Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................... 1
vi
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 12
Volumes
Volume 1
Volume 5
Bridge Design
Volume 4
Volume 6
Highway Design
Annex
A
B
Estimating Scour
vii
Table 3-3
Table 3-2
Table 3-4
Table 3-5
Table 3-6
Table 3-7
Table 3-8
Table 3-9
Table 3-10
Table 3-11
Table 4-1
Table 4-2
Table 4-3
Table 4-4
Table 4-5
Table 4-6
Table 4-7
Table 4-8
Table 4-9
Table 4-10
Table 4-11
Table 4-12
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
Table 5-3
Table 5-4
Table 5-5
Table 5-6
Table 5-7
Table 5-8
Table 5-9
Table 5-10
Table 5-11
Table 5-12
Table 5-13
Table 5-14
viii
Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) - Natural Channels ................. 4-12
Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) - Floodplains ............................. 4-12
Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient 'n' (Uniform Flow) Man-made Channels &
Overview of Different Software for Flood and Drainage Analysis ................................................... 4-38
Minimum Hydrological and Hydraulic Reporting Requirements ..................................................... 4-40
Design Flood - Suggested Protection Levels .................................................................................................5-3
Causes of Dike Damage and Potential Countermeasures ........................................................................5-5
Table 6-1
Table 6-3
Table 6-2
Table 6-4
Table 6-5
Table 6-6
Table 6-7
Table 6-8
Table 6-9
Table 6-10
Table 6-11
Table 6-12
Table 6-13
Table 7-1
Table 7-2
Table 7-3
Table 7-4
Table 7-5
Table 9-1
Table 9-2
Table 9-3
Table 9-4
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-4
Figure 3-5
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-4
Figure 4-5
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-7
Figure 4-8
Figure 4-9
Figure 4-10
Figure 4-11
Figure 4-12
Hydraulic Gradeline and Energy Grade Line for Piped Drainage Systems ................................... 4-17
Commonly Used Culvert Shapes ...................................................................................................................... 4-22
Figure 4-14
Figure 4-16
Figure 4-15
Figure 4-17
Figure 4-18
Figure 4-19
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-7
Figure 5-8
Figure 5-9
Figure 5-10
Figure 5-11
Figure 5-12
Figure 5-13
Figure 5-14
Figure 5-15
Figure 5-16
Figure 5-17
Figure 5-18
Figure 5-19
Figure 5-20
Figure 5-21
Figure 5-22
Figure 5-23
Figure 5-24
Figure 5-25
Figure 5-26
Figure 5-27
Figure 5-28
Figure 5-29
Figure 5-30
Figure 5-31
Figure 5-32
Figure 5-33
Figure 5-34
x
Plan and Perspective of Dike Showing the Location of Access Road .................................................5-8
Example of Crib-Wall used with Restricted Space .................................................................................. 5-10
Example of Spur dikes used to protect outer River Bank .................................................................... 5-18
Example of Spur dikes used with Bridge Design...................................................................................... 5-19
Example Permeable Spur Dike ......................................................................................................................... 5-20
Dimensions of Spur Dike Impermeable Overflow Type .................................................................... 5-22
Effective Length of a Spur Dike ........................................................................................................................ 5-23
Sodding with Grass or Some Other Plans (Natural Type) .................................................................... 5-31
Wooden Pile Fence ................................................................................................................................................ 5-32
Figure 5-35
Figure 5-37
Figure 5-36
Figure 5-38
Figure 5-39
Figure 5-40
Figure 5-41
Figure 5-42
Figure 5-43
Figure 5-44
Figure 5-45
Figure 5-46
Figure 5-47
Figure 5-48
Figure 5-49
Figure 5-50
Figure 5-51
Figure 5-52
Figure 5-53
Figure 5-54
Figure 5-55
Figure 5-56
Figure 5-57
Development of Residual Hydraulic Pressure without Drainage Pipes/ Weep Holes ............ 5-50
The Need for Filter Cloth/ Gravel ................................................................................................................... 5-50
Typical Groundsill Layout .................................................................................................................................. 5-55
Figure 5-58
Figure 6-2
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-3
Figure 6-4
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-9
Figure 6-10
Figure 6-11
Figure 6-12
Figure 6-13
Figure 6-14
Figure 6-15
Figure 6-16
Example Low Flow Channel for Dry Weather Flows ............................................................................. 6-12
Maximum Rate of Expansion ............................................................................................................................ 6-12
Debris Deflector Walls ......................................................................................................................................... 6-17
Typical Inlet Structures ....................................................................................................................................... 6-17
Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Multiple Pipe or Box Culverts ................................. 6-20
Typical Rock Pad Outlet Configuration ........................................................................................................ 6-20
Typical Orientation and Set-Back of Outlet ................................................................................................ 6-21
Grated Pit (in depression) Inflow Rating Curves ..................................................................................... 6-23
Side Opening Pit (in kerb or gutter) Inflow Rating Curves ................................................................. 6-24
Inlet Weir Flow Behavior ................................................................................................................................... 6-25
Inlet Orifice Flow Behavior ................................................................................................................................ 6-26
Typical Schematic of Detention Basin........................................................................................................... 6-28
xi
Figure 6-17
Example of Above Ground Detention System after Heavy Rain ........................................................ 6-28
Figure 6-19
Figure 6-18
Figure 6-20
Figure 6-21
Figure 6-22
Figure 6-24
Figure 6-23
Figure 6-25
Figure 6-26
Figure 6-27
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-4
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-6
Figure 7-7
Figure 7-8
Figure 7-9
Figure 7-10
Example Sea Wall - Constructed to appear like a natural bluff ......................................................... 7-13
Example Detached Breakwaters .................................................................................................................... 7-13
Figure 7-11
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-1
Figure 4-13
xii
Abbreviations
Abbreviation
Definition
ALS
AMWS
BF
Blockage factor
BMPs
CAD
CETMEF
CIRIA
CUR
DEM
DENR
DFL
DGCS
DID
DNR
DPWH
DTMR
EGL
EO
Executive Order
FCSEC
FHWA/FHA
GIS
GPS
GPTs
HEC23
HEC-HMS
HEC-RAS
HGL
HWL
ICOLD
IPCC
IRR
LiDAR
LLDA
LWUA
MC
Memorandum Circular
MMDA
MO/DO
MSMA
Manual Saliran Mesra Alam (Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia)
MWSS
N/A
Not Applicable
NAMRIA
xiii
Abbreviation
xiv
Definition
NDCC
NJDEC
NRE
OWL
PD
Presidential Decree
PAGASA
PNG DoW
PPA
Project ENCA
PUB
QUDM
Rep.
Representative
RIDF
Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency
SCS
SMA
SUDS
TRM
UDFCD
UH
Unit Hydrograph
USACE
USBR
USDA
WSUD
Glossary
Acronym
Definition
Abutment
Structure at the two ends of a bridge used for transferring the loads from the bridge superstructure to
the foundation bed and giving lateral support to the embankment.
Afflux
The upstream rise of water level above the normal surface of water in a channel caused by an
obstruction in the waterway, such as a bridge or weir or by regulation. The increased amount of water
which occurs upstream from a structure (dam) or obstruction in a stream channel, due to the existence
of such obstruction and the raising of the water level to considerable distance upstream.
Alluvial
A fan shaped deposit formed where a stream emerges from an entrenched valley into a plain or flat.
Alluvial Stream
Annual Risk of
Exceedance
The chance or probability of a natural hazard event (usually a rainfall or flooding event) occurring
annually and is usually expressed as a percentage.
Apron
A floor or lining of concrete, timber, or other resistant material at the toe of a dam, bottom of a spillway,
chute, etc. to protect the foundation from erosion and falling water or turbulent flow.
As-Built Plan
A scaled drawing that shows a project and infrastructure components after completion of construction
Avulsion
A sudden cutting off of land by floods, currents, or change in course of a body of water.
Backwater
The rise of water level that occurs immediately upstream from a structure (eg.dam) or obstructions in a
river to a considerable distance brought about by the presence of structure.
Bed Load
Material moving on or near the stream bed by rolling, sliding, and sometimes making brief excursions
into the flow of new diameters above the bed.
Bed Material
Berm
A horizontal strip or shelf built into an embankment or cut, to break the continuity of an otherwise long
slope.
Bioengineering
The use of mechanical elements in combination with biological elements (e.g.plants) particularly for
control of erosion and prevention of slope failures.
Borrow Site
An excavation source ouside the project area that is used to supply soils for earthwork construction (i.e.
gravel pit).
Borrow Materials
Bridge
A structure carrying a road over a road, waterway or other feature, with a clear span over 3.0 meters
along the centreline between the inside faces of supports. A bridge may have an independent deck
supported on separate piers and abutments, or may have a deck constructed integral with supports.
Catchment Area
(alias Catchment Basin,
Watershed, Drainage
Area, Drainage Basin,
River Basin)
The area from which a lake, stream or waterway receives surface water which originates as
precipitation.
Climate Change
A long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years.
Coarse-grained Soils
Soils with more than 50% by weight of grains retained on the number 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
Cohesionless Soils
Granular soils (sand and gravel type) with values of cohesion close to zero.
