charging system. The molten products are drawn off into buckets or ladles via different tapholes. Reduction smelting results in the volatilisation of mainly zinc, tin and lead which are
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discharged as oxides with the off-gas and collected in the dust collection system which consists
of a dust pot, process gas cooler and a filter.
16.1.2.5
Rotary furnace
The rotary furnace is described in Annex 16.1.1.1.

16.1.2.6
Refractory-lined pits and crucibles
Refractory lined pits and crucibles are simple pits formed in Al2O3 or other refractory material
and refractory-lined steel cylinders that are arranged to form crucibles. They are commonly used
for metallothermic reactions. Refractory lined pits and crucibles are often used in the production
of special ferro-alloys such as ferro-vanadium and ferro-molybdenum as well as for refractory
metals. Fume collection can be a problem with this type of furnace and well designed and
operated gas extraction is needed.
16.1.2.7
Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnaces and the KRS furnace
The Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnaces and the KRS furnace are cylindrical bath furnaces that use a
steel lance for the injection of natural gas, oil or coal, and oxygen or air into the melt. The lance
is submerged into the molten bath and relies on the formation of a coating of slag to prevent
rapid deterioration. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.12.
Other raw materials are fed into the furnace by a sealed conveyor where they react at a high rate
and are melted. The submerged combustion lance stirs the bath and produces a slag along with
the desired metal or matte. The separation of the molten phases requires a separate settling
furnace from where the phases are tapped separately. The furnace can be used on a batch basis
when conditions in the furnace, such as the gas blown through the lance, are changed at the end
of a batch. Examples of a batch operation are:
the smelting of copper/lead secondary material to a copper lead matte in a first stage
followed by conversion of the matte to blister copper by blowing with oxygen;
the treatment of zinc leach residues.
Continuous operation is possible using two furnaces in series, e.g. as suggested for the ISA lead
production process.
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Lance (in raised position)
Process air
Lance lifting gear
Oxygen
Natural gas
Off gas
(to gas cleaning system)
Input charge
(pelletised)
Process gas
(to gas cleaning system)
Burner
(natural gas)
Lance
(in operation position)
Off-gas
(to gas cleaning)
Hood
Hood
Off-gas
(to gas cleaning)
Crude lead (to

decopperisation)
Slag
Figure 16.12:
The Ausmelt (Sirosmelt)/ISA Smelt process
[ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ]
The furnace uses a robust hood and an extraction system to collect and treat fumes from the
furnace system and tapping operations. When sulphide concentrates are smelted, the gases are
passed to a sulphur removal system.
There are a number of applications for this type of furnace including the production of copper
matte from concentrates and converting, production of copper from secondary raw materials
(KRS), the production of lead from primary and secondary materials, the treatment of spent pot
lining and the fuming of zinc [ 37, Ausmelt Ltd. 1995 ].
The Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnace is used as a continuous direct smelting furnace as well as for
batch and stepwise operations. When smelting copper concentrate to matte, the process uses
moist feed that is fed continuously with fluxes into the furnace.
Unlike the blast and electric furnace technologies, the KRS currently uses an intermittent twostage process consisting of a smelting and a conversion step. There are several furnaces
operating this way. In the KRS process for example, the first step produces a metallic phase
(black copper) and a slag phase which is drawn off via the slag tap-hole and granulated with
water. The iron silicate sand produced is marketed as a building material. The black copper
remains in the furnace. In a second, conversion step, the black copper is converted to a metal
and a converter slag under oxidising conditions by adding alloy scrap. The converter slag is
transferred via a launder to the tin-lead alloy furnace (rotary furnace) for further processing. The
KRS converter metal flows to a rotating-and-tilting furnace designed for temperature-holding
service from where it is poured into ladles and transferred to the anode furnace for
pyrometallurgical refining. Final refining is accomplished in the copper electrolysis unit. The
quality of the refined copper (cathode copper) measures up to that of copper won from primary
raw materials [ 234, UBA Copper, lead, zinc and aluminium 2007 ].
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16.1.2.8
Top blown rotary converter (TBRC) and tilting rotating oxy-fuel

furnace (TROF)
The TBRC and TROF are rotating and tilting furnaces that uses lances for heating and blowing
purposes. The furnaces are small and are housed in an enclosure to contain secondary emissions,
which are treated. Rotation of the furnace promotes good mixing of the charge and complete
reaction of the components but can lead to abrasion of the refractory lining. The furnace is
Flue
Water cooled
charging chute
Track ring
Water cooled
oxygen/natural gas lance
Hood
Thrust roller
Rotate drive motor
Figure 16.13:
TBRC and TROF
Oxygen and fuel are added via the lances, which blow onto the surface of the melt. The use of
oxygen results in the production of low off-gas volumes and high sulphur dioxide when
sulphides are smelted. The process is normally carried on a batch basis and it is common to use
a number of these furnaces for smelting, converting and slag cleaning. It is used to produce
primary and secondary copper and lead, ferro-nickel and for the recovery of precious metals.
Other commercial designs of tilting rotary furnaces are also used for smelting and examples are
the mini-smelter and the tilting rotating oxy-fuel furnace (TROF).
16.1.2.9
The Noranda, El Teniente, Baiyin and Vanyukov processes
The Noranda reactor uses a cylindrical refractory-lined furnace for smelting. Pelletised
concentrate and additives are charged on to the bath of molten slag at the top end of the furnace.
Burners fired by natural gas or oil situated at both ends produce the heat necessary for
processing. Oxygen-enriched air is blown into the molten bath through tuyres, causing sulphur
and iron to oxidise. The furnaces are shown in Figure 16.14 and Figure 16.15.
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Gas
hood
Rotational
gear
Steel shell
Chrome-magnesite
5m
Feed end
burner
Mouth
Flux, pelletised concentrates and coal fines
Slag end
burner
Slag
Matte
Tuyeres (50 to 60 x 5cm)
Copper Copper
tapholes
Slag
taphole
21 m
Figure 16.14:
The Noranda reactor
During continuous smelting in the furnace, the melt segregates into two liquid phases: slag and
matte. Due to their various densities, they settle to form two layers. Matte is tapped periodically
from the bottom of the furnace and the slag flows out continuously opposite the charging end.
The furnace is sealed and extracted and the launders are provided with extraction.
This process is used to smelt copper concentrates and can produce blister copper when using
concentrates with low impurity levels or high-grade matte. The normal operating practice is to
produce a copper-rich matte to undergo further conversion.
The El Teniente, Baiyin and Vanyukov processes are similar to the Noranda process. In the El
Teniente process, wet concentrates are added to the furnace using a Gar gun and dry
concentrates are added via the tuyres. Initially matte is seeded into the furnace to help the
process and to produce white metal. The Baiyin process uses a rectangular furnace that is
divided into smelting and settling zones. In the Vanyukov process, the oxygen-enriched air is
blown into the slag layer rather than the matte layer.
Air and
oxygen
Concentrate
And flux
Matte
White
metal
Slag
Air and oxygen
Figure 16.15:
El Teniente reactor
16.1.2.10
Mitsubishi process
The Mitsubishi process employs three interconnected furnaces; a bath smelting furnace, an
electric slag cleaning furnace and a converting furnace. Gravity flow is used between the
furnaces and avoids the transfer by ladle. All of the furnaces are sealed and extracted, heat from
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the process gases is recovered and treated to remove dust and sulphur dioxide. The furnace is
The dried concentrates, air, oxygen and additives are charged into the bath furnace by means of
lances and subsequently melted to form matte (60 to 65 % copper content) and slag. This
mixture flows continuously through a channel into the electric hearth furnace that serves as a
settling furnace to separate the slag. Matte is continuously discharged from the settling furnace
through a siphon into the converting furnace.
Figure 16.16:
The Mitsubishi process
In the converter air, oxygen and additives are blown onto the liquid bath via water-cooled lances
to produce blister copper. The converter slags are recycled to the smelting furnace, which can
also be fed with anode scrap. It is possible that the converter stage could be used with other
smelting furnaces. This process produces blister copper continuously.
16.1.2.11
QSL furnace
The QSL furnace is a horizontal cylinder divided into an oxidation zone and a reduction zone.
The furnace is lined with chrome-magnesite bricks to cope with a temperature of 1250 C.
Tuyres at the furnace bottom supply oxygen to the oxidation zone and a mixture of air and coal
dust to the slag reduction zone. Primary and secondary raw materials are used and can be moist
and sized from large lumps to fine material. They are fed into the top of the furnace mixed with
coal to provide heat and reducing conditions and fluxes to yield a slag with a low melting point
which can later be used as a construction material subject to quality control. The furnace is
The oxidation zone produces lead bullion, sulphur dioxide and a lead-rich slag. This flows into
the reduction zone so that a further quantity of lead bullion is produced, and this flows in the
reverse direction to the lead tap-hole. Slag is tapped from the reduction end and then granulated.
Lead bullion is tapped from the oxidation end and then refined. Hoods and complete enclosures
extract gases from the outlets and launders. The exhaust gases contain 10 to 13 % SO2 and are
used for heat recovery and then dedusted in an ESP before passing to a sulphuric acid plant.
Other process gases are cleaned in fabric filters.
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Figure 16.17:
QSL process
[ 99, Hhre, S. 1998 ]
The QSL process was designed to produce lead from concentrates and some secondary
materials in a single bath furnace and to maximise energy recovery.
16.1.2.12
Cyclone smelting furnaces
Cyclone smelting furnaces include the flame cyclone reactor (FCR) and the Contop reactor.
With these high-intensity flash-smelting processes, the copper concentrates and flux are smelted
with oxygen in cyclone-type combustion chambers. In the Contop process, the cyclone is
disposed vertically and the reacted mixture falls into a settling chamber below the cyclone. In
the FCR process, the combustion takes place in a vertical reaction shaft and the separation of the
matte and slag occurs in a further horizontal reactor. Slag and white metal or copper-rich matte
are separated in the forehearth and tapped off. The white metal or matte is processed in a
standard converter. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.18.
Figure 16.18:
Contop process
These processes are mainly used to smelt copper concentrates.
16.1.2.13
Outotec flash furnace
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The Outotec flash furnace is used for smelting of dried concentrates by utilising the energy
content of the concentrates for the production of the heat needed for the smelting of concentrate
and flux. The concentrate feed mixture is fed continuously with oxygen-enriched air through a
concentrate burner into the vertical reaction shaft of a sealed furnace where the reactions
between oxygen and concentrate takes place rapidly in suspension. The heat of reaction melts
the particles. The fused particles produce matte and slag. Sulphur dioxide is formed at the same
time. In older installations, process air preheating to about 200 to 800 C was used to achieve
autogenous operation, but the majority of installations achieve autogenous operation by using
oxygen enrichment to about 30 to 90 % oxygen in process air. The degree of oxygen enrichment
is determined by the concentrate quality and the heat balance requirements. The continuous offgas flow leaves the furnace through the uptake shaft for heat recovery and dust removal. It has a
high, constant sulphur dioxide concentration and sulphur is recovered from the gas mainly by
conversion to sulphuric acid after dust is removed. In some installations, oxygen is added to the
uptake shaft for afterburning dusts and sulphatising air is fed into the boiler. It is possible to
recycle weak acid into the uptake shaft under certain conditions, to decompose it so that the SO2
generated can be recovered in the acid plant.
The molten slag and matte particles are settled out of the gas in a horizontal settler part of the
furnace forming a molten bath where the phases separate without an external settler. The matte
is tapped out of the furnace to ladles or led via a launder to a granulation stage depending on the
method of conversion used. The slag is tapped continuously or semi-continuously out of the
furnace and can be further processed in a slag furnace or in a slag flotation circuit for copper
recovery. In some installations the low copper content in slag allows the slag produced in the
primary smelter to be discarded or used directly.
The Outotec flash furnace is shown in Figure 16.19.
Figure 16.19:
The Outotec flash furnace
The flash furnace is established for the production of copper and nickel matte. The furnace
produces a high-grade matte and so the main part of the sulphur in the concentrate is released in
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Annexes
the smelter gases and enables the conversion process (e.g. the discontinuous Peirce-Smith
converter) to eliminate the remaining sulphur more easily.
This process is also used to produce blister copper directly from suitable concentrates which are
low in iron avoiding the need for a conventional converter that would produce additional
sulphur dioxide. In this direct to blister process, the furnace slag contains a high copper
concentration and so slag cleaning to remove this copper is an essential part of the process.
The furnace has been used on a demonstration scale for the production of lead bullion, for pyrite
smelting and for fuming jarosite waste.
The same type of furnace is also used in the flash converting process for the conversion of
ground, granulated matte into blister copper. The process has similar features to the flash
smelting process, i.e. autogenous operation with oxygen-enriched air and a continuous flow of
off-gas with a high sulphur dioxide content.
16.1.2.14
INCO furnace
The INCO is a flash furnace similar to the Outotec flash furnace but uses pure oxygen to operate
autogenously. Copper ore concentrate blended with slagging agents are blown horizontally into
the furnace from both ends and the off-gases are collected at the centre of the furnace.
The INCO furnace is shown in Figure 16.20.
Figure 16.20:
The INCO Furnace
The concentrates are roasted and melted in suspension in the furnace and fall into the settler in
the same manner as the Outotec flash furnace. The heat produced by roasting is sufficient for an
autothermal smelting process. The slag, which has a medium copper content, flows out
continuously at one end of the furnace and the matte is tapped periodically at the centre of one
sidewall. The waste gas contains up to 75 % SO2.
16.1.2.15
Kivcet (KSS) furnace
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Annexes
The Kivcet is a flash furnace similar to the Outotec flash furnace. Dry and blended charge
components and oxygen are fed continuously through burners at the top into an oxidation shaft.
At the same time, coke breeze is added. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.21.
The charge is ignited as it enters the reaction shaft, temperatures of up to 1400 C are reached
and complete desulphurisation takes place immediately. The coke breeze is only heated as it
falls down the shaft. The coke floats on the slag bath and reduces PbO. Partly reduced slag and
bullion flow under a submerged partition wall into the reduction section of the furnace, which is
electrically heated and where additional coke or coal is added for final reduction.
Electrodes
Off-gas
Gas
removal
shaft
Watercooled
refractory
lining
Concentrate
burner
Smelting
shaft
Slag level
Partition walls
Belt of
watercooled
elements
Lead level
Figure 16.21:
Lead
The Kivcet Furnace
Lead bullion is sent for refining, the slag may be sent to a Waelz kiln, and the flue-dust from the
oxidation is directly sent back to the furnace. The process is also used for copper production.
The flue-dust from the reduction stage is treated in an ISF.
16.1.3
16.1.3.1
Converters
The Peirce-Smith Converter
Peirce Smith Converters (PSC) are run batch-wise and use tuyres to blow air or oxygen into the
matte to react the matte in two-stages to produce blister copper or high-grade nickel matte and
slag. They are also used for the production of ferro-nickel and some metal oxides. Automatic
slag quality control can also be used [ 329, Magnus and Olsson 2007 ]. This is by far the most
common converting vessel and is used to produce copper and high-grade nickel matte and for
refining ferro-nickel. The furnace is shown in Figure 16.22.
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Figure 16.22:
The Peirce-Smith converter
The converter can also be used for three different types of converter duties and as an anode
furnace:
a) Matte converter
Large volumes of hot gases are produced during the blowing periods and are collected by means
of hoods over the converter opening. The space between the converter housing and the hood
allows the access of bypass air, which causes dilution of the SO2-rich effluent gases. The SO2
concentration varies depending on the process cycle. During initial blowing, SO2 concentrations
can be considerably higher than 10 %, however, during the subsequent blowing period, and
when the converter is turned away from the hood, SO2 concentrations are much lower and often
nil. The varying SO2 concentration does not provide a satisfactory feed to the acid plant, which
requires a relatively steady flow. This is overcome in multi-converter plants by converter
scheduling to attain a relatively steady flow. The gases can also be mixed with the much
stronger smelter gases. The use of oxygen for enriching the blast air will also increase the SO2
content; however, the enrichment is limited due to the rapid increasing refractory wear. Watercooled hoods are now being used in some plants.
The converter is charged via ladles with liquid matte and the slags produced during the
conversion of the matte and the blister copper produced are subsequently poured into ladles
from the converter. During these tapping processes, diffuse emissions are released. The use of
additional fume extraction facilities (e.g. secondary hoods and air curtains) and the control of
converter positioning to prevent blowing during the converter roll out, can reduce these
emissions. Through-hood and tuyere charging systems are also used so that it is not always
necessary to tilt the converter away from the hood during the charging of metal scrap and
fluxes.
b) Scrap converter
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Annexes
In secondary copper melting (Peirce-Smith) converters are distinguished into scrap converters
and matte converters - both operated batch-wise. Scrap converters use coke and iron-rich
materials as fuel and reducing agents respectively. In matte converters, the matte-borne sulphur
is used as the energy source. Input materials for scrap converters include alloy scrap,
suitable Cu-Fe scrap as well as (mostly liquid) black copper. The matte converter processes
liquid copper-lead matte and copper-rich return slags in some cases, together with black
copper - with the addition of solid copper scrap. Matte converter off-gas contains high SO2
concentrations and is sent to a contact process unit for sulphuric acid production. This is why
matte converters for secondary copper recovery are predominantly installed in primary copper
production sites as these are equipped with sulphuric acid production units.
c) Alloy converter
The direct to blister flash furnace process produces a slag that is treated in an electric furnace to
produce a lead/iron/copper alloy. This alloy is converted using a batch process in which the
oxidised iron and lead pass into the slag phase and blister copper is produced.
d) Anode furnace
The PSC is also used as an anode furnace where the blister or black copper produced by the
converter are refined. These furnaces use tuyres for further air blowing followed by the
addition of a reducing agent (usually natural gas or propane) to remove the final traces of
sulphur and then convert copper oxide to copper.
16.1.3.2
Hoboken converter
The Hoboken converter operates on the same blowing principle as the Peirce-Smith Converter
but the large escape of gas that usually occurs when the converter is tilted for charging and
tapping the slag and crude copper is avoided.
The effluent gas is sucked off through the flue at the end of the converter. The siphon minimises
gas escape during all phases of operation. The converter is charged through a small opening at
the top of the casing and charging is therefore possible during blowing without tilting the
converter because of the shorter process duration. Dilution of the effluent gases due to
infiltrated air is small, so that the steady average concentration of SO2 is higher than for the
Peirce-Smith converter. However, the SO2 concentration will still vary throughout the cycle.
The end result is that there is a smaller loss of SO2 from the converter. The smaller opening
used for charging can create problems due to slag build-up.
The Hoboken converter is shown in Figure 16.23.
Goose neck
Special, tight join
Mouth
Air inlet
to tuyeres
Tuyeres
Gas flow
Flue
Counterweight
12 m
Figure 16.23:
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The Hoboken converter
March 2014
Annexes
16.1.3.3
Kennecott/Outotec flash converter
The Kennecott/Outotec flash converter is also used and has been developed further since the
original 2001 NFM BREF document was written. and a second One installation is being
commissioned in operation in the USA and two in China (each about 400 000 tpa Cu). A fourth
installation is under construction in China. In this case, ground matte produced by a flash
smelting furnace is used as the feed material. The Mitsubishi converting stage and the flash
converter are the only continuous converters in metallurgy.
16.1.3.4
Other converters
The Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnace, the TBRC, the converter stage of the Mitsubishi process and
the Noranda reactor are also used as converters. These furnaces use molten matte as the feed
material and some may be operated continuously. The OBM converter is used for ferro-nickel.
The AOD converter is used for ferro-manganese production using oxygen for decarburisation
and argon for degassing in the same manner as in the steel industry [ 243, French comments on
MnFe alloys 2008 ].
16.1.4
Melting and refining furnaces
16.1.4.1
Induction furnaces
Induction furnaces are simple crucibles or channels that are heated by an external electrical coil,
channel induction furnaces are mainly used for melting items with large dimensions. In one
case, the channel furnace is used to melt aluminium cans.
The induction furnace is shown in Figure 16.24.
Figure 16.24:
Induction furnaces
A current is induced in the metal that has been charged into the furnace and heat is generated.
The furnaces are equipped with fume extraction hoods and dust abatement that can be used
during drossing and pouring operations. Access to an induction furnace for charging and tapping
means that a movable hooding system is often used. The hoods are robust so that they can
withstand some mechanical impact. Alternatively, efficient fixed or lip extraction is used.
The efficiency of this furnace can be low for some materials but can be increased particularly if
the feed material is small. Large items can be cut to improve efficiency and also to allow the
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Annexes
fume collection hoods to be deployed properly. Some continuous processes also retain a heel of
molten metal in the bottom of the furnace between charges if the operation allows it.
These furnaces are used for small melting capacities of up to 30 tonnes commonly for copper,
brass, zinc and aluminium. They may also be operated under vacuum, for example when
melting super alloys, high alloyed steel, pure metals and, in some cases, for metal distillation.
The temperature of the furnace can be automatically controlled to minimise the production of
fumes when melting volatile or oxidisable metals such as zinc or alloys that contain zinc.
These furnaces are also used to hold molten metal for alloying and casting. The current induced
in these furnaces causes the metal to be stirred electromagnetically, which promotes mixing of
the charge and any alloying materials that are added.
16.1.4.2
Indirectly heated kettles
Indirectly heated kettles are simple crucibles that are heated externally by the combustion gases
from gas or oil combustion, by electricity or for lower temperatures by thermal fluid. Contact
with a direct flame is avoided to prevent local hot spots at the base of the crucible and good
temperature control can be maintained in the melt so that oxidation and vaporization of the
metal is prevented.
These kettles are used mainly for melting impure lead and lead alloys and zinc and its alloys
which do not contain plastic or other organic materials.
16.1.4.3
Shaft furnaces for melting metal
Shaft furnaces are simple vertical furnaces with a collecting hearth (inside or outside the
furnace), a burner system at the lower end and a material charging system at the top. Shaft
furnaces can be used for both smelting metals, and to produce metals from reduction of other
metallic compounds. If used for metal smelting, a burner system is present at the lower end. The
burners are usually gas-fired and are designed to produce either an oxidising or reducing
atmosphere. This allows the metal to be melted with or without oxidation. Metal is fed into the
top of the furnace and is melted as it passes down the shaft. Independent control of the fuel to
air ratio is usually provided for each burner. Continuous CO or hydrogen monitoring is also
provided for each row of burners and monitors the combustion gases from each burner in turn.
Combustion gases are usually extracted and cleaned. An afterburner is used sometimes to
decompose any carbon monoxide, oil, VOCs or PCDD/F that are released. The addition of
oxygen above the melting zone has been used to provide afterburning in the upper levels of
shaft or blast furnaces. The furnace is used to melt pure metal but occasionally metal that is
contaminated with organic material is used.
If oily metal is fed into the furnace it passes through the temperature gradient that exists
between the charging area and the burners. The low temperature can produce a mist of partially
burnt organic material. The shaft furnace is also used to preheat the charge material before
smelting.
If used for the production of metals from the reduction of metallic compounds, the input
material will often include materials such as scrap lead-acid batteries. These raw materials are
then mixed with coke, fluxes, other metallic scraps and intermediates before being fed to the top
of the furnace. At the bottom of the furnace, oxygen-enriched air is blown inside to ignite coke,
to smelt and reduce the metals in the input material. Off-gases from the furnace are extracted
and treated in an afterburner to decompose any carbon monoxide, oil, VOCs or PCDD/F left.
The shaft furnace is energy efficient since it preheats the charge material before reaching the hot
smelting/reduction zone.
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Annexes
16.1.4.4
Contimelt process
The Contimelt process comprises two interconnected furnaces, a hearth shaft furnace and a
drum (or poling) furnace. The first is a vertical rectangular furnace with a horizontal collecting
chamber which is fed with blister or black copper and other raw materials. Oxy-gas burners
supply heat and the feed is melted to produce a fire-refined copper and a small amount of slag
that is separated.
The Contimelt process is shown in Figure 16.25.
Filter
Off-gas
Cooler
Poling
furnace
Anode furnace
Copper
Charging
Figure 16.25:
Contimelt Process
[ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ]
Molten copper flows via a siphon and a launder to a horizontal cylindrical furnace where it is
de-oxidised using natural gas. Refined copper is then cast as anodes. Gases from the second
furnace are passed to an afterburner. They are then combined with gases extracted from the first
furnace and pass to a waste heat boiler, burner air preheater, cooling stage and finally a fabric
filter.
The furnace operating conditions can be controlled to minimise oxidation of the metal. The
arrangement allows heat recovery by steam generation or charge preheating.
This is a continuous two-stage process to melt and treat black and blister copper, high grade
copper scrap and anode scrap to produce copper anodes. A similar development in the
aluminium industry is the Meltower process [ 113, ALFED 1998 ]. This process uses a vertical
melting tower and incorporates charge preheating using the hot exhaust gases.
16.1.4.5
Electron beam furnaces
The very high melting temperatures of refractory metals like tungsten, tantalum or niobium do
not allow melting in a normal melting furnace. For high melting point metals, the electron beam
furnace has been developed using accelerated electrons as an energy source to impart their
energy into the furnace charge. The electron beam melting furnace is used to produce highpurity inclusion-free metals. The ability to melt high-purity metals is due to the perfectly clean
high temperature heat source (electrons) and the water-cooled copper hearth. The melted metal
freezes against the copper so that the melt is only in contact with its own solid. Electron beam
melting and refining is a well-established process for the production of ultra-clean refractory
metals.
March 2014
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Annexes
16.1.4.6
Rotary furnace
The rotary furnace is a refractory-lined rotating cylinder fitted with burner at one end. A
charging door is provided at one end and the burner can sometimes be housed in this. Oxy-fuel
firing can be used. The furnaces can be either long or short and several variants exist:
short rotary furnace for the smelting of secondary lead, precious metals, etc.;
long rotary furnace for the melting and recovery of aluminium scrap, etc.;
Thomas furnace for the melting and refining copper scrap, etc.;
rotary furnace with submerged tuyres for the refining of blister or black copper, slag
cleaning, etc.;
tilting rotary furnace: for the melting and recovery of aluminium scrap, lead, dross, etc.;
rotary/rocking furnace also called the Doerschel furnace used for the smelting of
secondary lead.
Furnace rotation can be varied to give a complete reaction of the charged material and high
efficiency. Raw materials are usually charged via an end door; this is usually enclosed and
extracted to prevent fume emissions. The furnaces use oil or gas fuel and oxy-burners are
commonly used. Heat from the burner is transferred to the refractory wall and the charge is
heated by the refractory during rotation.
Slags and metal produced during the process can be tapped from a tap-hole at the door end or at
the mid-point of the furnace. The tapping hole is orientated by partial rotation of the furnace to
maintain the separation of the metal and slag. Tapping from the door end allows fumes to be
collected from a single enclosure and extraction system. Tilting rotary furnaces are also used,
they show improved recovery rates for some feedstocks and are less reliant on fluxes. A variety
of metals can be smelted or melted in these furnaces.
16.1.4.7
Reverberatory (closed-well) furnaces
The reverberatory furnaces are used for batch melting, refining and holding a variety of metals,
particularly aluminium. They are refractory-lined, rectangular or circular bath furnaces fired by
wall or roof mounted burners. They are often operated in a variety of configurations sometimes
with a sloping hearth where mixed metal objects can be placed and aluminium is separated from
other metal components such as iron to prevent the contamination of the batch of aluminium.
They can also vary in the number of wells or chambers that are used [ 234, UBA Copper, lead,
zinc and aluminium 2007 ].
Varieties of fuels are used and oxy-fuel burners can be used to increase the melting rate.
Extraction and treatment of the combustion gases is used and the furnaces are partially sealed.
Hoods and covered launders provide extraction during tapping and charging. Slag or dross can
be removed by raking or by tapping.
Many designs have large access doors that allow large objects to be charged. This introduces the
problem of sealing and extraction during charging. Water cooling of the doors can reduce this
problem by reducing warping of the doors. Sealed charging carriages are used and charging
pipes can be used for concentrates. In a similar manner, door sealing can be affected by material
being incorrectly charged to the furnace. In some cases, spilt metal or slag can solidify in the
opening or in other cases, wire or cable can prevent the doors from closing properly.
The melting efficiency of a reverberatory furnace is not usually high because of poor heat
transfer from the burner. Efficiency has been improved in practice by using oxygen enrichment
or by using combinations of gas and solid fuel to extend the flame length. The use of
regenerative burners reduces energy consumption significantly. Stirring of the contents using
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March 2014
Annexes
electromagnetic systems or pumps can also improve efficiency. The pumped systems can be
operated with a side-well to allow the melting of fine metal particles with minimum oxidation.
The use of a reverberatory (bath) furnace for smelting is described in Annex 16.1.2.1.
16.1.5
Summary of furnaces in common use
The furnaces used in these industries are summarised in Table 16.2, Table 16.3 and Table 16.4
.
Table 16.2:
Drying, roasting, sintering and calcining furnaces
Furnace
Steam coil dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Flash dryer
Metals used
Material used
Comment
Copper and some others
Concentrates
Most metals for drying;