Cohesive Soils
Concrete
Cross Section
(alias Cross Section Plan)
Culvert
A structure in the form of a pipe or box, below road level, for conveying storm water runoff .
Cutoff
A wall or diaphragm of concrete or steel, or a trench filled with puddled clay or impervious earth.
Debris
Any uprooted trees and other materials carried by the water in the creek or river.
xv
Density
Design Life
Period assumed in the design for which the infrastructure is required to perform its function without
replacement or major structural repair.
Detached Breakwaters
A structure parallel, or close to parallel, to the coast, build inside or outside the surf zone.
Digital Photogrammetry
(alias Photogrammetry)
The art of using computers to obtain the measurements of objects in a photograph. It typically involves
analyzing one or more existing photographs or videos with photogrammetric software to determine spatial
relationships.
Ditch
An artificial open channel or waterway constructed through earth or rock, for the purpose of carrying
water.
Drawdown
The magnitude of the lowering of a water table, usually near a well being pumped.
Dredging
Removal from beneath water and raising through water of soil rock and debris.
Embankment
A line joining the elevation of energy heads of a stream; a line drawn above the hydraulic grade line a
distance equivalent to the velocity head of the flowing water at each cross section along a stream or
channel reach or through a conduit.
Factor of Safety
The ratio of a limiting value of a quantity or quality to the design value of that quantity or quality.
Flood Control
Detention or diversion of water for the purpose of reducing discharge for downstream inundation.
Flood Plain
Force
A push or a pull in a given direction on a body that changes or tends to change its state or rest. (or its
state of motion).
Free Water
(alias Phreatic Water,
Gravitational Water)
Water that is free to move underground through a soil mass under the influence of gravity.
Gabion
A basket or cage filled with earth or rocks and used especially in building a support or abutment.
A curve drawn on a log scale to represent the distribution of particle sizes in a soil.
Gravity Walls
Retaining walls which depend upon their selfweight to provide stability against overturning and sliding;
usually made of a high bulk structure
Grouted Riprap
When the stones in the rip-rap are fastened together by grout of mortar.
Groin
(alias Groyne)
A wall, crib, row of piles, stone, jetty or other barrier projecting outward from the shore or bank into a
stream or other body of water, for the purpose of protecting the shores or bank from erosion, arresting
sand movement along the shore, concentrating the low flow of a stream into a smaller channel, etc.
Line connecting the points to which the liquid would rise in piezometer tubes if inserted at various
places along any pipe. It is the measure of the pressure head plus the elevation of the pipe at these
various points.
Hydrofracturing
In-situ
Land-use Map
Maps that reflect the land resources and types of land use in the national economy.
Levee
(alias Dike)
An embankment, generally constructed on or parallel to the banks of a stream, lake or other body of
water for the purpose of protecting the land side from inundation by flood water, or to confine the
stream flow to its regular channel.
A remote sensing technology that measures distance by illuminating a target with a laser and analyzing
the reflected light. Although thought by some to be an acronym of Light Detection And Ranging, the term
lidar was actually created as a portmanteau of "light" and "radar".
Lining
A protective covering over all, or over a portion of the perimeter of a conduit, canal, or reservoir, to
prevent seepage losses, to withstand pressure, or to resist erosion.
Longitudinal Section
Manhole
An opening through which a person may enter or leave a sewer, conduit, or other closed structure for
inspection cleaning, and other maintenance operations, closed by a removable cover.
Matchline
A line on a design drawing that projects a location or distance from one portion of the drawing to another
portion of the drawing.
xvi
The average height of the sea for all stages of the tide. Mean sea level is obtained by averaging
observed hourly heights of the sea on the open coast or in adjacent waters having free access to the
sea, the average being taken over a considerable period of time.
Navigational
Pertaining to, or used in, conducting ships or other vessels on the water from one place to another.
Open Channel
Any conduit in which water flows with a free surface. Channel in which the stream is not completely
enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
Parcellary Survey
Pier
A structure usually of concrete or stone masonry, which is used to transmit loads from the bridge
superstructure to the foundation soil and provide intermediate supports between the abutments.
Pile
A slender member that is driven (hammered), drilled or jetted into the ground. Piles are usually
constructed of timber, steel or pre-stressed reinforced concrete.
Piping
The movement of soil particles as a result of unbalanced seepage forces produced by percolating
water.
Profile
Reinforced Concrete
A composite material which utilizes the concrete in resisting compression forces and some other
materials, usually steel bars or wires, to resist the tension forces.
Retaining Wall
A structure usually made of stone masonry, concrete or reinforced concrete that provides lateral
support for a mass of soil.
Riprap
Rock or other material used to armor shorelines, streambeds, bridge abutments, piling and other
shoreline structures against scour and water erosion.
River Training
A group of engineering works built along a river or a section thereof in order to direct or lead the flow to
a prescribed channel, with or without the construction of embankments.
Rubble Concrete
Concrete in which large stones are added to the freshly placed concrete while it is still soft and plastic.
Runoff
Sand
Particles that pass through a number 4 sieve (4.75 mm), and retained on a number 200 sieve (0.075
mm).
Scour
Scoured Depth
Depth of Scour
Settlement
Sheet Piles
A long vertical earth retention and excavation support, steel, vinyl or reinforced concrete, driven into the
ground with interlocking edges to form a continuous wall to resist water or earth pressure.
Stilling Basin
A depression in a channel or reservoir deep enough to reduce the velocity or turbulence of the flow.
Artificial Submerged
Reefs
An alternative method of shoreline stabilization and beach erosion control, using a man-made
underwater structure to mitigate the wave induced erosion.
Time of Concentration
The period of time for the stormwater or rainwater to flow from the most distant point to the point under
consideration.
Topographic Plan
A graphic representation of horizontal and vertical positions of an area which uses contour lines to
show mountains, valleys, and plains.
Topographic Survey
(alias Ground Survey)
Collection of data to represent horizontal and vertical positions of an area, including features such as
roads, bridges and bodies of water with contours, elevations and coordinates.
Tributary
A stream or other body of water, surface or underground, which contributes its water, either
continuously or intermittently, to another and larger stream or body of water.
Vertical Alignment
The position or the layout of the highway on the ground which includes level and gradients.
Wave Height
The height of the wave from the wave top, called the wave crest to the bottom of the wave,
called the wave trough.
xvii
Wave Runup
The maximum vertical extent of wave uprush on a beach or structure above the still water level (SWL).
Weep Hole
An opening provided during construction in retaining walls, aprons, canal linings, foundation, etc., to
permit drainage of water collecting behind and beneath such structures to reduce hydrostatic head.
Weir
A low dam built across a river to raise the level of water upstream or regulate its flow.
Wetlands
(alias Swamp, Marshes,
Bogs)
Those areas that are inundated and saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration
sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
Wingwall
A vertical wall located at both ends of the coping of the abutment or at both extreme wall of a reinforced
concrete box culvert.
xviii
General Provisions
1.1
This guideline provides an overview of some of the key issues, considerations and
items to be incorporated into design. As with the Guide, this is not meant to be an
exclusive list of design criteria or a manual for the design of these infrastructures.
Therefore, it is important that the designs of these infrastructures are undertaken
by suitably qualified engineers with experience in undertaking this work.
1.2
The design of Sabo Engineering structures is not covered by this Guide. For the
design of Sabo Engineering structures, reference should be made to the Flood
Control and Sabo Engineering Center (FCSEC) Guideline.
PD 1067. Water Code of the Philippines, thereby revising and consolidating the
laws governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation,
development conservation and protection of water resources.
Letter of Instruction (LOI) No. 19 dated Oct. 2, 1972 directed then Secretary of
Public Works and Communications, to remove all illegal construction including
buildings on and along esteros and riverbanks, and to relocate, assist in the
relocation and determine sites for informal settlers and other persons to be
displaced
PD No. 772 of 1972, for penalizing informal settlers and other similar act.
PD No. 198. The Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973, for declaration of a
national policy of local water utilities and for creating the Local Water Utilities
Administration (LWUA).
PD 1149 of 1977 organized the National Flood Forecasting Office as one of the
major organization units of the PAGASA. This P.D. amends certain sections of
1-1
1-2
PD 187 as amended by P.D. 748 and Batas Pambansa Blg. 8, An act defining the
Metric System and its Units, providing for its implementation and for other
purposes; and MPWH Memorandum Circular No.6, dated January 6, 1983, re
Metric System (SI) Tables. Under the Local Government Code, a city or
municipality may reclassify agricultural lands and provide the manner of their
utilization and disposition.
Executive Order No. 215 and 462, for private sector participation in
hydrological endeavors.
Republic Act No. 7924 of 1994, for creating the Metropolitan Manila
Development Authority (MMDA), defining its powers and functions, providing
funding therefore and for other purposes.
IRR of Republic Act 9003 Section 6 Creation of Local Solid Waste Management
Committee (Creation of Barangay Solid Waste Management Committee)
Republic Act 7942 Philippine Mining Act of 1995
1.3
Planning Process
Master Plan a high level strategic plan that assesses existing constraints and
issues, and identifies potential solutions at a large scale. For example, for flood
control a river basin wide approach may be adopted where analysis is
undertaken on the flooding issues and potential flood control alternatives are
identified;
Feasibility Study prioritization and selection of projects from the Master Plan;
Implementation Plan a plan that specifies the works selected from the
Feasibility Study, including the funds required and the estimated benefits.