fuming ZnO;
calcining alumina, nickel and
ferro-alloys;
burning film in precious
metals;
de-oiling copper and
aluminium scrap;
mercury removal from gascleaning precipitates.
Ores, concentrates
and various scrap
and residues
Shaft kiln
Ferro-alloys (FeCr)
Lumpy furnace
charge
Drying, devolatilising
and preheating the
furnace charge
Fluidised bed
reactor
Copper, nickel, cobalt,

precious metals, zinc and
Al2O3
Concentrates and
Al(OH)3
Calcining and roasting
Up-draught
sintering machine
Zinc and lead
Down-draught
sintering machine
Zinc and lead
Rotary kiln
Steel belt
sintering machine
Travelling grate
sintering machine
Herreshoff
Drying, calcining and

fuming applications
Used as an incinerator
Ferro-alloys, manganese,
chromium and niobium
Concentrates
and secondary raw
materials
Concentrates
and secondary raw
materials
Ore Concentrate and
fines
Ferro-alloys
Manganese fines
Sintering
Mercury and refractory

metals, molybdenum
(rhenium recovery)
Ores and
concentrates
Roasting, calcining
March 2014
Sintering
Sintering
Other applications
possible
1315
Annexes
Table 16.3:
Smelting and converting furnaces
Furnace
Enclosed refractorylined crucibles
Open pit
Pusher furnace
Batch furnace
Vacuum furnace
Baiyin
Electric arc furnace
Metals used
Refractory metals and
special ferro-alloys
Refractory metals and
special ferro-alloys
Refractory metals
Refractory metals
Refractory metals
Copper
Ferro-alloys
Contop/cyclone
Submerged electric
arc furnace
Copper
Precious metals, copper
and ferro-alloys
Rotary
Aluminium, lead and

precious metals
Aluminium
Tilting rotary
furnace
Lead
Rotary/rocking
furnace
Reverberatory and
hearth/well furnaces
Vanyukov
Ausmelt/ISA
Smelt//KRS
Lead
QSL
Lead
Kivcet
Lead and
Copper
Copper
Copper
Copper, lead, tin and
precious metals
Noranda
El Teniente
TBRC (KALDO)
TROF
Mini smelter
Blast furnace and
ISF
INCO flash furnace
Outotec flash
furnace
Mitsubishi process
Peirce Smith
Hoboken
Outotec flash
converter
Noranda converter
Mitsubishi converter
1316
Aluminium, copper,
lead and others
Copper
Copper and lead
Copper/lead/tin
Lead, lead/zinc, copper,
precious metals,
HC FeMn
Copper and nickel
Copper and nickel
Copper
Copper (converter),
ferro-alloys, metal oxide
production
Copper (converter)
Copper (converter)
Copper (converter)
Copper (converter)
Material used
Metal oxides
Comment
Metal oxides
Oxides
Metals
Carbon
Concentrates
Concentrates, ore,
secondary materials
Concentrates, ores
Slag, secondary
materials, concentrates,
ores
Scrap and other
secondary raw materials
Scrap and other
Flue-dusts that contain
lead and secondary
material.
Smelting of secondary
lead
Scrap and other
Concentrates
Intermediates,
concentrates and
Concentrates and
Concentrates and
Concentrates
Concentrates
Most secondary raw
materials including
slimes
Scrap
Concentrates, most
secondary
For the production of

ferro-alloys, the open,
semi-closed and closed
types are used
Oxidation and reaction
with substrate
Minimises salt flux use
Flue-dust from primary
copper production.
Battery recovery
Also called the
Doerschel furnace
Smelting of oxidic
copper material, refining
Concentrates
Concentrates
Concentrates and anode
scrap
Matte and anode scrap
Matte and anode scrap

Matte
Matte
Matte
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Annexes
Table 16.4:
Melting furnaces
Furnace
Metals used
Material used
Induction
Most
Clean metal and scrap
Electron beam
Refractory metals
Aluminium
and lead
Clean metal and scrap
Rotary
Reverberatory
(also known as hearth
or closed-well furnaces)
Aluminium
(primary and
secondary)
Contimelt
Copper
Shaft
Copper
Drum (Thomas)
Heated crucibles
(indirect kettles)
Direct heated crucibles
Copper
Submerged electric arc

furnace
Ferro-alloys (FeCr,
FeMn, SiMn)
16.1.6
16.1.6.1
Lead and zinc

Precious metals
Various scrap grades

Various scrap grades
(An additional sidewell can be used for
fine metal particles)
Copper anode and
clean scrap
Copper cathode and
clean scrap
Clean copper scrap
Clean scrap and raw
metal
Clean metal
Lumpy ore, pellets,
sinter, slag and
secondary materials
Comment
Induced stirring assists
alloying. Vacuum can be
applied for some metals
Fluxes and salts used for
complex matrices
Bath or hearth
configurations can vary.
Melting or holding metal
Integrated furnace system
Reducing conditions
Melting and fire-refining
Melting, refining and
alloying
Melting and alloying
Electrochemical processes
Electrowinning
In electrowinning, an electrolytic cell is used consisting of an inert anode of lead or titanium and
a cathode, placed in an aqueous electrolyte comprising the metal solution. The cathode is either
a thin blank of pure metal (starter sheet) or a former sheet made from stainless steel or
aluminium (permanent cathode plate). Metal ions pass from the solution and are deposited onto
the cathode, and gases such as chlorine or oxygen are evolved at the anode. Chlorine is collected
in a sealed anode compartment but oxygen is usually released and may entrain some of the
electrolyte and produce an acid mist, which may need to be collected and returned to the
process. Cell hoods and gas-cleaning equipment or the use of beads or a foaming agent are
needed to prevent mist from entering the workplace or environment. Depleted electrolyte is
normally returned to the process.
Copper, cobalt, nickel, tin, zinc and precious metals are produced in this manner. When using
permanent cathode plates, the pure metal deposits can be stripped or scraped off, melted and
cast into the required shapes.
16.1.6.2
Electrorefining
In electrorefining, an electrolytic cell is used consisting of a cast anode of the metal to be

refined and a cathode, placed in an electrolyte comprising the metal solution. The cathode is
either a thin blank of pure metal (starter sheet) or a former sheet made from stainless steel
(permanent cathode plate). Metal ions are dissolved from the impure anode and pass into the
solution from where they are deposited onto the cathode.
Copper, precious metals, lead and tin are refined in this manner. When using permanent cathode
plates, the pure metal deposits can be stripped or scraped off, melted and cast into the required
shapes.
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Annexes
During Electrorefining, other metals contained in the anodes are separated, less noble metals are
dissolved in the electrolyte and more noble metals like the precious metals, selenium and
tellurium form an anode slime that settles in the electrolytic cells. Anode slimes are periodically
removed from the cells and the valuable metals are recovered. In some cases, anode bags are
used to contain the slimes.
A portion of the electrolyte is bled from the system and other metals recovered from it.
16.1.6.3
Molten salt electrolysis
In molten salt electrolysis an electrolytic cell is constructed using inert cathodes and anodes
(steel or carbon) so that the high electrolyte temperatures can be withstood. Molten metal is
deposited at the cathode and is removed periodically by vacuum or displacement. Gases such as
chlorine or oxygen are evolved at the anode; chlorine is collected and recycled or sold. For
aluminium, oxygen reacts with the carbon anode, which is continuously consumed.
Molten salt electrolysis can be used to produce aluminium, lithium, sodium and magnesium.
16.1.7
Hydrometallurgical processes
Acids and NaOH, sometimes also Na2CO3 are used to dissolve the metal content of a variety of
ores and concentrates before refining and electrowinning. The material to be leached is usually
in the form of the oxide, either as an oxidic ore or an oxide produced by roasting [ 134,
Metallurgical Consulting Traulsen GmbH 1998 ]. Direct leaching of zinc concentrate is also
done at both elevated and atmospheric pressure.
Some copper sulphide ores can be leached with sulphuric acid or other media sometimes using
natural bacteria to promote oxidation and dissolution, but very long residence times are used.
Air or oxygen or chlorine can be added to leaching systems to provide the appropriate
conditions, and solutions that contain ferric chloride are also used. The Hydro Copper and
similar processes have been developed to extend the range of ores and concentrates that can be
treated by hydrometallurgy [ 308, Hydrocopper 2007 ].
The solutions that are produced are treated in a number of ways to refine and win the metals.
Common practice is to return the depleted solutions to the leaching stage, where appropriate, to
conserve acids and alkaline solutions.
16.1.7.1
Heap leaching
Open heap leaching is usually carried out at the mine. Material is crushed and ground to allow
intimate particle/acid contact and is then formed into natural heaps on an impervious liner. Acid
is sprayed onto the heaps and percolates through the mass [ 127, Chadwick, J. 1994 ]. It is
collected on the liner and is recirculated to allow the metal content to build up. Leaching time of
a single heap can vary from 100 days for copper oxide ore to 500 days for copper sulphide ore.
Bacteria can be used to enhance the leaching process and improve efficiency and this technique
is used for some nickel ores where zinc, cobalt and copper are leached simultaneously and then
separated prior to metal recovery [ 284, Talvivaara June 2008 ]. The advantages of bio-heap
leaching are that:
1318
it is based on a naturally occurring process, the bacteria promote leaching of metals from
ore to solution;
irrigation and aeration are the only additional processes;
March 2014
Annexes
there can be substantially lower capital and operating costs than in traditional smelting
and refining processes.
16.1.7.2
Atmospheric leaching (open tank)
Atmospheric leaching of oxides and concentrates is carried out in open or partially enclosed
tanks by recirculating the mixture to maintain the temperature and acid concentration. The
system is usually operated in a number of tanks in series. This is followed by sedimentation to
separate the residue and purification and winning of the metal solution. Some leach residues can
be leached further when the acid strength and temperature are increased. The use of a number of
leaching stages can improve the leaching efficiency but can result in the dissolution of more
impurities, particularly iron, which subsequently should be removed. The addition of oxygen
and mixing it with the leachate by agitation can enhance the process.
16.1.7.3
Pressure leaching (autoclaving)
Pressure leaching or autoclaving can be carried out as a complete leaching process or as part of
a series of leaching stages. Acid- or alkaline-resistant pressure vessels are used and liquor is
recirculated to allow the reactions to proceed. Pressure leaching is also used to leach black
copper to separate copper from other metals including precious metals.
Oxygen, air or chlorine can be added to increase oxidation. Pressure reduction stages can result
in the production of acid mists and they are designed to contain them.
16.1.7.4
Solvent extraction
In solvent extraction, metals can be extracted from aqueous solutions with certain organic
solvents that are insoluble in water. The aqueous and organic phases are dispersed in each other
and by controlling the pH of the mix and the complexing agent used, the target metal is
selectively extracted into the organic phase. After phase separation, a pure metal solution is
obtained by re-extracting the metal from the organic phase into a secondary aqueous phase
(stripping), from which the metal can be won in different ways [ 309, A MODERN VSF SX
PLANT 2007 ]. Figure 16.26 shows the principle for such a process to produce copper. Other
metals such as cobalt and zinc can also be treated in this way.
Stripped organic
Raffinate
Extraction
Pregnant leach
solution
Stripping
Loaded organic
Cu2+ + 2LH CuL2 + 2H+

aq
org
org
aq
Figure 16.26:
Spent electrolyte
Electro winning
Advanced
electrolyte
CuL2 + 2H+ Cu2+ 2LH

org
aq
aq org
Solvent extraction (SX) processing stages
Solvent extraction can be used to selectively concentrate and purify solutions that contain zinc
from either primary or secondary raw materials. The result is a pure zinc solution that can be
used to produce SHG zinc after electrolysis or pure zinc sulphate, zinc oxide or other zinc
chemicals.
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The Zincex process originally used two different solvent extraction circuits, the first uses an
anionic extractant a secondary amine, (Amberlite LA-2) and the second uses a cationic
extractant di-2-ethylhexyl-phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) to separate zinc from impurities and also.
Increase the zinc concentration to produce a pure zinc sulphate electrolyte. The process has been
simplified and enhanced to use only one solvent extraction cycle with D2EHPA and is
integrated in the three main stages of leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning, [ 327,
Highlights and hurdles in Zinc production by solvent extraction 2008 ].
Figure 16.27:
Process diagram of the modified Zincex process
When applied to primary zinc ores and concentrates, the process involves atmospheric leaching
of the raw material, upgrading and purification of the pregnant leach solution by solvent
extraction (SX), and zinc recovery by electrowinning (EW). The SX stage is also used to
recover zinc from dirty secondary raw materials such as batteries.
1320
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16.2
Annex II: Environmental monitoring practices
The location of the plant is always an important aspect when determining best available
techniques. In several countries, production sites have mandatory measurement programmes
covering the environmental impact on the surroundings of the production unit [ 226, Nordic
Report 2008 ]. In other cases, measurements are carried out by local authorities or by industry as
part of larger research studies financed by parties other than the production site [ 237, Austria
M168 2004 ]. As discussed in Section 2.3.5 and 2.4 on diffuse emissions, studies of the
environment such as air dispersion modelling, reverse air dispersion modelling, air
transportation models or studies of the water flows are commonly used to help identify potential
sources of components in the environment from captured or diffuse emissions and differentiate
between them [ 269, Port Talbot study 2005 ]. The fourth Air Quality Daughter Directive
requires environmental monitoring of air for certain substances by local authorities and if the
location of the monitors is suitable then these results can be used in the assessment of emissions
provided that the substances are specific to the industry concerned. A comprehensive
monitoring program is also required to monitor the quality in the receiving waters in response to
the EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC.
The aims can be to measure certain components such as metals in the surrounding air, water or
land or the deposition of dust. Biological or health effect surveys or accident warning systems
can also be applicable.
16.2.1
Examples of environmental monitoring practices
16.2.1.1
Examples from the Nordic countries
Air monitoring
The example below [ 226, Nordic Report 2008 ] shows a brief summary of some aspects
concerning air quality in the surroundings of a zinc smelter. In Table 16.5 the annual average
concentrations of some metals are shown.
Table 16.5:
Annual average metal concentrations in ambient air from a complex industrial
area which includes a primary zinc smelter (g/Nm) or (ng/Nm)
Substance
PM10 (g/Nm)
Zinc (ng/Nm)
Cadmium (ng/Nm)
Nickel (ng/Nm)
Arsenic (ng/Nm)
Source:
Location relative to emission point

2 km from complex
2 km from complex
2 km from complex
2 km from complex
2 km from complex
2003
12
2004
11
13.3
0.14
2.2
0.57
2005
12
2006
14
In this case, local authorities maintain an ambient air quality monitoring system and a cooperation contract between different parties taking part in the air quality monitoring programme
has been written. The system includes four measuring stations at distances of 2 to 4 km from the
plant. A TEOM 1400 A is used as the PM10 collector and analyser and is totally automatic
working on a continuous basis. It is based on a filter-based direct mass measurement method.
Every five years, particles for metal analysis are collected with an accessory ACCU system over
a two week period.
At the measurement stations, several other parameters are also measured such as: SO2 and NOX.
All analysers work automatically and continuously. The analysers are calibrated four times a
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year by an external expert. Results from monitoring stations are transferred automatically to a
computer located in the office of the municipal environmental authority. The authority collects
the data, reports to participants and communicates with different interested parties.
The land-sea wind effect may influence the results in spring and autumn significantly.
Emissions in spring and autumn from the land and sea are deposited near to the site and the
measured concentrations here are usually higher than in normal situations.
In some plants, quite a broad bio-indicator study is performed regularly to assess the effects of
emissions on the surroundings. This study also includes a survey of metals in dust and a survey
of airborne metal concentrations in the soil. Sample points (about 100) in the bio-indicator and
metal study are located at distances of 0.1 to 30 km from the zinc smelter.
Water monitoring
A comprehensive monitoring programme is also set up for the quality in the receiving waters in
response to the EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC. The monitoring is based on an
authority approved and co-operative monitoring program. In one example there are 18 sample
points of the sea area. Samples for water quality analyses are taken eight times per year so that
samples will be taken both in summer and winter (ice covered season). The seawater monitoring
program includes many different environmental parameters, e.g. quality of seawater (salinity,
pH, O2, temperature, colour, P-total, N-total), biological survey (phytoplanktonne, bottom
macrofauna, macroalgaes, periphytonne, fish) and metal survey (metal concentrations in fish,
sediment and bottom fauna). The monitoring program (sample collection, analysis and
reporting) is entirely carried out by external experts.
Trends in environmental concentrations over time show the effect that improvements in
standards have achieved. Figure 16.28 shows zinc concentrations in seawater near a zinc smelter
over a 30 year period. This allows the competent authority to ensure that measures taken result
in the reduction of emissions.
Source
Figure 16.28:
1322
Trend of zinc concentration in seawater over time near a zinc smelter
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Annexes
16.2.1.2
Examples from other countries
Similar practices are used in the UK where environmental samples are taken regularly,
depending on the scale of the installation and the substances emitted to establish the impact.
Monitoring sites can be chosen based on the points of maximum environmental impact derived
from air dispersion modelling. Samples of air, material deposited from air and from rain, soil
and herbage are used to establish environmental levels and trends. Core samples of soil indicate
the long-term deposition of pollutants while the analysis of grasses or crops indicate the
deposition during the growing season.
Potential sources of PM10 near a steelworks were investigated and it was possible to examine the
sampled particles microscopically or to use cusum sequential trend analysis to identify possible
sources [ 269, Port Talbot study 2005 ]. In this case, it was possible to show that iron deposits
came from ship offloading rather than from the furnaces.
There are a number of metals in air monitors around the emission sources of nickel in the upper
Swansea Valley. In general, there is an upwind and a downwind pairing around each major
source of nickel. These have been operating for a number of years to give weekly ambient metal
concentrations, which can then be used to calculate the annual mean levels of metals in the air
around the sites. This work has shown ambient levels of nickel in the air to have dropped as a
result of improvements in point source and diffuse controls. Analysis of the weekly data using
pollution roses showed two sources of nickel in the area: one from the primary nickel producer
and the second a previously unidentified source of nickel from a small metal production facility
that uses nickel and other metals to produce a range of metal alloys and alloyed products. [UK
comments on D3]
In Germany, the local authority air quality data and results from a monitoring point downwind
of a smelter where the maximum ground levels of pollutants were predicted, are being used to
demonstrate the effect of process improvements [ 274, Farrell Mission in DE 2008 ]. Some
results derived from environmental monitoring are shown in Figure 16.29 and show the
reduction in environmental levels from 1987 to 2008.
Source
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Figure 16.29:
Trends in the emission of SO2 from a smelter (reported as kg SO2 per tonne of
metal produced)
16.2.1.3
Studies in Austria
In Austria, analyses of emissions and deposition data from the town of Arnoldstein including
the analysis of mosses near a smelter have been made and the results show the reduction in
impact as the site has been improved and cleaner processes have been adopted. Analysis of
vegetables grown in gardens between 320 and 4700 m from a secondary lead smelter have been
taken as well as oil samples from cores to a depth of 10 mm [ 237, Austria M168 2004 ], [ 328,
Cross-Media - Environmental Control in Selected Area 2009 ].
16.2.1.4
Studies in Flanders, Belgium
In Flanders, the air quality in the area around the industrial sites near Hoboken has been
determined for several years using a network of sampling stations. This allows the trends in
imissions to be studied and the results from monitoring stations have also been used to perform
reverse air dispersion modelling. The environmental concentrations of some metals is shown in
Table 16.6, and the trends for lead in Figure 16.30 [ 335, Luchtkwaliteit in het Vlaamse Gewest
2007 ].
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Lead (ng/m3)
Table 16.6:
Environmental concentrations of some metals contents in PM10 at sampling
stations in Flanders.
Annual average
Annual average
Municipality / district
Station code
2007 (ng/m)
2011 (ng/m)
Pb limit
Beerse
00BE01
671
Beerse
00BE01
28.5
12
Beerse
00BE07
14.4
7.2
Cd target
Hoboken
00HB17
6.8
4.0
Genk
00GK04
5.3
Beerse
00BE01
22.6
8.5
Beerse
00BE07
12.4
5.8
Hoboken
00HB01
31.1
14
Hoboken
00HB17
25.3
23
As target
Hoboken
00HB23
49.0
41
Hoboken
00HB18
15.2
8.8
Hoboken
00HB19
12.2
Hoboken
00HB24
9.8
Genk
00GK02
34.9
21
Ni target
Genk
00GK03
32.9
17
Genk
00GK04
81.4
Source:[ 335, Luchtkwaliteit in het Vlaamse Gewest 2007 ]
EU-limit value 2005
Source: [ 335, Luchtkwaliteit in het Vlaamse Gewest 2011 ]

Figure 16.30:
The trend in lead concentrations in PM10 air from 2002 3 to 2011 07 for some
sampling stations in Flanders
16.2.1.5
Ecotoxicity and bioavailability
Since the original BREF was finalised, a lot of research and regulatory developments have taken
place relating to assessing metals toxicity and risks to the environment. These concepts and
methodologies have been assessed and endorsed by EU competent authorities in the metals risk
assessments carried out under the Existing Substances Regulation 793/93/EEC and has also
been approved for their use in the new EU REACH Regulation 1907/2006/EC.
The concepts and methodologies are useful when assessing various site-specific environmental
conditions and the effect metal concentrations may have on the environment (i.e. on the aquatic,
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sediment and soil compartments). In terms of environmental monitoring, such a metal-specific

risk assessment is particularly relevant as it gives details on how to make bioavailability
assessment of the various metals, recognising that the toxicity of metals is dependent on a
number of parameters and abiotic factors (such as hardness).
The waste water of the non-ferrous metals industries is well characterised by measuring the
concentrations of its constituents. The list of metals is relatively short, compared to the organic
constituents which can occur in the chemical or other industry sectors. Several research projects
have looked into the link between waste water composition and its ecotoxicity towards algae.
Models and methodologies for evaluating hazards, setting priorities, establishing environmental
quality criteria, monitoring and assessing risks of chemicals are being developed and used in
several jurisdictions. The majority of the compounds assessed are organic substances rather than
inorganic metals and so the various methodologies and guidance documents provided for
performing these assessments are lacking in detail on how to account for metal-specific
attributes.
Questions related to the specific impact of metals on the environment and on human health have
been raised. The need to establish ready and accessible metal-specific tools and data sets in
order to make informed, science-based decisions have also been raised by representatives of
local, regional, national and international administrations, as well as by members of nongovernmental organisations, private companies and associations.
The Metals Environmental Risk Assessment Guidance (MERAG) was created by a consortium
of researchers, metals associations, scientific panel reviewers and governmental reviewers (UK
Government, Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)). MERAG was
further adapted into an annex for the specific needs of the EU REACH regulation 1907/2007
(Technical guidance document, Annex 4 VIII 'Environmental risk assessment and risk
characterisation for metals and metal compounds'). This metals annex has been reviewed and
legally accepted by the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) [ 301, MERAG Guidance 2007 ].
The guidance is divided into different fact sheets that provide the risk assessors/regulators with
methodologies to be used in chemicals management and environmental quality standard setting
for metals and allow consideration of site-specific conditions by the assessor through the
introduction of metal-specific concepts described in points 1 to 3 below:
1) Exposure assessment
The main objective of the exposure assessment is the derivation and evaluation of metal
concentrations for each environmental compartment (water, air, soil, sediment) that is
potentially affected by human activities.
Metal concentrations in the environment are the result of the natural background, historical
contamination and the emissions associated with the use pattern and the complete life cycle of
the metal (i.e. from mining to maximum separation and recycling of metals and disposal of the
remaining waste). Due to the inherent variation of metal concentration in the natural
environment (e.g. different natural background concentrations) and the variations of
anthropogenic input, large differences in observed metal levels can be observed among different
locations.
Speciation is of paramount importance; metals can occur in different valences, associated with
different anions or cations, and can be associated with adsorptive agents, such as dissolved
organic matter (DOM) in water, or bound to minerals in sediment or soil. Therefore, speciation
depends highly on the environmental conditions and chemistry of the site. The
adsorption/desorption behaviour of a metal depends strongly on prevailing environmental
conditions. The exposure assessment therefore goes beyond what is achieved by a simple direct
toxicity assessment.
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2) Effects assessment
The main goal is long-term protection of the environmental compartment under consideration.
Typical compartments that are considered for the inland environment are the aquatic (including
the sediments), sewage treatment plants and terrestrial ecosystems. For each of these
compartments, a predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) should be derived. This PNEC is
considered the concentration below which an unacceptable effect will most likely not occur.
MERAG provides guidance on the effect data selected for PNEC derivation to comply with the
requirements (criteria) for data quality and data relevance. It takes into account the metalspecific considerations in permit setting (methodologies on data quality selection, aggregation,
interpretation, and on derivation of the PNEC value are provided) [ 301, MERAG Guidance
2007 ].
The derivation of the PNEC value can take into consideration the (bio)available fraction of
organisms for the specific environmental conditions of the site (toxicity models were developed
to predict the bioavailability of metals for conducting risk assessment in the terrestrial, sediment
and aquatic compartments). This possibility of accounting for the bioavailability of the metals is
also provided for in the Directive on environmental quality standards in the field of water policy
2008/105/EC and amending Directives 82/176/EEC, 83/513/EEC, 84/156/EEC, 84/491/EEC,
86/280/EEC and 2000/60/EC.
3) Risk characterisation
The guidance sets out a building-block approach to allow compliance with the permit
conditions, and ensures, at the same time, that the best option for managing the potential risks
presented by metals/metal compounds is considered. To this end, a tiered approach is advocated
since data availability will depend to a large extent on the type of metal/metal compound under
investigation, allowing for further refinement of the assessment.
In 2008, the refinement tools presented in the MERAG document are only applicable for metals
that have sufficient data (e.g. nickel, copper, zinc). Tools are being explored for additional
metals as the science is evolving (e.g., for silver, cobalt, aluminium).
The methodologies developed under MERAG are being implemented at the field level in
various EU countries. Bioavailability models are also further being developed for a wider range
of environmental conditions (e.g. marine and estuarine conditions).
16.2.2
Reporting emission data
Any measurement report and measurement protocol drawn up should conform to the relevant
national and international guidelines.
The report can contain:
the objective;
general information on the measurements;
a description of the plant, its state and operating data;
operating conditions during the measurement;
information on the measurement planning;
sampling locations;
methods of measurement;
tabular presentation of the individual measurements including temperatures, gas flowrates
or volumes;
evaluation of the results;
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Annexes
consideration of errors;
presentation of the quality assurance measures;
an abstract.
Current emission data in this document are normally reported as hourly or daily averages or as
mass emissions per unit tonne of production. 'Bubble limits' are also given as the annual mass of
a substance that is emitted (e.g. x kg zinc/yr) and may be practical in many cases. Both methods
of reporting are useful in defining the performance and impact of a process. Competent
authorities normally use concentration units (mg/Nm or mg/l), mass emissions (e.g. kg/h)
and/or specific emission factors (g/t of metal) in their permits or in the data reported for
emissions. These forms of data can be linked provided data are available for the gas volumes of
all of the process stages. This is not always the case and therefore in this document the
emissions associated with the use of BAT (BAT-AELs) are normally given as daily
concentration averages or mass emissions based on continuous monitoring during the operating
period. The standard conditions of 273 K, 101.3 kPa, measured oxygen content and dry gas are
used.
In cases where continuous monitoring is not practicable as the average over the sampling
period. Concentrations of metals or other substances in water or waste water are given as a total
of soluble and insoluble material. The emissions to water that have been reported or are
associated with BAT are based on a qualified random sample or a 24 hour composite sample.
At the time of writing the original BREF document, there was insufficient reliable data reported
to allow mass or specific emissions associated with BAT to be reported in parallel with
concentrations. More information is now available.
16.2.2.1
Interrelationship between concentration, mass and specific