The above approach is based on Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning of
Flood Control Structures (FCSEC, 2010), and generalized for water engineering
projects in general.
Within the context of DPWH, the Master Plan and Feasibility Study represent stages
prior to, and during the Concept Development phase of the design process, while
the Implementation Plan represents the Design Development and Detailed Design
Phase.
1.4
Structure of Volume 3
Section 2 Data Requirements. This section identifies some of the key input
data sources for water engineering projects. The focus of this section is on
identifying data sources, providing an overview of these sources and key
limitations and constraints, and providing guidance on scoping for collection of
these data sources, where required.
1-3
of these methods. This chapter is intended on being a key reference chapter for
flood control, drainage, highway drainage and bridge design.
- Dikes/ Levees
- Spur Dikes
- Revetments
- Small Dams
- Groundsills
- Detention Basins
- Overland Flowpaths
1-4
- Pumping Stations
Section 8 Water Supply. This section provides the general guidance in the
design of water supply system particularly in small water system or rural
development.
Section 9 - Climate Change. This section provides a general overview of
considerations for climate change when undertaking Water Projects.
1.5
References
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Philippines.
1-5
Data Requirements
2.1
Survey
2.2
All survey should be collected based on the methods and requirements identified
in Volume 2.
Scoping Survey
The survey collected should be sufficient to undertake the analysis, while also
being sufficient to design any specific infrastructure (such as levees,
revetments etc.).
- Locality of the project site, including key place names, road names and
- The road network alignment and profile along the distribution system and
2-1
tanks
2.3
Other Data
2.3.1
Rainfall Data
Rainfall information is a key input to hydrological analysis. There are two key
types of rainfall data relevant to the design process:
2.3.2
Recorded rainfall data this data is recorded by rainfall gauges, and provides
information on historical rainfall that has occurred. Historical rainfall can be
used to verify design rainfall information or as an input to a hydrological model
in order to calibrate it to a historical flood event. This data is typically available
as a depth of rainfall over a specified time period. Rainfall gauges may collect
at small time increments (e.g. 5 minutes) through to daily time increments.
The use of multiple recorded rainfall gauges may assist in understanding the
path of a particular storm as well as the areal distribution of the rainfall.
Design rainfall information this information is the predicted 100 year rainfall,
50 year rainfall etc. that is available from PAGASA.
Evaporation Data
2.3.3
River or channel gauge data may be available for some flood control and drainage
projects. The data may either be recorded water levels, or, where a rating curve is
available, observed discharges as well. The following are key considerations:
Ensure that the datum used for the collection of the data matches the datum of
the survey. Where this is not the case, a transformation may be required.
Rating curves to determine discharges have inherent inaccuracies, particularly
with larger flows. It is best for the designer to understand the limitations and
ensure that they are aware of the likely variance in flow estimates.
Changes in river profile over time in the vicinity of the gauge have the potential
to impact on the observed water levels or discharge estimates.
2-2
2.3.4
Tidal Data
2.3.5
Observed or measured data. This data is measured in the field and represents
historical tidal measurements. Similarly with river gauges, the datum needs to
be confirmed and ensure that this is consistent with the survey being used. A
transformation may be required where this is not the case.
Predicted data. Predicted data is based on tidal constants that are available for
a number of key ports and harbors. Predicted data does not represent real
observed data, which may be influenced by factors such as storm surge and
other weather at the time. It represents the expected tidal levels where these
influences do not occur.
Wind speed data is available for a number of locations around the country, such as
airports and harbors. The information may include gust speed, average wind
speed and direction over specified increments in time that are dependent on the
measurement.
Most wind speed measurements are measured a certain height above the ground,
and therefore a conversion factor may be required for some coastal modelling
software, but this should be confirmed with the software manual.
It is also important to take into consideration the locality of the wind speed
measurement in respect to the study area. For example, a gauge at an airport near
the coast (with low vegetation) is unlikely to be representative of a lake 20km
inland and surrounded by forest.
2.3.6
Land-use Mapping
2.3.7
Aerial Photos
2-3
2.3.8
It is important to understand the date that the aerial photography was taken, as
changes may have occurred in the catchment since that time.
Soils Investigation
The stability and performance of a structure such as weir, gate, coastal revetment
or dam, etc. founded on soil depend on the subsoil conditions, ground surface
features, type of construction, and sometimes the meteorological changes. Subsoil
conditions can be explored by drilling and sampling, seismic surveying, excavation
of test pits, and by the study of existing data. These techniques are outlined in
detail in Volume 2C.
2.3.9
The data required for soil investigation for structures is equivalent to the
investigations outlined in Volume 4. It is recommended that data required for this
volume is identified for areas where structures are proposed.
Riverbed Material
Sieve analysis (typically for grain sizes less than 100 mm). This method is
outlined in Volume 2.
On-Site measurements (for coarse bed streams and rivers, with grain sizes
greater than 10 mm). These methods are outlined in Volume 2.
One-dimensional sampling method (for grain size greater than 200 mm)
Two-dimensional sampling method (for grain size less than 200 mm)
Note that at each site for the riverbed sample, a sample should be taken at the
centre (where access is possible), left and right banks.
2-4
2.3.9.1
Within the sampling spot, find the biggest riverbed material and approximately
determine its size. Measure 20 evenly spaced sampling point on the ground
using a steel tape with interval the same as that of the biggest riverbed
material. If the maximum riverbed diameter is 50 cm, then the sampling
interval should also be 50 cm as shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
2-5
Pick the stones beneath the sampling interval point and arrange it in a straight
line (Figure 2-2), from smallest to biggest. Select the stone size from the 12th
smallest interval from the arrangement. This is the equivalent 60% of the
riverbed material samples and the corresponding representative riverbed
diameter (dr).
Figure 2-2
This sample can be measured using a ruler, and dr can be computed using the
formula:
Equation 2-1
= (1 1 1 )
1
3
Measurement of Sample
( ) =
13 + 23 + + 3
3 . 100
13 + 23 + + 20
2-6
where:
2.3.9.2
= stone diameter
Find the best sampling spot in the river where representative sample of
riverbed material is exposed.
Get a sample riverbed material and approximately determine its size.
Within the sampling spot, find the biggest riverbed material and approximately
determine its size. When maximum riverbed diameter D < 10 cm, use a 1.0 m x
1.0 m improvised screen with openings evenly spaced at 10 cm both ways.
When maximum riverbed diameter D > 10 cm, use a 1.0 m x 1.0 m improvised
screen with openings uniformly spaced at 20 cm both ways at the middle. Note
that the any reasonable sized string may be used, as the string size is not
important, provided it is strong enough to be strung tightly across the frame.
Lay the improvised screen on the exposed ground making sure that representative
riverbed materials are contained within the 1 m2 area (Figure 2-5).
2-7
Pick gravels just beneath of each intersection of strings of the improvised screen
and arrange it in a straight line (Figure 2-6), from smallest to biggest. Select the
60% smallest sample from the arrangement. Say, the 15th sample in the 20 cm
spacing strings (within 5 x 5 = 25 samples) or the 60th sample in 10 cm spacing
strings (within 10 x 10 = 100 samples).
Figure 2-6 Representative Grain of Sample
Measure the dimensions of the selected grain and calculate the representative
grain diameter of the site. Calculation procedure is same as the One-Dimensional
Sampling Method.
2-8
2.3.9.3
2.3.10
The first step in designing a water system is to determine how much water is
needed by the population to be covered. The water to be supplied should be
sufficient to cover both the existing and future consumers. It must include
provisions for domestic and other types of service connections. In addition to the
projected consumptions, an allowance for non-revenue water (NRW) that may be
caused by leakages and other losses should be included.
2.3.10.1
If there are public schools and health centers in the area, they will be supplied from
the start of systems operation and be classified as institutional connections.
The total consumption is the sum of the domestic, institutional and commercial
consumptions expressed in m3/d.
2-9
2.3.10.2
Design Population
The design population is the targeted number of people that the project will serve.
The projection of served population and water demand is based on the assumption
of design period (say 5 or 10 year) and the design year (or base year).
There are two ways of projecting the design population.
1. Estimate the population that can be served by the sources. In this case, the
supply becomes the limiting factor in the service level, unless a good abundant
and proximate source is available in the locality.
GR =
where:
P2007
P2000
-1
P2007
GR
population in 2007
=
=
P2000
population in 2000
The projected population is then estimated with the same basic population
equation on a year to year projection starting from initial year population. After
determining the projected population, the next step is to determine the actual
population to be served. The primary factors in assessing the served population
are socio-economic conditions of potential service area, level of acceptance of
residents for proposed water system, availability of and abundance/scarcity of
alternative water sources and potential development program in the municipality.
Detailed discussion can be found in the Rural Water Supply Design Manual (WPP,
2012).
2-10
2.3.10.3
Water Quality
Water quality of the source water for supply is an important consideration in water
supply projects. Water quality sampling should be undertaken by appropriate
qualified personnel, and tested in appropriately certified laboratories.
2.4
References
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
2-11
Hydrology
3.1
Introduction
This section of Volume 3 provides a broad outline of hydrological techniques. It
outlines the following steps in the hydrological analysis process:
3.2
Catchment delineation
Catchment Delineation
The catchment area (Figure 3-1) is derived by delineating the basin boundary in a
topographic map. Topographic maps may include:
CAD and GIS software are likely to be the most common method for delineating
catchments in the coming years.
Provide sufficient resolution for models other than the Rational Method
(Section 3.4.1).
The level of detail that the catchment is delineated into sub-catchments is highly
dependent on the particular project and study area. For large river basins, subcatchments may be in the order of 100 km2 to 200 km2, while for drainage studies
catchments could be less than 1ha.
More details on the procedure for delineation of catchment areas is provided in
FCSEC (2010).
Figure 3-1
3.3
3.3.1
Rainfall Analysis
Rainfall analysis includes the formation of design hyetographs for hydrological
analysis, as well as the analysis of recorded rainfall data.
3-2
3.3.1.1
RIDF is separated into short duration (10 min to 1 hour) and long duration (1 hour
to 1 day). Various durations may need to be analyzed depending on the project
and the application. For example, longer durations may be more important for
storage based analysis.
PAGASA operates/maintains 52 Synoptic stations equipped with automatic
rainfall gauges. Updates of runoff analysis may be secured from PAGASA.
When a station cannot be located or there is no station, the RIDF can be estimated
from the specific coefficient shown in Iso-Specific Coefficient and the probable
daily rainfall value shown in lsohyet of Probable 1-Day Rainfall.
3.3.1.2
In the unusual situation of more than one rainfall station in a catchment, the
catchment average rainfall can be determined in accordance with the methods
described in Section 3.3.4.
Establishing a Temporal Pattern
With the exception of the Rational Formula, the majority of hydrological analysis
requires the establishment of a temporal pattern. In the absence of other
information, the Alternating Block Method is an appropriate approach to
determining the temporal pattern. This methodology is described in detail in
FCSEC (2010) as well as many hydrological textbooks.
3.3.1.3
Intense rainfall is unlikely to be distributed uniformly over a large river basin. The
basin mean rainfall for specified frequency and duration is less than point rainfall.
To account for this, Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning of Flood
Control Structures (FCSEC,2010) recommends the use of Horton's formula to
convert point rainfall to basin mean rainfall. This is presented in Equation 3-1.
Equation 3-1
where:
I
Io
0.31 ]
= [0.1(0.386)
=
3-3
3.3.2
3.3.3
Fa
Effective Rainfall
The next step after determination of design hyetograph is to estimate the effective
rainfall. The effective rainfall or excess rainfall is neither retained on the land
surface nor infiltrated into the soil but becomes direct runoff to the outlet of the
river basin. A lot of methods have been proposed to estimate effective rainfall;
however, when data are available effective rainfall can be established by the
relationship between rainfall and runoff.
3.3.4
For validation of RIDF values, where the recording period is sufficiently long.
Intensities from the recorded data series and the associated return period can
be determined and compared with the RIDF values. This is particularly useful
where there is no synoptic gauge within the catchment.
For comparison of the assumed temporal pattern from the design hyetograph
with actual recorded temporal patterns.
An analysis technique for the determination of return period for recorded rainfall
is presented in Section 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 of Technical Standards and Guidelines for
Planning of Flood Control Structures (FCSEC, 2010).
Average Rainfall in Catchment Area
There are three methods of determining the catchment area average rainfall, as
described below. These are generally applied to the analysis of recorded rainfall
data. However, where multiple RIDF gauges exist within or near a catchment, the
Arithmetic Mean and Thiessen Method can also be adopted.
3.3.4.1
Detailed examples for undertaking these methods are presented in the Technical
Standards and Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures (FCSEC, 2010).
Arithmetic-Mean Method
This is the simplest method by averaging the rainfall depths recorded at a number
of gages. This method is satisfactory if the precipitation is almost uniformly
distributed within the catchment area.
3-4
3.3.4.2
Thiessen Method
This method assumes that at any point in the catchment area, the rainfall is the
same to the nearest rainfall gauge. The value recorded at a given rainfall gauge can
be applied halfway of the next station in any direction.
3.3.4.3
The relative weights for each gauge are determined from the corresponding areas
of application in a Thiessen polygon network, the boundaries of the polygons
formed by the perpendicular bisectors of the lines connected to the adjacent
gauges.
lsohyetal Method
This method takes into account the orographic influences (mountains, terrain, etc.)
on rainfall by constructing isohyets, using observed depths at rain gauges and
interpolation between adjacent rain gauges.
Once the isohyetal map is constructed, the area A, between isohyets, within the
catchment, is measured and multiplied by the average rainfall depths P1 of the two
adjacent isohyets to compute the average rainfall.
3.4
Information of the storm patterns can result in more accurate isohyets; however,
a fairly dense network of rain gauges is needed to accurately construct the
isohyetal map from a complex storm.
Runoff Analysis
3.4.1
3.4.1.1
Rational Formula
This is not an exhaustive list, and does not mean that other methods cannot be
adopted where appropriate.
Rational Formula
The Rational Formula Method is one of the most commonly used for estimating
flood peak discharge for small watersheds. It is widely applied in rivers where
storage phenomena are not required, where the catchment is treated as
rectangular, symmetrical about the river course and where the rainwater flows
down the river course at a constant speed.
Basic Equation
The principle behind the Rational Formula Method is that a rainfall intensity (I)
begins and continues indefinitely and then the rate of runoff increases until it
reaches the time of concentration (tc), where all of the watersheds are contributing
3-5
to the flow at the outlet point or point under consideration. The Rational Formula
is provided in Equation 3-2.
The Rational Formula is applicable to a rural or forested catchment area smaller
than 20 km2.
For urban catchments, caution should be applied in the application of the Rational
Formula for catchments greater than 5 km2. In urban catchments, the impacts of
local obstructions, hydraulic controls and localized storages can result in
significant impacts on the peak flow estimate.
Equation 3-2
where:
3.6
QP
=
=
The key assumptions associated with the Rational Formula Method are:
The computed peak rate of runoff at the outlet point is a function of the average
rainfall rate during the time of concentration, i.e., the peak discharge does not
result from a more intense storm of shorter duration, during which only a
portion of the watershed is contributing to the runoff at the outlet.
The time of concentration is the time for the runoff to become established and
flow from the most remote part of the drainage area to the outlet point.
Rainfall intensity is constant throughout the rainfall duration.
3-6
Figure 3-2
Delineate SubCatchments
urban
Is the catchment
urban or rural
Is Catchment
Area < 5km2?
Is Catchment
Area < 20km2?
Y
Y
Rural
Y
Y
Are storage
issues
important?
N
Other Hydrological
Analysis Method
required
3.4.1.2
Rational Formula
Appropriate
Other Hydrological
Analysis Method
required
*Other hydrological analysis method may include the Unit Hydrograph or other computer based methods
The runoff coefficient (c) is the least precise variable of the Rational Formula
implying a fixed ratio of peak runoff rate to rainfall rate for the catchment area,
which in reality is not the case. Proper selection of the runoff coefficient requires
judgment and experience on the part of the hydrologist/engineer. The proportion
of the total rainfall that will reach the river and/or storm drains depends on the
percent imperviousness, the slope and the ponding characteristics of the surface.
Impervious surface, such as asphalt pavements and roofs of buildings, will produce
nearly 100% runoff after the surface has become thoroughly wet, regardless of the
slope.
Some general guidance on potential c values to adopt is provided in Table 3-1.
Field inspection, aerial photographs, and present land use maps are useful in
estimating the nature of the surface within the target basin. The runoff coefficient
will increase with urbanization due to increased impervious surface and
installation of drainage system. In a large-scale development, the projected runoff
3-7
After the existing and the future land uses are obtained, the area is categorized and
measured to obtain the percentage of each category to the total catchment area.
From the percentage of each area, the weighted average runoff coefficient is
calculated.
Table 3-1
3.4.1.3
Minimum
Maximum
0.50
0.75
0.30
0.55
0.70
0.95
0.50
0.80
0.60
0.90
0.20
0.30
0.90
1.00
0.30
0.60
Rocky Surface
0.70
0.90
0.70
0.90
0.30
0.50
0.30
0.50
0.50
0.70
0.70
0.80
There are a number of methods for calculating the time of concentration. The
following provides an overview of Kirpichs Formula and Kravens Formula. FCSEC
(2010) recommends the use of Kirpichs Formula over Kravens Formula.
0.01950.77
0.385
Equation 3-4
3-8
1.15
51 0.385
where:
tc
Kravens Formula
This methodology divides the time of concentration into an inlet time and a flow
time. It is applicable for rural catchments.
The time of concentration (tc) for the catchment area is obtained from Equation
3-5.
Equation 3-5
where:
= +
ti
tf
Inlet Time
inlet time = time it takes for flow from the remotest point to the
inlet point or farthest point of river channel
flow time = time it takes from the inlet point or farthest point of
the river channel to the outlet point or point under consideration
= L/ V
length of river channel from its outlet point to its farthest point
(m)
Find the inlet point. If the estimated inlet catchment area is over 2 km2, the inlet
time is t = 30 min
When the catchment area (A) of the farthest point of the channel is clearly
judged to be less than 2 km2, compute the inlet time (min.) from A (km2) in
Equation 3-6
Equation 3-6
Flow Time
30
2
Flow time is computed from Kraven's Formula (Table 3-2), which gives relations
between slope of water course and flow velocity as shown below. The gradient
represents the average gradient for the water channel.