emissions (emission ratios)
Where information is available, an interrelationship can be provided to transform concentration

units into specific emission factors. Emission data in both forms are very useful for the regulator
and operator. However, when comparing or converting data in these forms, great care is needed
to take account of diffuse (uncaptured) emissions. Diffuse emissions can form the major portion
of the total emissions, depending on the process.
In Table 16.7 of yearly averaged emissions is used to show how to convert the concentration of
the pollutant of concern (mg/Nm) into the specific volumetric loading (m /t of metal) and the
specific emission factor (g/t of metal). For a complex site, the total of all metals produced would
normally be used to present the specific emissions.
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Table 16.7:
Conversion of emission data
a) Measured dust concentration on an annual basis, which is normally

available as a range from continuous monitoring (mg/Nm)
b) Annual average dust concentration (mg/Nm)
c) Volumetric off-gas flowrate on an hourly basis (Nm/h)
d) Yearly operating time (h/yr)
e) Annual off-gas volume (Nm/yr)
f) Annual dust emission (kg of pollutant/yr)
g) Annual production capacity (t of metal/yr)
h) Specific off-gas volume (Nm/t)
i) Specific emission factor (kg/t of metal)
cd=e
be=f (mg/yr)
eg=h
fg=i (kg/t)
NB: This calculation is based on the reliable knowledge of the following data:
dust concentration on an annual average basis (mg/Nm)
volumetric off-gas flowrate on an hourly basis (Nm/h)
yearly operating time (h/yr)
annual production capacity (t of metal/yr)
The above interrelationships are based on the knowledge of measured values, for instance the
range of annual dust concentrations and actual volumetric flowrate, which then need to be
transferred into annual averages. The results of these calculations are only valid for captured
emissions and are based on average values.
In the case of a new plant or a substantial change of an existing installation, the above
interrelation may be based on theoretically calculated or estimated values. The data should take
account of any uncertainties in measurement, for example the volume of the off-gases from any
single process may vary with the composition of the concentrate, the detection limits of
analytical equipment as well as the sampling methods. Reliance on the designed fan capacities
can lead to errors in the estimates as variable speed fans are commonly used. This problem of
volume measurement is also encountered in the estimation of uncaptured or diffuse emissions.
16.2.2.2
Uses of emission data
Where information is available, the calculation of the annual dust emissions (kg/yr) and the
specific emission factors of a pollutant (g/t of metal produced) allows:
the magnitude of individual sources of emissions to air and water to be identified either
within an installation or between installations;
diffuse emissions to be reported as mass emissions per unit of time or as mass per tonne
of metal produced;
the provision of a basis for setting priorities for the future environmental management of
a plant or the application of a 'bubble concept' for emissions to air or water over a
complex site if this is desired.
Table 16.8 gives figures of annual dust emissions from some parts of a primary copper
production process producing 170 000 t/yr blister copper.
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Annexes
Table 16.8:
Example of data for showing the significant mass emissions

Specific emission factors for dust
(g/t of Cu)
0.2
1.5
0.7
0.1
7.2
36.7
19.3
System
Dryer
Roaster
Converter shaft filter
Pelletisation
Slag granulation
Anode caster
Hall ventilation
[ 103, Farrell, F. 1998 ]
In this particular case, the equation (b e = f) allows the specific emission of dust to be
calculated and leads to the conclusion that the anode caster and the hall ventilation are the
largest single sources of dust emissions and can be given priority.
The long-term and long-range effects of emissions can be determined by using dispersion
modelling and other techniques. The techniques for environmental monitoring are reported in
Annex 16.2.1.
The use of tall stacks is used to improve the dispersion of gases and this can result in
environmental impacts far beyond the installation. Components such as sulphur dioxide can
have very long-range, accumulative effects and in some cases, critical loads for some species
can be exceeded for some pollutants. Dispersion is therefore not a substitute for low emissions.
The use of concentrations based on defined parameters and methods of measurement allows
many parameters to be monitored continuously. These parameters can be linked to the
abatement system that is used. Concentration measurements allow:
easy demonstration of compliance;

demonstration of real time performance;
a high degree of abatement control and an early warning of equipment failure.
Mass or specific emissions allow different installations or techniques to be compared and are
also recommended to be used. Attention should be paid to the choice of parameters in the
comparison both for the pollutant as well as the production metals.
16.3
Annex III: Specific cost data for metal production and

abatement
This annex compiles data to allow cost evaluations for some process and abatement
installations. The data given focusses on the process plant and main consumption data. Sitespecific cost factors have been eliminated as far as possible. The information gives an order of
magnitude of the cost range and allows a limited comparison of costs between techniques.
Data is not available for all of the metal groups and so this data is presented as an annex so that
some costs, e.g. for furnaces, abatement, etc. can be referred to for these groups. Costs are
mainly presented on the basis of cost per annual tonne of production. Reference is made where
possible to the size of the process or of the abatement plant so that the data can be used to
provide rough estimates for sectors that may not be represented.
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Several sources presented data and all give the specific investment cost per tonne of metal
produced per year. The data was supplied in a variety of currencies effective at the time of
purchase. For the sake of direct comparisons, these currencies have been converted into Euros,
using the exchange rate that was effective on 16 June 1999 - 1.06 USD = 1 EUR (Euro). The
various exchange rates that operated since 1950 are given below so that the original costs can be
derived if required.
Table 16.9:
Some currency exchange rates
Year
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
1993
1996
1998
2008
DM/GBP
11.76
11.71
8.74
4.23
2.88
2.48
2.35
2.91
NA
DM/ USD
4.20
4.17
3.65
1.82
1.62
1.65
1.50
1.76
NA
USD/GBP
2.80
2.81
2.40
2.33
1.79
1.50
1.56
1.66
1.992
DM/EUR (1)
2.48
2.07
1.90
1.90
1.97
NA
USD/EUR (1)
1.36
1.26
1.15
1.27
1.12
1.487
(1) since 1979 only.
The cost data shown in this annex are an order of magnitude indication only.
Some sources also reported financing and operating costs for the particular installation. These
may not be applicable to other sites because the costs of individual operations would include a
substantial percentage of site and corporate specific cost components.
16.3.1
Influences on cost data
Some of the site-specific influences on costs referred to above are listed as follows:
transport:
feed material transport costs (effect on treatment and refining charge)
transport costs for product(s).
direct operating costs:

labour legislation, climatic conditions, arrangement of unit operations (in-plant transport
costs), energy availability, available infrastructure, special environmental protection
requirements.
sales costs:
market access, infrastructure, climatic conditions.
capital costs:
feed material shipment options, market access and market conditions/product sale, corporate
structure.
investment costs:
climatic conditions, available infrastructure, energy and consumables, specific local
environmental protection requirements.
The above factors indicate that it is very difficult to give reliable cost data which could be used
in a more general sense without the danger of misleading results. A complete and reliable
economic calculation/evaluation can only be done for a site-specific investment. Only on such a
March 2014
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Annexes
basis are definite cost data available. For example, the following factors have an overwhelming
influence on the economics of a project and cannot always be estimated in this annex:
treatment and refining charges for concentrates

costs for concentrates, flux, etc. and other purchases
purchase price (after deductions) of secondary materials
purchase price for refined metal
sale of by-products like sulphuric acid or similar
the selected country (taxes, labour, disposal and energy costs, inflation)
the specific site (transport of pure materials and products)
the infrastructure (availability of energy, water, oxygen, maintenance)
the plant capacity
type and composition of feed
time schedule and time of investment
financing of the investment
costs for construction and erection (inland execution).
Where costs are known accurately for specific installations they have been included but they are
provided separately so that site variation can be taken into account. Comments have also been
made where possible to illustrate how cost variations, e.g. waste disposal costs, can account for
a significant variation in the costs.
The capital cost of emission control measures and equipment varies with the type of plant.
While in existing plants, retrofit costs can be very high, integrated pollution control measures in
new plants may be more cost effective [ 234, UBA Copper, lead, zinc and aluminium 2007 ].
Factors governing the capital cost of a fabric filter system include:
the off-gas volume to cleaned

the off-gas characteristics (dust and moisture content, temperature, presence of aggressive
constituents)
the need for additive dosing or flue-dust recirculation (additional piping, silos, conveying
systems)
available floor area for construction; type of construction (arrangement options, shallow or
pile foundation, overall height, filter area, number of compartments, duct routing etc.)
the necessary stack height or need for stack lining (depending on off-gas composition)
the necessary measuring equipment (platform, continuous monitoring equipment, access)
extended scope of supplies (off-gas cooler, compressors, etc.).
Off-gases with low dust loads (e.g. secondary hood off-gases with fine dust loads <50 mg/m)
normally require the addition of an additive (e.g. lime) to improve the dust collection efficiency.
This not only drastically increases the raw gas dust load, but also the volume of collected dust
that should be disposed of. For moist and/or aggressive off-gases, the filter may have to be
heated or provided with a corrosion protection coating.]
The capital cost of a fabric filter designed for an off-gas flowrate of approximately 100000 m
/h, including fan and filter media, was of the order of approximately EUR 650000 (secondary
hood off-gas with low dust load) or approximately EUR 950000 (process off-gas with an
elevated dust load). The total cost of a filter system including steel and concrete structures,
ducting, stack and other equipment (see above) may amount to three or four times the capital
cost of the filter.
Electricity consumption is the largest single contributor to the operating costs. Depending on the
filter area, filter resistance, dust composition and concentration, the specific power consumption
of a fabric filter ranges between 2 and 3 kWh/1000 m off-gas. If, due to the specific additive
used, the dust collected in the filter system cannot be further processed for metal recovery and
should be landfilled, the additional cost will be substantial.
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16.3.2
Specific investment costs for copper process plants
As explained above, the investment costs for copper plants are influenced also by a number of
site specific factors and not only by the process technology and abatement techniques selected.
Table 16.10 to Table 16.13 give some technology-related data.
The tables indicate for green-field plants:
the year of investment or cost determination