3-9
Table 3-2
Kravens Formula
Sb >1/100
(steep slope)
Sb<1/200
(mild slope)
3.5
3.0
2.1
3.4.1.4
For Urban Catchments, the minimum time of concentration should be no less than
5 minutes.
One method of calculating the time of concentration for urban catchments is to
divide the time of concentration into three components:
The total time of concentration then represents the addition of each of these
values.
Estimation of these components is provided in Table 3-3.
Table 3-3
Travel Path
Overland Flow
107 13
=
15
Curb and Gutter Flow
Drain Flow
40
=
60 23 12
Remark
to = overland flow travel time (minutes)
L = Overland sheet flow path length (m)
For steep slopes (> 10%), L 50 m
For moderate slopes (< 5%), L 100 m
For mild slopes (< 1%), L 200 m
n* = Hortons roughness value for the surface (refer Source:
DID, 2012
Table 3-4)
S = slope of overland flow surface (%)
tg = curb and gutter flow time (minutes)
L = length of curb gutter flow (m)
S = longitudinal slope of gutter (%)
td = travel time in minutes
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (Table 3-4)
R = Hydraulic Radius (m)
S = Friction Slope (m/m)
L = Length of Reach (m)
Table 3-4
Land Surface
Paved
0.015
Bare Soil
0.0275
Poorly Grassed
0.035
Average Grassed
0.045
Densely Grassed
0.060
3-10
3.4.1.5
3.4.2
Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall excess has a constant intensity within the effective duration.
The base time of the direct runoff hydrograph resulting from rainfall excess of
given duration is constant.
The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base time are
direct proportional to the total amount of direct runoff represented by each
hydrograph. These are the principles of superposition and proportionality.
For a given watershed, the hydrograph resulting from a given rainfall excess
reflects the unchanging characteristics of the watershed. This is the principle
of time invariance, which, together with the principles of superposition and
proportionality, is fundamental to the unit hydrograph model.
Once the unit hydrograph has been determined, it may be applied to find the direct
runoff and streamflow hydrographs. A rainfall hyetograph is selected, the
abstraction or losses are estimated, and rainfall excess is calculated. The discrete
convolution equation may be used to yield the direct runoff hydrograph. By adding
an estimated baseflow to the direct runoff, the streamflow hydrograph is obtained.
The discrete convolution equation derives the direct runoff by applying the
following procedure. The individual hydrographs resulting from each rainfall
excess, are computed by multiplying ordinates of the unit hydrograph by the
rainfall excess. Each individual hydrograph starts at the same time as its respective
rainfall excess. The direct runoff hydrograph is obtained by summing the ordinates
of the individual hydrographs.
Figure 3-3 illustrates the direct runoff hydrograph from three successive rainfall
excess increments. A more detailed breakdown of the procedure is provided in
FCSEC (2010).
3-11
It is noted that the above procedure of computing the direct runoff hydrograph
from individual incremental hydrographs is time consuming. To facilitate the
computation, the matrix form is applied and is expressed as:
where:
R=
Q=RxU
R1
R2
R3
0
R1
R2
Ri
Ri-1
0 0
0 0
0 0
R1
U=
U1
U2
U3
Uj
Q=
Q1
Q2
Q3
Qk
=
=
The unit hydrograph method has been applied to many river basins in many
countries where several synthetic unit hydrographs have been developed.
Synthetic unit hydrograph can be estimated for ungauged river basins by means of
relationships between parameters of a unit hydrograph model and the physical
characteristic of the river basin.
The SCS Unit Hydrograph is detailed in FCSEC (2010).
3-12
3.4.3
Storage function model treats the behavior of flow of channel and flood plain as a
single unit, and is most suitable when applied to the fixed type of flood flow. The
storage function model, when compared with the non-uniform flow model, has an
advantage that it can simulate a decrease of discharge to the flow direction by
inundation.
The storage function model was derived based on the assumption that the relation
between water level (H) and discharge (Q) is a single-valued function. Hence, this
model cannot be applied to estuaries and confluence of rivers.
3.4.4
The Storage Function Method is described in detail in FCSEC (2010). This method
is typically implemented through computer models.
Flood Frequency Analysis
Given the statistical series of flood peaks, a continuous distribution is used to fit
the historical sequence. A frequency function can be generalized to represent the
series as function of:
where:
X
Xave
X = Xave + K x
=
=
K
=
frequency factor defined by a specific distribution & is function
of the probability level
3.4.5
Flood distribution function is generally skewed and may follow either the Gumbel
(Fisher-Tippet Type I) or the Pearson Type III (Gamma Distribution).
3-13
larger than that of the bigger rivers. The specific discharge curve explains this
(refer to Figure 3.4 Specific Discharge Curve, where the specific discharge is the
ordinate and the size of the catchment area as the abscissa). From this curve,
design discharge is roughly calculated even without any runoff analysis. The
reliability of the design discharge estimated by runoff methods can be easily
assessed by comparing it with specific discharge method.
The method is best suited to rural catchments, or catchments with a lower
proportion of urbanization.
Equation 3-7
where:
q=
A=
Q=
Table 3-5 indicates constants of the Creager type specific curve for the following
equation.
Equation 3-8
where:
c=
A=
0.048 1)
= (
Table 3-5
Region
Luzon
5-year
10-year
25-year
50-year
100-year
15.66
17.48
18.91
21.51
23.83
25.37
Visayas
6.12
7.77
9.36
11.81
14.52
1747
Mindanao
8.02
9.15
1006
11.60
12.80
14.00
3-14
From the specific discharge curve, find the region where the project is located,
the return period and the catchment area in Figure 3-4.
Another way is to compute specific discharge (q) from the equation, using
catchment (A) and constant (c) from Table 3-5 with corresponding regions and
return periods.
Figure 3-4
3.4.6
3.4.6.1
Distributed flow routing models are used to describe the transformation of storm
rainfall into runoff over a watershed to produce a flow hydrograph for the
watershed outlet. This hydrograph becomes input at the upstream end of a river
system and routed through the system to the downstream end.
3.4.6.2
Several channel routing models have been proposed: These are (a) Storage
function model, (b) Muskingum, (c) Kinematic wave and (d) Muskingum-Cunge
standard and so on. These are typically incorporated through computer models.
Further details on these methods are provided in FCSEC (2010).
Baseflow
Base flow is sustained runoff of prior rainfall that was stored temporarily in the
river basin. The base flow can be assumed to be constant during the flood. When a
stream flow gauging station is located in or near the target river basin, the mean
daily discharge of one day before the floods is used as the base flow. When there
are no data available, 0.05 m3/s/km2 can be used for the base flow (FCSEC, 2010).
3-15
3.5
Computer Models
There are numerous computer models available for undertaking hydrological
analysis. For complex catchments, where a number of sub-catchments are
involved, routing needs to be incorporated and there is the potential for storage
effects, it is generally simpler and easier to incorporate these into a computer
model rather than undertake the computations manually. There are numerous
computer models available, and each one can be applicable in a range of situations.
Conceptually, most hydrological models have two functions:
Routing of the flow from the sub-catchment (from 1) along the main drainage
path or river. Types of routing models are discussed in Section 3.4.5. These
routing methods may also allow for the incorporation of storages such as dams
and detention basins.
Many of the computer models incorporate similar sub-models for undertaking the
above calculations.
Computer models are constantly evolving, and it is important for the hydrologist
to remain aware of the current software, and advantages and disadvantages of
each one. Some current available hydrological software include:
XP-RAFTS & XP-SWMM these two modelling systems are available from xpsolutions. XP-RAFTS represents a stand-alone hydrological modelling
software while XP-SWMM includes hydraulic analysis as well.
MIKE Software Available from DHI, and incorporates hydrological analysis
within the hydraulic modelling suite.
This is not an exhaustive list, and there are many software available. This Guide
does not recommend any particular software over another. However, whatever
software is utilized, it is important that key parameters for the model setup be
specific in the reporting, to ensure that this can be reviewed appropriately (refer
Section 3.6).
3.5.1
Given it wide use within the Philippines, a broad overview of the HEC-HMS
software is provided below. As noted above, this does not constitute this Guideline
recommending this software over an alternative available software.
Designers who use computer models have a duty of care to ensure that they are
familiar with the software, including the underlying assumptions of the software
and algorithms, key input data and interpretation of output data.
3-16
It is noted that many of the problems that occur with computer models are not in
the development of the program itself, but rather in the application of the software.
Typical issues include:
3.5.2
Application of the model beyond the scope for which it was intended.
HEC HMS
3-17
Figure 3-5
The HEC-HMS models that compute runoff volumes are listed in Table 3-6. These
models address questions about the volume of precipitation that falls on the
watershed: How much infiltrates on pervious surfaces? How much runs off
previous surfaces? How much runoff of the impervious surfaces? When does it
runoff?
Table 3-6
Runoff-Volume Models
Model
Categorization
Gridded SCS CN
Gridded SMA
The HEC-HMS models of direct runoff are listed in Table 3-7. These models
describe what happens as water that has not infiltrated or been stored on the
watershed moves over or just beneath the watershed surface.
3-18
Table 3-7
Direct-Runoff Models
Model
Categorization
Clark's UH
Snyder's UH
SCS UH
ModClark
Kinematic
Table 3-8 lists the HEC-HMS models of baseflow. These simulate the slow
subsurface drainage of water from the system into the channels.
Table 3-8
Baseflow Models
Model
Categorization
Constant Monthly
Exponential recession
Linear Reservoir
For modelling channel flow with HEC-HMS are listed in Table 3-9. These are the
so called routing models, simulate one-dimensional open channel flow.
Table 3-9
Routing Models
Model
Categorization
Kinematic wave
Lag
Modified Pulse
Muskingum
Confluence
Bifurcation
precipitation data are useful for calibration and verification of model parameters,
for real-time forecasting and for evaluating the performance of proposed designs
or regulations. Data from the second and third categories commonly referred to
as hypothetical or design storms are useful if performance must be tested with
events that are outside the range of observations or if the risk of flooding must be
described. Similarly, the evapotranspiration data used may be observed values
from a historical record or they may be hypothetical values.
3.6
Reporting Requirements
A hydrological report should be prepared for a project. In some cases, both the
hydrology and hydraulic report can be incorporated into a single report.
The report should contain, as a minimum, the information on parameters with
hyrdrological models provided in Table 3-10 and general information provided
Table 3-11.
Table 3-10
Hydrological
Model
Rational Formula
Parameters to Include
3-20
Unit Hydrograph
SCS Unit
Hydrograph
As above
Curve Number (CN) and why this was adopted. Provide suitable references
and information on land-uses.
General
Hydrological
Models
Table 3-11
Component
3.7
Description
Project Description
Study Area
A description of the study area should be provided, sufficient so that the reader is
aware of the location of the project. This will include:
Description of the study area
Map showing locality of the study area, including key features such as road
names, river names etc.
Coordinates of the project site location. If it is a linear structure (e.g. levee),
then the approximate centroid of the structure will suffice.
Why the hydrological analysis is required
Catchment Details
Rainfall Data
Hydrological
Analysis
Results
The results should be summarized in a clear and concise format. The results
may include:
Peak flows for different size floods;
Discharge hydrographs presented in graphical formats;
Runoff volumes.
The results presented should be suitable for the project application.
Validation
For catchments where the Rational Formula is not adopted, either the specific
discharge may be used (for rural catchments) or the Rational Formula can be
used for a sub-catchment, where this sub-catchment is sufficiently small to meet
the criteria in Section 3.4.1. As noted above, it is not intended that the two
methods will match but rather that this provides a method for cross checking the
magnitude of the results.
References
DID (Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysian Government), 2012. Urban
Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia, 2nd Edition, Government of
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center, June 2010, Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
Ministry of Public Works and Highways, 1984, Design Guidelines Criteria and
Standards for Public Works and Highways, Philippine Government, Manila.
3-21
Hydraulic Analysis
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Types of Channels
Open channels are a natural or constructed conveyance for water whereby the
water surface is exposed to the atmosphere, and the gravity force component in
the direction of motion is the driving force.
Stream channels are:
Natural channels with their size and shape determined by natural forces.
Compound in cross section with a main channel for conveying low flows and a
floodplain to transport flood flows.
Shaped in cross section and plan form by the long-term history of sediment
load and water discharge over time.
Artificial channels include roadside channels, irrigation channels, storm drains and
drainage ditches, which are:
4.3
Rivers originate from mountains and hills, pass through valleys, plains and
wetlands and then exit to the sea. A drainage basin can simplistically be divided
into three zones: headwaters (an upper erosional zone of sediment production),
transfer zone (a middle zone of sediment transport with simultaneous erosion and
deposition), and depositional zone (and a lower zone of sediment deposition)
(Figure 4-1). The actual situation is often more complex, because local geological
controls or other factors can produce local depositional zones in the upper basin
or local erosional zones in the lower basin.
4-1
Figure 4-1
The longitudinal profile of the river system tends to flatten through time by
degradation in the upper reaches and aggradation in the lower reaches (Figure 42). In most natural systems this process is slow enough to be of little engineering
concern. However, where the river system or catchment has been interfered with
historically, profile flattening may proceed at noticeable rates. In some
channelization projects, response of this type has been dramatic.
Figure 4-2
4.3.1
These are high-velocity river on steep slopes, often exhibiting a sequence of drops
and chutes controlled by large boulders, fallen timber, etc. They are also commonly
referred to as Production Zones, through the source of sediment that they can
provide for the downstream part of the river.
Erosion and deposition are sometimes confined to severe flood events. Some
mountain torrents on very steep slopes are subject to the phenomenon of debris
flows or debris torrents whereby under severe flood conditions the bed
becomes fluid and a virtual avalanche of boulders and gravel runs down the
mountainside.
4-2
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.4
Non-alluvial channels have highly developed meanders in solid rock valleys and
may have degrading beds. Many mountain rivers are classified as non-alluvial.
Transfer Zone
This zone is effectively a transitional zone between mountain torrents and alluvial
fans. Stream velocities decrease as the river channel slope also decreases. The
sediment sizes also decrease and meanders start to form.
Alluvial fans generally occur where a stream emerges from a mountain valley onto
relatively flat land. They are depositional features typically characterized by
alluvial materials and unstable multiple channels subject to frequent shifts or
avulsions.
River Geomorphology
Scientists, engineers and water resource managers are faced on how to work with
rather than against nature. Engineers working on flood defense, land drainage,
channel stability and navigation interest should balance the design with
environmental and other considerations. The need to balance the needs of
different interests, sometimes conflicting, makes it essential to take a
multifunctional approach. Engineers seek to solve riverrelated problems while
retaining those natural forms and features that allow rivers to transmit the inputs
of water and sediment, support diverse habitats and provide a pleasing landscape
for river centered recreation. Hence, a comprehensive and reliable morphological
analysis and classification system form the essential basis to sound engineering
geomorphology. The following section gives brief geomorphological principles.
Most alluvial channels exhibit a natural instability that results in continuous
shifting of the river through erosion and deposition, formation and destruction of
islands, development of oxbow lakes, and formation of braided channel sections.
The degree of channel instability varies with hydrologic events, bank and bed
instability, type and extent of vegetation on the banks, sediment mobility and
floodplain use.
Rivers have inherent dynamic qualities by which changes continually occur in the
channel position and shape. Changes may be slow or rapid, but all streams are
subjected to fluvial forces that cause changes to occur. In these streams, banks
erode, sediments are deposited, and islands and side channels form and disappear
in time.
River mechanics involves identifying the physical characteristics and
understanding the relationship of the actions and reactions of fluvial forces
tending to effect change in channel and floodplain morphology. This knowledge
enables us to estimate the likely morphological change for river channels and
floodplains as a result of fluvial forces, which assists when planning and
maintaining the built environment. The potential effect of these dynamic systems
4-3
4.4.1
Stream Types
Stream Types
Stream Types
Sinuosity Index
Straight
<1.05
Sinuous
1.05 to 1.5
Meandering
>1.5
Example Figure
Sinuosity
4.4.2
Straight Streams
Straight channels are sinuous to the extent that the thalweg usually oscillates
transversely within the low flow channel, and the current is deflected from one
4-4
side to the other. The current oscillation usually results in the formation of pools
on the outside of bends while alternate bars, resulting from deposition, form on
the inside of the bends.
4.4.3
Braided Rivers
4.4.4
The aggraded material may be deposited within the channel to form bars that may
build over time to become islands supporting vegetation. At the flood stage, the
flow may inundate most of the bars and islands, resulting in the complete
destruction of some and reworking of others. A braided stream is generally
unpredictable and difficult to stabilize because the channel changes alignment
rapidly, is subject to continual degradation and aggradation, and is very wide and
shallow even during flooding.
Meandering Streams
A meandering stream consists of winding channel planform with alternating Sshaped bends (Figure 4-4). In alluvial streams, the channel is subject to lateral
movement through the formation and destruction of bends (Figure 4-4). Bends are
formed by the process of erosion and scouring of the banks on the outside of bends
and by the corresponding deposition of bed load on the inside of bends to form
point bars. The point bar constricts the bend and causes erosion in the bend to
continue, contributing to the lateral migration of the meandering stream (Figure
4-5).
Figure 4-4
4-5
Meandering streams can experience processes such as avulsion and meander cutoff where the stream experiences a wholesale shift in alignment. This commonly
occurs when the channel breaks its banks in alluvial rivers with expansive
floodplains. The out of bank flows rework the floodplain and short circuit
meanders, creating oxbow lakes, or occupy secondary flowpaths. After a cutoff is
formed, the stream gradient is steeper; the stream tends to adjust in response to
the increase in stream power.
Prediction of the rate and direction of the meander movement can be difficult. A
review and comparison of historical mapping and aerial photographs can assist,
together with local knowledge and observations. Complex morphological
modeling, requiring detailed physical and hydrological data, can also be
undertaken to predict the movement.
4.4.5
4.5
Meandering streams and rivers with bridge crossing present challenges as the
rivers are highly rich in mobile sediment and unpredictable channel planform.