the key plant sections covered
the production capacity related to the cost indication.
The normal plant-related abatement techniques are included in the cost indication. The
investment costs are indicated as specific cost per tonne of copper. The cost data shown are to
be understood as an order of magnitude indication. Not included are costs for land, finance,
inside and outside plant infrastructure, owners costs during construction and all other
investments, which are not directly connected with the plant sections mentioned.
Table 16.10:
Primary copper smelter/acid plant complexes
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity)
1977
2250 - 2450
1980
2450 - 2650
1981
1700 - 1850
1981
2850 - 3000
1981
2250 - 2550
1992
2150 - 2250
1994
2250 - 2350
1995
2350 - 2750
1997
1950 - 2150
1998
2550 - 2650
1998
2950 - 3150
Product made
and design
Plant sections included
capacity
(t/yr)
Anode
copper Material handling/storage, partial roasting & electric
70000 t/yr
furnace smelting, PS converter, anode plant, EF slag
cleaning, double catalysis acid plant
Anode copper,
Material handling/storage, Outotec flash, PS converter,
150000 - 160000
anode plant, EF slag cleaning, double catalysis acid plant
t/yr
Anode copper,
Material handling/storage, Outotec flash, PS converter,
280000 t/yr
Anode
copper Material handling storage, Mitsubishi continuous
100000 t/yr
smelting, anode plant, double contact acid plant
Anode
copper Material handling/storage, INCO flash, PS converter,
120000 t/yr
anode plant, double catalysis acid plant
Anode
copper Material handling/storage, ISA Smelt, PS converter,
150000 t/yr
Anode
copper Material handling/storage, Outotec flash smelter, Flash
285000 t/yr
converter, anode plant, double catalysis acid plant. Slag
flotation not included
Anode
copper Material handling/storage, Outotec flash, PS converter,
120000 t/yr
Anode
160000 t/yr
Anode
copper Outotec flash smelter, Flash converter, anode plant,
303000 t/yr
double catalysis acid plant
Anode
200000 t/yr
NB: ( ) Cost indications are in the year indicated without consideration of escalation or adjustment! Original
costs were in USD and have been converted using EUR = 1.06USD
[ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ], [ 206, Traulsen, H. 1999 ]
Rnnskr Project,
Description of the project components for the development:
extension to quay for raw materials unloading
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enclosed conveyors for raw material handling

mixing plant and conveyors
Outotec flash furnace
converter aisle with three Peirce-Smith converters of 250 t capacity
ventilation air extraction system and fabric filter
fire-refining and anode casting plant - 45 t/h extra capacity
33 % increase in copper electro-refinery, evaporator to produce copper sulphate
refurbishment of sulphuric acid plants to handle 280000 Nm/h. Mercury removal stage
process instrumentation
civil engineering costs.
Operational data
Recent information is available for a specific process upgrade. In this instance the published
costs are given below. The plant was under construction 1999 - 100000 t/yr extra production of
copper.
Economics
Total project cost 2 billion Swedish crowns (EUR 224 million). Anticipated payback period
6.5 years.
Table 16.11:
Secondary copper smelters
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity)
1990
1300 - 1500
1990
1100 - 1300
1991
1250 - 1400
Product made and

design capacity
(t/yr)
Anode copper
50000 t/yr
Anode copper
80000 - 100000 t/yr
Anode copper,
60000 t/yr
Material handling/storage, shaft furnace, converter,

anode plant.
Material handling/storage,
electric furnace,
converter, anode plant.
Material handling/storage, TBR furnace, anode
plant (1)
(1) The technical concept is different from the process now used at Metallo-Chimique and Elmet. Cost
indications are in year indicated without consideration of escalation or adjustment! Original costs were in
USD and have been converted using EUR = 1.06 USD. [ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ].
Source Boliden
Table 16.12:
Electrolytic copper refineries
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity)
1976
470
1987
550 - 600
1990
400 - 450
1993
450 - 480
1994
650
1996
400 - 450
Product made and

design capacity
(t/yr)
Cathode copper
380000 t/yr
Cathode copper
40000 t/yr
Cathode copper
180000 t/yr
Cathode copper
150000 t/yr
Cathode copper
280000 t/yr
Cathode copper
200000 t/yr

Conventional process concept with starter
sheets and mechanisation
ISA process concept with permanent cathodes
Retrofit/expansion of an existing refinery based
on the Kidd Creek concept with permanent
cathodes
ISA Process concept with permanent cathodes
NB: Cost indications are in year indicated without consideration of escalation or adjustment! Original costs
were in and have been converted using EUR = 1.06USD
[ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ]
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Table 16.13:
Copper wire-rod plants
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity)
1992
180 - 200
1995
280 - 320
1995
290 - 330
Product made and

design capacity
(t/yr)
Copper wire-rod
220000 t/yr
Copper wire-rod
80000 t/yr
Copper wire-rod
80000 t/yr

Continuous Southwire type rod line with shaft
furnace for melting
Continuous Southwire type rod line with shaft
furnace for melting
Continuous Contirod type rod line with shaft
furnace for melting
NB: Cost indications are in year indicated without consideration of escalation or adjustment! Original costs
were in USD and have been converted using EUR = 1.06USD
[ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ]
16.3.3
Specific investment costs for primary and secondary aluminium

processes
Primary Aluminium Smelters

The following ranges are given as investment costs for conversions that are identified as
possible options for upgrading existing plants or a modern new plant.
Side Worked Prebaked (SWPB) to Point Feeder Prebaked (CWPB-PF): EUR 400 - 1000 per
tonne yearly production capacity
Centre Worked Prebaked to Point Feeder Prebaked:
EUR 100 - 200 per tonne
yearly production capacity
Vertical Stud Sderberg (VSS) to Point Feeder Prebaked:
Conventional VSS to modernised VSS:
New Point Feeder Prebaked (green site):
The conversion of SWPB or VSS to Point Feeder Prebaked can in most cases never be achieved
to a standard comparable to a completely new PFPB plant.
The operating cost for a primary smelter depends entirely on the factors given above, and will
according to reports from various consultants be in the range EUR 950 - 1500 per. tonne,
excluding capital costs.
Investment costs for abatement equipment will again depend on site-specific conditions, since
this will determine the extent of additional equipment and work necessary in addition to the
actual equipment installation. The following ranges can be given.
Dry scrubbing unit:
SO2 seawater scrubber for pot gases:
SO2 alkali scrubber for pot gases:
EUR 150 - 250 per year tonne production

Cost data for secondary smelters

Process equipment costs:
Rotary furnace:
EUR 15 - 60 per year tonne
Abatement equipment costs:
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Bag house filter system:

Ceramic filter system:
16.3.3.1
EUR 30 - 75 per year tonne

EUR <30 per year tonne
Use of metal pumping system in a secondary smelter
Description
Reverberatory furnace with side-well, charge well and pumped metal system (see Figure
1996
1530
100000 t/yr Zn
1997
1450
100000 t/yr Zn
Roasting, leaching,
H2SO4 plant, foundry
Roasting, leaching,
H2SO4 plant, foundry
purification,
electrolysis,
purification,
electrolysis,
).
Multi chamber furnace

Overall melting capacity: 5t/h
Side wall
5 t/h
Transport
(Liquid metal + RSI ingots)
Main hearth
5 t/h
Charging skip
(sealed):
- coated, laminated, oily
- large pieces
Start-up & exceptional

alloy changes
Charging scrap &
primary ingots:
- non
- massive pieces
2 hot air
burners
Charging well:
- diameter 1.5 m
- turbulence created by metal
- rapid submersion of input
- minimising melt loss
without use of salt
Normal operation,
Light gauge and small sized
(shreds/ bales/punchings)
coated, laminated, oily
Figure 16.31:
5 t/h
Induction/mechanical metal pump:

- max 8 t/min
- power 65 kW
- no moving parts
Use of a metal pumping system
Achieved environmental benefits

Elimination of salt flux and reduction of fume. Increased yield. Greater range of raw materials
than simple reverberatory furnace, improved capture of furnace gases.
Cross-media effects
None were reported.
Operational data
Improvement in metal yield from 83 to 88 %, reduction in energy costs.
Applicability
This technique is applicable to new and upgraded furnaces.
Economics
cost (1997)of 30 tonne furnace and EMP system 1800000 (EUR 2.73 million)
estimated cost savings (energy, improved yield, flux savings and treatment savings) 832000
GBP (EUR 1.26 million) per year
pay back 2.2 years
cost of pumping system and charge well ~ 300000 (EUR 456000).
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Example plants
BE, UK.
Reference literature
[ 119, McLellan 1998 ], [ 120, McLellan 1998 ].
16.3.4
Specific investment costs for Pb-Zn processes
Table 16.14 to Table 16.17give some data for primary and secondary lead smelters, for
electrolytic Zinc plants as well as Pb-Zn shaft furnaces, for a Waelz kiln, a fuming plant and
H2SO4-plants. Costs are given in USD per t/yr metal produced. Again the exchange rate USD to
local currency is very important, which is time dependant.
The data presented includes:
/1
/2
/3
/4
the year when those cost figures have been evaluated

the volume of delivery
the size of the smelter
the specific investment costs per tonne of metal.
In case of Pb-Zn shaft furnaces, the investment costs are related to Zn production alone as well
as to total Zn + Pb production. The costs only show the order of magnitude for such
investments.
Table 16.14:
Lead processes
1980
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity.)
660
Product made
and design
capacity
(t/yr)
100000 t/yr Pb
1990
400
60000 t/yr Pb
1990
635
30000 t/yr Pb
1997
625
100000 t/yr Pb
1997
1997
330
145
30000 t/yr Pb
100000 t/yr Pb
Year
2009
65000 t/yr Pb

Sinter machine, Shaft furnace, H2SO4, lead refining
Secondary, Plastics separation, Smelting, lead
refining
Secondary, Plastics separation, Smelting, lead
refining (Same order of magnitude for CX-system)
QSL-plant, H2SO4, without lead refining
(Kivcet and TBRC process should show similar
investment costs)
Secondary shaft furnace, lead refining
Lead refining
EUR 70 million Ausmelt plant with installation and
abatement and acid plant for 65000 t/yr??
[ 117, Krger, J. 1999 ]

Table 16.15:
Zinc processes
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity.)
Product made
and design
capacity
(t/yr)
1980
1580
100000 t/yr Zn
1996
1530
100000 t/yr Zn
1997
1450
100000 t/yr Zn
2002
533
75000 t/yr Zn

Roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, H2SO4
plant, foundry
plant, foundry
plant, foundry
EUR 40 million for Roaster, WHB and water
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Annexes
treatment, gas-cleaning, H2SO4 plant, cooling water
installation, weak acid treatment
[ 117, Krger, J. 1999 ]
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Table 16.16:
Zinc and lead processes
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity.)
1980
1550
1996
1380
1996
2080
1997
1790
1997
2580
1994
2800
Product made
and design
capacity
(t/yr)
100000 t/yr Zn,
40000 t/yr Pb
100000 t/yr Zn,
40000 t/yr Pb
100000 t/yr Zn
100000 t/yr Zn,
40000 t/yr Pb
100000 t/yr Zn
85000 t/yr Zn,
35000 t/yr Pb
Sinter-roasting, ISF, H2SO4 plant, Zn-refining

Sinter-roasting, ISF, H2SO4 plant Zn-refining
[ 117, Krger, J. 1999 ]

Table 16.17:
Zinc residues
Year
Installed cost
(EUR per t/yr
production
capacity)
1980
480
1997
415
[ 117, Krger, J. 1999 ].
16.3.5
16.3.5.1
Product made
and Design
Capacity
(t/yr)
21000 t/yr
Waelz Oxide
20000 t/yr slag
Waelz kiln, cooler, filter

Drying, fuming, waste heat boiler, PSA, filter
Cost data for abatement techniques

Air abatement in the copper industry
The techniques applied for cleaning the off-gases and ventilation gases from copper operations
are directed towards elimination of dust and gaseous matter including SO2 and SO3. Examples
for widely applied gas-cleaning systems/equipment are: Dry gas-cleaning: Electrostatic
precipitator (ESP), fabric filters (bag houses), cassette type filters, ceramic filters, etc.
The following data is given for waste heat boiler, hot and wet ESPs, gas cooling and cleaning.
The data for complete sulphuric acid plants is given later.
Table 16.18:
Indirect Gas Cooling - Energy Recovery

Application: Smelting Furnace Waste Heat Boiler
Design basis:
Gas temperature:
Inlet:
1300 - 1350 C
Outlet:
300 - 400 C
Gas flow
100000 Nm/h
Steam production
35 t/h
Total installed costs:
Million EUR
7.0 - 8.0
Table 16.19:
Dry ESP Gas Cleaning

Application: Smelter SO2 gas-cleaning
Flash furnace ESP
Flash furnace ESP
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Annexes
Design basis:
Operating temperature
Gas flow
Dust inlet
Dust outlet
Efficiency
ESP characteristics:
300 - 400 C
300 - 400 C
43000 Nm/h
61000 Nm/h
10 - 20 g/Nm
10 - 15 g/Nm
150 - 200 mg/Nm
200 - 300 mg/Nm
99.9 %
99.8 %
4 fields, 3000 m collection 3 fields, 4800 m collection
area, single unit
area, single unit
Equipment supply costs: Total

=
Million EUR
1.0 (1)
Main consumption:
Electricity
250 kW installed
2.0 (1)
400 kW installed
(1) Civil work, erection, etc. excluded; for installed costs approximately 80 - 100 % will have to be added.
Source: Lurgi Umwelt GmbH
Table 16.20:
Fabric filters
Application:
Design basis:
Gas flow
Dust outlet
Total
installed
cost:
Million EUR
Main consumption:
Electricity
Bag house, fabric filter

Shaft furnace, converter
& anode furnace
TBRC
Cooler &
fabric filter
~ 100 C
750000 Nm/h
<10 mg/Nm
~ 100 C
730000 Nm/h
<10 mg/Nm
~ 100 C
70000 Nm/h
<10 mg/Nm
20 (1)
14 (2)
2 - 2.5 (3)
2.5 - 3 kWh/1000 Nm
2-3
kWh/1000 Nm
1.5 - 4
kWh/1000 Nm
1 g/Nm lime (4)
Others
1
( ) Including ductwork and stack.