Likewise, highway embankments which may form part of flood mitigation scheme
do present the same and similar challenges. Careful consideration is required
when works are proposed in the vicinity of type of rivers as they may be flood
prone.
Sedimentation Transport
Design analysis of both natural and artificial channels proceeds according to the
basic principles of fluid mechanics. They are namely: continuity, momentum and
energy and are applied in open channel flow. Several important open channel flow
concepts and relationship are described in the succeeding sections.
4.5.1
4.5.1.1
Energy
As shown in Figure 4-5, the total energy at a given location in an open channel is
expressed as the sum of the potential energy head (elevation), pressure head, and
kinetic energy head (velocity head). The total energy at a given channel cross
section can be represented as:
Equation 4-1
= + +
2
2
4-6
where:
Et
total energy, m
flow depth, m
V
g
12
22
1 + 1 +
= 2 + 2 +
+
2
2
where:
hL
The energy equation states that the total energy head at an upstream cross section
is equal to the total energy head at a downstream section plus the energy head loss
between the two sections.
Figure 4-5
4.5.1.2
A steady flow is one in which the discharge passing a given cross section is constant
with respect to time. The maintenance of steady flow in any reach requires that the
rates of inflow and outflow be constant and equal. When the discharge varies with
time, the flow is unsteady.
4-7
4.5.1.3
4.5.1.4
4.5.1.5
A non-uniform flow is one in which the velocity and depth vary in the direction of
motion, while they remain constant in uniform flow. Uniform flow can only occur
in a prismatic channel, which is a channel of constant cross section, roughness and
slope in the flow direction. Non-uniform flow can occur either in a prismatic
channel or in a natural channel with variable properties.
Gradually varied flow is a non-uniform flow in which the depth and velocity change
gradually enough in the flow direction that vertical accelerations can be neglected.
Otherwise, it is considered to be rapidly varied
Specific Energy
Specific energy, E, is defined as the energy head relative to the channel bottom
(refer to Figure 4-6). If the channel is not too steep (slope less than 10%) and the
streamlines are nearly straight and parallel (so that the hydrostatic assumption
holds), the specific energy E becomes the sum of the depth and velocity head:
Equation 4-3
= + (
where:
depth, m
4.5.1.6
2
)
2
The velocity distribution coefficient is taken to have a value of one for turbulent
flow in prismatic channels but may be significantly different for natural channels.
Critical Flow
Critical flow occurs when the specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge in
regular channel cross sections. The depth at which the specific energy is a
minimum is called critical depth. At critical depth, the Froude number has a value
of one. Critical depth is also the depth of maximum discharge when the specific
energy is held constant. These relationships are illustrated in Figure 4-6. During
critical flow, the velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The general
expression for flow at critical depth is:
Equation 4-4
2 3
=
4-8
where:
Q
A
Figure 4-6
total discharge, m /s
4.5.1.7
4.5.1.8
4.5.1.9
Subcritical Flow
Depths greater than critical depth occur in subcritical flow, and the Froude number
is less than one. In this state of flow, small water surface disturbances can travel
both upstream and downstream, and the control is always located downstream.
Supercritical Flow
Depths less than critical depth occur in supercritical flow, and the Froude number
is greater than one. Small water surface disturbances are always swept
downstream in supercritical flow, and the location of the flow control is always
upstream.
Froude Number
The Froude number, Fr, represents the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational
forces and is defined by:
Equation 4-5
4-9
( )
where:
V
d
4.5.1.10
=
=
This expression for Froude number applies to any open channel or channel
subsection with uniform or gradually varied flow. For rectangular channels, the
hydraulic depth is equal to the flow depth.
Hydraulic Jump
4-10
4.5.2
Flow Classification
Uniform Flow
Non-uniform Flow
Unsteady Flow
4.5.2.1
The steady, uniform flow case and the steady, non-uniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in most hydraulic conditions.
Steady Uniform Flow
For a steady, uniform flow, the mean velocity, V, can be computed with Mannings
equation:
Equation 4-6
where:
1 23 1/2
velocity, m/s
P
S
=
=
slope of the energy grade line, m/m (For steady uniform flow, S
= channel slope, m/m)
4-11
Table 4-2
Minimum
Maximum
0.028
0.033
0.033
0.040
0.035
0.050
0.050
0.070
0.060
0.080
0.010
0.020
0.035
0.045
0.045
0.055
0.040
0.050
0.050
0.060
0.060
0.080
0.100
0.150
0.010
0.020
Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, bank steep, tree & brushes along banks submerged
at high flood
1. Bottom of gravel, cobbles & few boulders
0.040
0.050
0.050
0.070
Large Stream Channels (top width greater than 30m) Reduce smaller stream coefficients by 0.10
Table 4-3
Minimum
Maximum
0.030
0.035
0.035
0.050
0.030
0.040
0.045
0.055
0.050
0.070
6. Wooded
0.120
0.160
4-12
Table 4-4
Minimum
Maximum
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
3. Grass covered
0.035
0.050
4. Dredged
0.028
0.033
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.045
0.014
0.018
0.020
0.030
0.025
0.030
0.030
0.040
Table 4-5
Minimum
Maximum
0.013
0.015
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.015
0.014
0.017
5. PVC, HDPE
0.009
0.013
If the normal depth computed from Mannings equation is greater than critical
depth, the slope is classified as a mild slope while a steep slope is classified as one
where the normal depth is less than critical depth. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical
on a mild slope and supercritical on a steep slope.
Strictly speaking, uniform flow conditions seldom, if ever, occur in nature because
channel sections change from point to point. For practical purposes in most
hydraulic engineering problems, however, the Manning equation can be applied to
most streamflow problems by making judicious assumptions. When the
requirements for uniform flow are met, the depth (yn) and the velocity (Vn) are said
to be normal and the slopes of the water surface and channel are parallel. For
practical purposes, in open channel design, minor undulations in streambed or
minor deviations from the mean (average) cross-section can be ignored as long as
the mean slope of the channel can be represented as a straight line.
4-13
4.5.2.2
Non-Uniform Flow
General
For the gradually varied flow condition, the depth of flow must be established
through a water surface profile analysis. The basic principles in water surface
profile analysis are where:
There are twelve (12) possible water surface profiles (see Figure 4-9) depending
on the particular flow conditions. A complete discussion of water surface profile
analysis is contained in most open channel hydraulics textbooks, such as Chow
(1959) and Henderson (1966).
Methods of Analysis
Both methods make use of the energy equation to compute the water surface
profile. The direct step method can be used to analyse straight prismatic channel
sections only. The standard step method is applicable to non-prismatic and nonstraight channel alignments.
For a complete discussion of both refer to Open-Channel Hydraulics (Chow, 1959)
or numerous other textbooks on open channel hydraulics.
4.6
4-14
Figure 4-8
Due to the additional wetted perimeter and increased friction that occurs in a
gravity full pipe, a partially full pipe will actually carry greater flow. For a circular
conduit the peak flow occurs at 93% of the height of the pipe, and the average
velocity flowing one-half full is the same as gravity full flow.
4-15
Figure 4-9
Gravity full flow condition is usually assumed for purposes of storm drain design,
as it provides a margin of safety over designing for pressure flow. However, it may
not always be possible or suitable to avoid pressure flow.
The Manning's equation combined with the continuity equation for circular
section flowing full can be rewritten as:
Equation 4-7
where:
53 12
discharge, m3/s
pipe diameter, m
Ku
0.312
n
S
Manning's coefficient
slope, m/m
This equation allows for a direct computation of the required pipe diameter. Note
that the computed diameter must be increased in size to a larger nominal
dimension in order to carry the design discharge without creating pressure flow.
4-16
4.6.1
Energy Equation
In simple terms the energy equation states that the energy head at any cross
section must equal that in any other downstream section plus the intervening
losses (as per Section 4.5.1). The energy head is divided into three components:
the velocity head, the pressure head and the elevation head. The energy grade line
(EGL) represents the total energy at any given cross section. The energy losses are
classified as friction losses and form losses.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is below the EGL by the amount of the velocity
head. In open-channel flow the HGL is equal to the water surface elevation in the
channel, while in pressure flow the HGL represents the elevation water would rise
to in a stand pipe connected to the conduit (refer to Figure 4-10).
Figure 4-10
Hydraulic Gradeline and Energy Grade Line for Piped Drainage Systems
4.6.2
Energy Losses
When using the energy equation all energy losses should be accounted for. Energy
losses can be classified as friction losses or form losses. Friction losses are due to
forces between the fluid and boundary material, while form losses are the result of
various hydraulic structures along the closed conduit. These structures, such as
access holes, bends, contractions, enlargements and transitions, will each cause
velocity head losses and potentially major changes in the energy grade line and
hydraulic grade line across the structure. The form losses are often called "minor
losses," which is misleading since these losses can be large relative to friction
losses.
4-17
4.6.2.1
Sf
Uniform flow conditions are typically assumed so that the friction slope can be
calculated from either Manning's equation, or the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Rewriting Manning's equation for Sf:
Equation 4-8
2
= ( 23 )
2
4 2
=
where:
Q
2
2
flow
A
V
=
=
area
velocity (m/s)
diameter (m)
length (m)
hf
However, the possibilities for greater accuracy with the Darcy-Weisbach equation
are limited by determination of the Darcy f and a generally more complicated
application than the Manning's equation. Typical Manning's n values for closedconduit flow are given in Table 4-5.