(2) Excluding duct work and stack.
(3) Total installed cost including gas cooler and stack.
(4) For anode furnace gas stream
[ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ]

Table 16.21:
Wet ESP gas Cleaning

Wet Electrostatic Precipitator for SO2 gas treatment
Type:
Two wet ESPs in line
Application:
Final SO2 gas-cleaning for further treatment.
Design basis:
27 C inlet
Gas flow
88.00 Nm/h
Precipitation efficiency for
Dust
99 %
Arsenic
99 %
H2SO4
99 %
Total equipment supply costs:
Million EUR
2.0 (1)
Main consumption:
Electricity 112 kW
(1) Civil work, erection, etc. excluded; for installed costs approximately 60 - 80 % will
have to be added.
Table 16.22:
System:
1340
Wet ESP gas-cleaning

Wet Gas Cooling and Cleaning System for Smelter SO 2 gases
Wet gas-cleaning for furnace Wet gas cooling and cleaning section
SO2 gas
for combined SO2 in furnace and
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Annexes
1 radial flow scrubber, 1 ID
fan, 2 in-line wet ESPs with a
2000 m total collection area,
acid
cooler
and
acid
circulation pumps, 1 cooling
tower, 900 m/h cooling media
circulation.
System equipment:
Design basis:
Gas flow
Precipitation efficiency for:
Dust
Arsenic
Mist
converter gases
2 radial flow scrubbers, 3 lines with 2
in-line wet ESPs with 7000 m total
collection area, acid cooler and acid
circulation pumps, 2 cooling towers,
2200 m/h cooling media circulation.
390 C inlet, 35 C outlet

96000 Nm/h

250000 Nm/h
96 - 97 %
99.0 %
>99.5 %
96 - 97 %
99.0 %
>99.5 %
Equipment supply costs:

Million EUR
Electricity consumption:
7.5 - 8 (1)
828 kW
16 - 17 (2)
1250 kW
The following cost data is given for abatement systems used in secondary copper processes and
is provided by Austria. The costs are given in Austrian Schillings (ATS) and Euros (EUR), sitespecific investment, operating and disposal costs are given [ 157, Winter, B. et al. 1999 ].
Table 16.23:
Afterburner, reactor and fabric filter
Regenerative afterburner installation with reactor and fabric filter

treating off-gases from a shaft furnace
Input data:
Quantity of metal produced
Volume of exhaust gas of 20000 Nm/h.
18000 t/yr Black Copper
Operating hours 6300 h/yr
Output data:
<0.1 ng ITEQ/Nm PCDD/F
Description: Regenerative afterburner installed after a fabric filter treating
Costs
20000 Nm/h of dedusted gas with a reduction of 98 % for PCDD/F.
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
Input factors for annual expenditure
Investment costs (Million. ATS)
12 +/-20 %
Number of years
15
Rate of interest (%)
Annual repayment including Interest (Million. ATS/yr)
1.24
Proportional investment costs including Interest
68.64
(4.99 EUR/t)
Maintenance + wear and tear

(% of investment costs = 0.24 Million ATS/yr)
2
13.33
(0.97 EUR/t)
Proportional costs
Support fuel MJ/t
1342
80.52
Electrical energy consumption (kWh/t) at 0.9 ATS/kWh

Total costs
13.5
12.15
~ 175
(12.72 EUR/t)
Source: Austrian cost data in [ 157, Winter, B. et al. 1999 ]

Table 16.24:
Afterburner
Afterburner placed between a shaft furnace and waste heat boiler
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Input data:
Quantity of metal produced 18000 t/yr Black

copper
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
Description: 98 % removal of PCDD/F

8 +/-20 %
Number of years
15
0.82
45.76
(3.33 EUR/t)
8.89
(0.65 EUR/t)

(% of investment costs)
Proportional costs
Support fuel MJ/t
1304
78.24
Electrical energy consumption (kWh/t)

Total costs
16.0
5.4
~ 138
(10.03 EUR/t)

Table 16.25:
Wet desulphurisation
Wet desulphurisation process to remove sulphur dioxide from scrap converter off-gases
Input data:
Quantity of metal produced 12000 t/yr raw
copper
Average input SO2 ~2300 mg/Nm, peak 4000 mg/Nm
Output data:
Annual average SO2 <50 mg/Nm - peak <200 mg/Nm
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
25
Number of years
15
2.54
214.51
(EUR 15.59/t)
41.67
(EUR 3.03/t)

Proportional costs
Cost of CaO kg/t at 1 ATS/kg
6.74
6.74
Disposal cost of gypsum kg/t at 0.2 ATS/kg
22.99
4.6

Total costs
16.39
14.75
~ 282
(EUR 20.49/t)

Table 16.26:
Semi-dry scrubber
Semi-dry desulphurisation process to reduce sulphur dioxide from an anode furnace
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Input data:
Volume of exhaust gas of 80000 Nm/h. Pressure-drop 20 mbar.
SO2 ~500 mg/Nm
Output data:
SO2 ~ 50 mg/Nm, 95 % reduction of PCDD/F
Description

60000 t/yr anode copper
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)

30 +/- 20 %
Number of years
15
3.09
51.48
(EUR 3.74/t)

3
15
(EUR 1.09/t)
Proportional costs
CaO kg/t Cu
7.35
7.35
Carbon kg/t Cu
1.87
6.53
Combustion air
23.33
3.97
Disposal kg/t Cu
13.42
26.83
Electrical energy consumption (kWh/t)

Total costs
14.08
12.67
~ 124
(EUR 9.01/t)

Table 16.27:
Activated carbon filter
Activated carbon final filter for black copper production

Input data:
Quantity of metal produced 18000 t/yr
Volume of exhaust gas 20000 Nm/h.
Black copper.
Pressure drop 25 mbar
Output data:
PCDD/F <0.1 ng ITEQ/Nm
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
12
Number of years
15
1.24
68.64
(EUR 4.99/t)

2
13.33
(EUR 0.97/t)
Proportional costs
Consumption and disposal of activated carbon kg/t at 6.5 ATS/kg
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9.1
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17.51
Total costs
15.76
~ 107
(EUR 7.78/t)

Table 16.28:
SCR
Selective catalytic reduction to reduce oxides of nitrogen

Input data:
Quantity of metal produced 18000
t/yr Black copper.
Output data:
NOX <100 mg/Nm, 98 % reduction of PCDD/F
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)

10
Number of years
15
1.03

57.2
(EUR 4.16/t)
2
11.11
(EUR 0.81/t)
2.07
0.5
284
19.03
3.73
5.56
17.01
17.13
~ 112
(EUR 8.14/t)
Proportional costs
Cost of Ammonia kg/t at 1.8 ATS/kg
Replacement catalyst m /yr at 200000 ATS/m
Energy for reheat MJ/t at 60 ATS/GJ
Total costs
The following data was supplied in 2007 by Germany for the review of the NFM BREF [ 234,
UBA Copper, lead, zinc and aluminium 2007 ].
The capital cost of emission control measures and equipment varies with the type of plant.
While in existing plants, retrofit costs can be very high, integrated pollution control measures in
new plants may be more cost-effective. Factors governing the capital cost of a fabric filter
system include:
the off-gas volume to cleaned
the off-gas characteristics (dust and moisture content, temperature, presence of
aggressive constituents)
the need for additive dosing or flue-dust recirculation (additional piping, silos,
conveying systems)
available floor area for construction; type of construction (arrangement options, shallow
or pile foundation, overall height, filter area, number of compartments, duct routing
etc.)
the necessary stack height or need for stack lining (depending on off-gas composition)
the necessary measuring equipment (platform, continuous monitoring equipment,
access)
extended scope of supplies (off-gas cooler, compressors etc.).
1344
March 2014
Annexes
Off-gases with low dust loads (e.g. secondary hood off-gases with fine dust loads <50 mg/Nm)
normally require the addition of an additive (e.g. lime) to improve the dust collection efficiency.
This not only drastically increases the raw gas dust load, but also the volume of collected dust
that has to be disposed of. For moist and/or aggressive off-gases, the filter may have to be
heated or provided with a corrosion protection coating.
At the time of publication of the VDI guideline the capital cost of a fabric filter designed for an
off-gas flowrate of approx. 100000 m /h, including fan and filter media, was of the order of
approx. EUR 650000 (secondary hood off-gas with low dust load) or approx. EUR 950000
(process off-gas with elevated dust load). The total cost of a filter system including steel and
concrete structures, ducting, stack and other equipment (see above) may amount to three or four
times the capital cost of the filter [ 219, VDI (D) 2102 2007 ].
Electricity consumption is the largest single contributor to the operating costs. Depending on the
filter area, filter resistance, dust composition and concentration, the specific power consumption
of a fabric filter ranges between 2 and 3 kWh/1000 Nm off-gas. If, due to the specific additive
used, the dust collected in the filter system cannot be further processed for metal recovery and
has to be landfilled, the additional cost will be substantial.
16.3.5.2
Air abatement - aluminium industry
The following cost data is given for abatement systems used in secondary aluminium processes
and is provided by Austria. The costs are given in Austrian Schillings (ATS) and Euros (EUR),
site-specific investment, operating and disposal costs are given [ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ].
Table 16.29:
Dry scrubber and fabric filter

Simple flow injection process using a fabric filter
Input data:
Quantity
of
metal
Volume of exhaust gas of 40000 Nm/h that contains ~ 600 mg/Nm produced 40000 t/yr Al
dust, 500 mg SO2/Nm,. 300 mg HCl/Nm and 50 mg HF/Nm.
Output data:
<5 mg/Nm dust <300 mg SO2/Nm, <30 mg HCl/Nm and <5 mg
HF/Nm.
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
15
Number of years
15
6
1.54
38.61
(EUR 2.81/t)
3
11.25
(EUR 0.82/t)
Proportional costs
Consumption of CaO (kg/t metal)
22
22
Electrical energy consumption (kWh/h)

Technology costs
102
Disposal of filter dust (kg/t metal)
35 - 60
14.03
86
(EUR 6.25/t)
70 - 240
(EUR
5.09 - 17.44/t)
~ 156 - 326
(EUR
11.34 - 23.69/t)
Total costs
March 2014
1345
Annexes
[ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ]
The range of the total costs is influenced by the variability of the disposal cost for filter dust.
This factor will be a significant variable over EU.
Table 16.30:
Semi-dry scrubber and fabric filter
Semi-dry reduction process using spray absorber, fabric filter and absorbent recirculation
Input data:
Volume of exhaust gas of 40000 Nm/h,. ~ 600 mg/Nm dust, 1000 mg 40000 t/yr Al
SO2/Nm, 300 mg HCl/Nm and 50 mg HF/Nm
Output data:
<5 mg/Nm dust <200 mg SO2/Nm, <10 mg HCl/Nm, <1 mg HF/Nm
and <0.1 ng PCDD/F/Nm.
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)

20
Number of years
15
2.06

51.48
(EUR 3.74/t)
3
15
(EUR 1.09/t)
Proportional costs
22
22
Consumption of activated carbon (kg/t metal)
3.5

Technology costs
110
35 - 60
15.13
107.11
(EUR 7.78/t)
70 - 240
(5.09 - 17.44/t)
~ 180 - 350
(EUR
13.08 - 25.44/t)
Total costs
[ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ]
Table 16.31:

Semi-dry reduction process using spray absorber, fabric
filter and absorbent recirculation for sulphur dioxide-free gas
Input data:
Quantity of metal
Volume of exhaust gas of 40000 Nm/h,. ~ 600 mg/Nm dust.
produced 40000 t/yr Al
Output data:
<5 mg/Nm dust, <0.1 ng PCDD/F/Nm.
Description
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
1346
March 2014
Annexes
14
Number of years
15
1.44
36.04
(EUR 2.62/t)

3
10.5
(0.76 EUR/t)
Proportional costs
Consumption of NaHCO3 (kg/t metal) at 3ATS/kg
12
36
Electrical energy consumption (kWh/h) at 1 ATS/kWh

Technology costs
110
15 - 30
15.13
97.67
(EUR 7.1t)
15 - 30
(EUR
1.09 - 2.18/t)
~ 110 - 130
(EUR
7.99 - 9.45/t)
Total costs
[ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ]
This factor will be a significant variable over EU. In this particular example the filter dust is
based on sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride and is suitable for processing in a salt
recovery process.
Table 16.32:
Wet scrubber and ESP

Wet processes using electrostatic precipitator and scrubber
Input data: Volume of exhaust gas of 40000 Nm/h ~ 600 mg Volume of metal produced
dust/Nm, 1000 mg/Nm SO2, 300 mg HCl/Nm and 50 mg 40000 t/yr Al
HF/Nm
Output data: ~5 - 15 mg dust/Nm, <50 mg SO2/Nm, <5 mg
HCl/Nm and <1 mg HF/Nm
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
17
Number of years
15
1.75
43.76
(EUR 3.18/t)
Proportional investment costs including interest

2
March 2014
1347
Annexes
8.5
(EUR 0.62/t)
Proportional costs
Water consumption (m /t metal) and waste water disposal
0.3
1.5 - 9
11
11

Technology costs
90
10 - 35
Disposal of neutralisation sludge (kg/t metal)
15
12.38
77.14 - 84.64
(EUR
5.61 - 6.15/t)
20 - 140
(1.45 - 10.17
EUR/t)
22.5 - 45
(EUR
1.64 - 3.28/t)
~ 120 - 270
(EUR
8.72 - 19.62/t)
Total costs
[ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ]
The range of the total costs is influenced by the variability of the disposal cost for filter dust and
sludge. This factor will be a significant variable over EU.
Table 16.33:

Combination of semi-dry process with series scrubber using a spray
absorber and fabric filter
Input data:
Quantity of metal
Volume of exhaust gas of 40000 Nm/h, 600 mg/Nm dust, 1000 produced 40000 t/yr Al
SO2/Nm, 300 mg HCl/Nm and 50 mg HF/Nm.
Output data:
<5 mg dust/Nm, <50 mg SO2/Nm, <5 mg HCl/Nm, <1 mg
HF/Nm and the reduction of PCDD/F to under 0.1 ng ITEQ/Nm.
Costs
ATS/t metal
(EUR/t metal)
22
Number of years
15
2.27
56.63
(EUR 4.16/t)
16.5
(EUR 1.2/t)

Proportional costs
11
11
Consumption of activated carbon (kg/t metal)
3.5
160
22
109.63
(EUR 7.97/t)
Technology costs
1348
March 2014
Annexes
Combination of semi-dry process with series scrubber using a spray
absorber and fabric filter
50 - 200
25 - 50
(EUR 3.63 - 14.53/t)
~160 - 310
Total costs
(EUR 11.63 - 22.53/t)
[ 142, Boin, U. et al. 1998 ]
16.3.5.2.1
Costs associated with deSOX
Cost data has been compiled for a variety of process variations and abatement systems. Some
costs are included where available with the examples given earlier in this chapter. The cost data
is very site-specific and depends on a number of factors but the ranges given may enable some
comparisons to be made. Other cost data is provided in an appendix to this note so that costs for
processes and abatement systems over the whole of the non-ferrous metal industry can be
compared.
The Netherlands have made a comparison between the cost effectiveness of deSOX abatement
techniques of two smelters. The cost effectiveness method that is used is the method described
in Section 4.13 of the Netherlands Emission Guideline for Air (NER) and in the BREF crossmedia effects and economics as shown in Table 16.34. [ 241, Netherlands SOX paper 2008 ].
Table 16.34:
Cost effectiveness according to NER methodology

Cost, effects and cost effectiveness
Costs:
total investments, EUR million
capital costs, EUR K
fixed operation costs, EUR K
variable operating costs, EUR K
total brute (=net) yearly costs, EUR K
Effects:
yearly unabated load, Ktonne
yearly remaining emission, Ktonne
avoided SO2 in ktonne
Cost effectiveness, EUR per kg:
-with gas reheating (A/(B(1)1000))
(to prevent occurring of blue mist)
- without gas reheating
Plant A
32.4
4975
1002
7571
13548 (A)
2.67
0.45
2.2 (B)
Plant B
23.5
3839
680
1624
6143
2.0
0.3
1.7
6.2
3.7
3.6
Data from [ 303, Canadian Al Rapport final in French.pdf 2008 ].
seawater scrubber: EUR 248 - 905.5/t SO2 (annual base): 6 reference plants in Norway
NaOH-scrubber: EUR 1367 - 1627/t SO2 (annual base): 1 reference plant in Norway, 4 in
the US
double alkali scrubber: EUR 1183 - 1270/t SO2 (annual base)
calcium (carbonate): EUR 1810/t SO2 (annual base)
calcium (lime): 1954 EUR/t SO2 (annual base).
March 2014
1349
Annexes
16.3.5.3
Sulphuric acid plants
Table 16.35:
Copper smelter sulphuric acid plants
Gas Cooling and Cleaning section, Double Contact Sulphuric Acid Plant.
Applied to copper smelter
Gas cooling and cleaning
system:
Wet gas cooling and cleaning Wet gas cooling and cleaning
section for combined SO2 gas section for combined SO2 gas
of furnace and converter gases of furnace and converter gases
Equipment supplied:
2 radial flow scrubber, 3 lines

with 2 in-line wet ESPs, acid
cooler and acid circulation
pumps, 2 cooling tower, 2200
m/h cooling media circulation
1 reversed jet scrubber, 1

cooling tower, 3 lines first
stage wet ESPs, 2 lines second
stage wet ESPs, acid cooler,
SO2 stripper, acid circulation
pumps, 2 cooling towers,
6 - 24 m/h weak acid effluent
sulphuric Double catalysis sulphuric
acid plant
Contact acid plant:
Double catalysis
acid plant
Equipment supplied:
Single strand,
4 pass converter with interpass absorption after the 2nd
pass
Design basis gas-cleaning:

Gas flow
Precipitation efficiency for 91000 - 123000 Nm/h
dust
96.7 %
Design basis contact plant:
Gas flow
SO2
91000 - 123000 Nm/h
Conversion SO2/SO3
10 - 15.1 % (av. 13 %)
H2SO4 production
>99.5 %
1700 t/d
Installed costs:
Million EUR
44 - 45
Main consumption:
(1)
Electricity
75 - 80 kWh/t acid
Fuel oil
Natural gas
3 - 4 Nm/t acid
Catalyst
0.02 - 0.04 l/t acid
Labour
0.1 h/t acid
(1) reference t acid = nominal design production
[ 90, Traulsen, H. 1998 ]
1350
March 2014
Single strand,
5 pass converter with interpass absorption after the 3rd
pass

45000 - 115000 Nm/h
96.7 %
45000 - 115000 Nm/h

6 - 11.3 %
>99.5 %
1350 t/d
51 - 52
( 1)
55 - 60 kWh/t acid
2 - 3 kg/t acid
0.02 - 0.04 l/t acid
0.1 h/t acid
Annexes
Table 16.36:

Lead/Zinc smelters
Cost
Year
Components
(EUR per t/yr of acid)
1995 Double contact plant
40
155
1996 Double contact plant + Hg removal
120
130
1997 Double contact plant + Hg removal
100
2009
Addition of 5th bed with blower

capacity increase
2009
Change of catalyst in 4th bed to

incorporate caesium promoted
catalyst
2009
H2O2 scrubber for 100000 t/yr acid

plant
Acid production
800000 t/yr acid

100000 t/yr acid
200000 t acid
100000 t/yr acid
200000 t acid
Updated costs
Total cost EUR 8 million provided by Lurgi
(Outotec)
Updated
costs
Total cost EUR 700000 provided by Lurgi
(Outotec)
Updated
costs
Total cost EUR 25
provided by Lurgi
million
(Outotec)
[ 117, Krger, J. 1999 ]
March 2014
1351
Annexes
16.3.5.4
Effluent treatment systems
Table 16.37:
Weak acid neutralisation

Neutralisation of weak acid from a sulphuric acid plant
and other acidic process water
System equipment: Thickeners, tanks, pumps, filter press
Application:
Weak acid resulting from an SO2 gas flow of 200000 Nm/h
Design basis:
Flow
32 m/h weak acid
Installed cost:
Million EUR
2.5(1)
Main consumption:
Electricity
200 kW
Lime milk (10 %)
15 m/h
H2SO4 (10 %
0.8 m/h
FeSO4.7 H2O
80 kg/h
(1) Civil work, erection, etc. excluded; for installed costs approximately 90 - 110 % will
have to be added. SOURCE: Lurgi Umwelt GmbH
2005 Waste water treatment plant for 350 to 400 m /hr for a zinc/lead plant producing 140000
t/yr metal with lime and FeCl3 treatment, settlement tanks and sludge filter press. Cost EUR 3
million. Local treatment for weak acid is undertaken at additional cost.
1352
March 2014
Annexes
16.4
Annex IV: International regulations (overview)
In this section, a rough overview of important regulations on an international level effecting the
copper production industry is given. International regulations and agreements have been worked
out on different levels. Besides the European level, the different international committees of the
United Nations like UNEP, UNCED, UNECE, WHO, IFCS have to be mentioned and the
implications of the Kyoto and Montreal Protocols taken into account. In addition, the OECD is
working in the field of environmental protection. Important international regulations, effecting
the pollution of the different environmental media are [ 121, Rentz, O. et al. 1999 ]:
16.4.1
Long Range Treaty on Air Pollution (LRTAP)
International efforts to reduce the adverse effects of the transboundary acidification on forests,
aquatic ecosystems, and human health, by way of internationally co-ordinated emission
reductions, were undertaken in the 1979 Convention on Long Range Trans-boundary Air
Pollution (LRTAP). After coming into force in 1983, the LRTAP Convention was augmented
by:
the 1984 Protocol on long-term financing;

the 1985 Helsinki Protocol reducing sulphur emissions or their transboundary fluxes by at
least 30 %;
the 1988 Sofia Protocol on the freezing of the emission of nitrogen oxides;
the 1991 Geneva Protocol on the control of the emission of volatile organic compounds;
and
the 1994 Oslo Protocol on the further reduction of the emission of sulphur dioxide
the 1998 Aarhus Protocols on Persistent Organic Compounds (POPs) and on Metals.
16.4.2
Basel Conventions
The Basel Conventions declare the responsibility of OECD states regarding the control of
transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal. It was adopted in March 1989
and entered into force in May 1992. In 1996, more than 100 countries plus the EC are parties to
the Convention. The conventions comprise Technical Guidelines for waste management
activities. In this guidelines materials are divided into substances with a ban for export (list A)
and substances, which still can be exported to non-OECD countries. A decision adopted by the
parties in 1994 prohibits with immediate effect the export from OECD countries of hazardous
wastes destined for final disposal in non-OECD countries. The decision also phased out similar
exports destined for recycling or recovery operations before banning them completely on 31
December 1997.
16.4.3
OECD-Council decision on Trans-frontier Movements of

Hazardous Wastes
As a reaction of the "Basel Convention" of the United Nations, the council of the OECD ratified
the council decision C 88(90). A three-tiered system was proposed to delineate controls to be
applied to transfrontier movements: Wastes destined for recovery operations included on the
green list would move among OECD Member countries toward recovery operations subject to
all existing controls normally applied in commercial transactions. A notification procedure
would exist for wastes destined for recovery operations included in the yellow list and wastes
destined for recovery operations included in the amber list or red list would be subject to stricter
or more rigorous controls.
March 2014
1353
Annexes
16.4.4
Protection of the aquatic environment
There are several international activities concerning the protection of the aquatic environment.
The most important ones are the Oslo Paris Commission (OSPARCOM) for the protection of
the maritime environment of the North Sea and the Northeast Atlantic and the Helsinki
commission of the countries bordering the East Sea (HELCOM) for the protection of their
maritime environment.
In addition, there exist several international agreements on the pollution prevention of the main
European seas (Nordseeschutzkonferenz), lakes (Bodensee) and rivers (e.g. Rhine (IKSR),
Elbe(IKSE), Donau (IKSD), Oder (IKSO)). For example, there are two international agreements
dating from 1978 concerning the pollution prevention of the River Rhine referring to chemical
contamination and chlorides.
16.4.5
Global Environment Monitoring System (WHO/UNEP)
UNEP and WHO operate the GEMS (Global Environment Monitoring System) environmental
pollution monitoring programmes for urban air quality (AIR), food, human exposure assessment
location (HEAL), and water. The objectives of GEMS as defined at its inception are:
1354
to strengthen monitoring and assessment capabilities in the participating countries,

to increase the validity and comparability of environmental data and information,
top produce global/regional assessments in selected fields and compile environmental
information at a global level.
March 2014

16.1.1 Furnaces For Roasting and Calcining: 16.1.1.1 Rotary Kilns

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16.1.1 Furnaces For Roasting and Calcining: 16.1.1.1 Rotary Kilns

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Annexes

Furnaces for roasting and calcining

Fluidised bed reactors

Fluidised bed reactors

Multiple hearth or Herreshoff furnace

The Herreshoff or multiple hearth furnace

Steel belt sintering furnace

Reverberatory, hearth or closed-well furnaces

Blast furnaces (and the Imperial Smelting Furnace)

The furnaces are shown in Figure 16.6 and Figure 16.7.

Blast furnace for primary copper smelting

Hood off gas

Hood off gas

Electric reduction furnaces

Electric reduction furnace process and auxiliary equipment

Sderberg electrode system in an electric arc furnace

Rotary electric reduction furnace

Electric (resistance) furnaces

Electric furnace for concentrate or calcine smelting

The rotary furnace is described in Annex 16.1.1.1.

Refractory-lined pits and crucibles

Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnaces and the KRS furnace

Lance (in raised position)

Lance lifting gear

Crude lead (to

Top blown rotary converter (TBRC) and tilting rotating oxy-fuel

Rotate drive motor

TBRC and TROF

The Noranda, El Teniente, Baiyin and Vanyukov processes

Flux, pelletised concentrates and coal fines

The Noranda reactor

Air and oxygen

The Mitsubishi process

Cyclone smelting furnaces

These processes are mainly used to smelt copper concentrates.

Outotec flash furnace

The Outotec flash furnace

The INCO Furnace

Kivcet (KSS) furnace

The Kivcet Furnace

The Peirce-Smith converter

The Hoboken converter

Kennecott/Outotec flash converter

Melting and refining furnaces

Indirectly heated kettles

Shaft furnaces for melting metal

Electron beam furnaces

Reverberatory (closed-well) furnaces

Summary of furnaces in common use

Drying, roasting, sintering and calcining furnaces

Copper and some others

Most metals for drying;

Copper, nickel, cobalt,

Calcining and roasting

Zinc and lead

Zinc and lead

Drying, calcining and

Mercury and refractory

Smelting and converting furnaces

Aluminium, lead and

For the production of

Matte and anode scrap

Clean metal and scrap