4.6.2.2
Form losses occur when flow passes through structures such as access holes,
junctions, ends, contractions, enlargements and transitions. These structures can
cause major losses in both the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line across
the structure, and if not accounted for in design, the capacity of the conduit may be
restricted.
Form losses may be evaluated by several methods. The simplest method is based
on a coefficient times the velocity head, with different coefficients tabulated for
access holes, bends, inlets, etc. The general form of the equation is:
Equation 4-11
2
=
2
4-19
Table 4-6
4.6.3
Pipe network analysis involves the detailed and careful scrutiny of the fluid flow
through a hydraulic network containing several interconnected branches and
loops. In the design of a distribution system, a pipe network analysis must be done
to determine the flow rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the
network, giving the basis for selecting pipe diameters.
Conservation of mass the fluid mass entering any pipe system will be equal
to the mass leaving the system. In network analysis, outflows are lumped in
nodes. A related principle is that at each junction (node), the algebraic sum of
the quantities of water entering and leaving the node is zero.
4-20
Another way of stating it is that the difference in energy (head loss) between two
nodes in a system must be the same regardless of the path that is taken (Bernoulli
principle).
4.6.3.1
One important tool that a network designer may use is the equivalent pipe method.
It is the substitution of a complex system of pipes by a single pipe that will give an
equivalent head loss at a given flow.
Network Analysis by Conventional Method (Hardy Cross)
The most common conventional method (not using computers) that is used in
designing hydraulic networks is the Hardy Cross algorithm method. It involves
iterative trial and error.
One approach of Hardy Cross is the method of balancing the heads on the nodes by
adjusting assumed flows in the pipe elements. Clockwise flows and corresponding
head losses are assigned negative signs, and vice versa for positive signs. In the
initial trial, initial values of flows in all pipe elements are assumed subject to the
second principle above. The corresponding head losses in one closed circuit are
calculated using the Hazen Williams formula. The head losses are then added
considering their signs. This same head loss calculation and addition are done to
each of the other closed loops. The assumed flow values are adjusted and the above
procedure is done repeatedly until the summation of the head losses in the closed
circuit becomes zero.
4.6.3.2
There are a number of pipe network analysis software (also called network
simulation software, or hydraulic network modeling software) which
mathematically solve hydraulic equations for all interconnections, branches and
loops of the pipe network.
With the advent of such powerful software, the conventional methods of water
distribution design have been mostly discarded. The computer software requires
the designer to create a water supply system model by inputting in the computer
program information that includes pipe lengths, junction or node elevations,
connectivity of the pipes and nodes, demand in each node, information on pumps,
elevations of reservoirs, elevations and yield of sources.
An example of such a computer model is EPANET, which is freely available from
the US Environmental Protection Agency, although there are many different
software available.
4-21
4.7
4.7.1
Figure 4-12
4-22
Flow conditions in a culvert may occur as open-channel flow, gravity full flow or
pressure flow, or in some cases a combination of these conditions. A complete
theoretical analysis of the hydraulics of culvert flow is time-consuming and
difficult. Flow conditions depend on a complex interaction of a variety of factors
created by upstream and downstream conditions, barrel characteristics and inlet
geometry.
4.7.2
4.7.2.1
Roadside channels are commonly used with uncurbed roadway sections to convey
runoff from the highway pavement and from areas which drain toward the
highway. Curbs are normally used at the outside edge of pavements to contain the
surface runoff within the roadway and away from adjacent properties, to prevent
erosion on fill slopes, to provide pavement delineation and to enable the orderly
development of property adjacent to the roadway
Gutter cross sections usually have a triangular shape with the curb forming the
near vertical leg of the triangle. The gutter may have a straight cross slope or a
cross slope composed of two straight lines.
4-23
Figure 4-13
The resulting equation in terms of cross slope and spread on the pavement is:
Equation 4-12
where:
53 12 83
0.016
Q
Sx
S
4.7.2.2
=
=
=
=
Table 4-2 shows typical values of the Mannings roughness for various gutter or
pavement materials.
4.7.2.3
Where median barriers are used and, particularly on horizontal curves with
associated super-elevations, it is necessary to provide inlets and connecting storm
drains to collect the water that accumulates against the barrier. Slotted drains
adjacent to the median barrier and in some cases weep holes in the barrier can also
be used for this purpose.
Storm Drain
The total drainage system which conveys runoff from roadway areas to a positive
outlet including gutters, ditches, inlet structures, and pipe is generally referred to
as a storm drain system. In urban areas a highway storm drain often augments an
4-24
4.7.2.4
existing or proposed local drainage plan and should be compatible with the local
storm drain system.
Bridge Decks
4.8
Rivers generally commence in the mountains or hills, then flow along the plains
and finally join the oceans. They form more or less defined channels; drain away
the surface runoff produced by rainfall; and discharge the unutilized water back
into the sea. The rivers not only carry water but also sediments washed down from
the catchment area and eroded from the beds and the banks of rivers.
Channels are formed by the interactions of water and sediments. During large
floods, floodwaters not only overflow and bring about inundation to riverine areas,
but also cause serious sediment related damages. These include: 1) bank
erosion/collapse including dike and revetment and 2) river bed degradation.
In order to protect the populace and properties, and to reduce the extent of
overflow in the flood plain, flood control structures are planned and designed.
River channel improvement is the most common flood control scheme which aims
to either increase the carrying capacity of river, or to reduce the flood stages.
Dikes - embankment built parallel to the river banks. Levees are earth
embankment, whereas floodwalls are generally concrete walls.
Revetments - embankment protection against erosion and scouring.
Floodway - diverts river flow from one river to another water body
Dams/ Detention Structures these attenuate the flood flow and reduce the
peak flow arriving to critical areas downstream in the floodplain.
Cut-off Channel - connects the beginning and end of a meandering portion of a
stream so as to straighten the river course.
The planning and design of this river channel improvement are discussed in
Section 5.
4-25
4.9
Regulating Structures
Flood protection can also be achieved by providing a reservoir to retard or delay
excessive runoff for purpose of reducing heights of floods. The function of
reservoirs is to store water when streamflow is excessive and release it gradually
after the threat of flooding has passed. This can be accomplished by building dams
across main rivers and/or tributaries. In cases where the maximum flood level is
reached, the flood flow is regulated either by sluiceway, weirs, or spillways, and/or
combinations. The flow for this type of hydraulic structures behaves in rapidly
varied flow condition and they are treated with special hydraulic principles.
4.9.1
Ordinarily, the excess is drawn from the top of reservoir or dikes and is conveyed
through constructed water way back to river or some natural drainage channel. In
this case, they are called weirs. On the other hand, water withdrawn below dam
wall is known as sluiceways.
Weirs
Weirs may be classified as broad, roof shaped, round or sharp crested. The
discharge is estimated using weir formula of Poleny as expressed as:
Equation 4-13
where:
= 0.66(2)0.5 0.66
discharge (m3/s)
weir coefficient
B
g
hu
=
=
=
weir head, m.
Weir coefficient depends upon the crest form of the weir. Table 4-7 exhibits the
correction factor.
4-26
Table 4-7
Crest Form
0.49-0.51
0.50-0.55
Round overfall
0.70
Sharp edged
0.64
Rounded
0.75
Roof shaped
0.79
Figure 4-14 shows the weir coefficient c for submerged overfall. Whether an
overfall is free or submerged depends upon the height of the tail water level in
relation to the position of the weir crest as shown in Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-14
4-27
Figure 4-15
4.9.2
Sluiceways
In case a barrier is placed in a stream in which the flow takes place through a
geometrically fixed opening located under the upstream water level the flow is
analyzed by orifice formula. Once the orifice is considered as square or rectangular
section then it is known as sluiceway. The sluiceway as shown in Figure 4-16
serves to regulate the outflow from the upstream section.
Figure 4-16
= (2)0.5
4-28
where:
K
B
h
g
Figure 4-17
=
=
=
=
The correction for the degree of submergence is presented in Figure 4-18 and
Figure 4-19.
4-29
Figure 4-18
4-30
4.10
4.11
Bridge Hydraulics
A discussion on bridge hydraulics is presented in Volume 5 of the DGCS.
Downstream Influences
Methods such as Mannings equation assume that there are no backwater effects
influencing the capacity of the channel. However, where these are likely to occur,
then a more complex analysis of the flow conditions are required and most likely
this will need to be undertaken in a computer model.
For example, a Mannings calculation can be undertaken on a channel to determine
the capacity of that channel. However, if the channel is in an estuarine
environment then tidal influences may result in a reduced capacity and this will
not be taken into account using a simple Mannings equation.
4.11.1
Tidal effects.
Hydraulic analysis should take into consideration the impact of tidal and coastal
storm events on the capacity of river, channel and drainage infrastructure. This
should be undertaken where drainage or rivers are influenced by coastal levels.
For the purposes of this Guide, it is assumed that a channel or drainage
infrastructure may be influenced by coastal inundation where the invert is below
3 m above Mean Sea Level and it is within 5km of the coastline.
The key challenge is adopting an appropriate tidal level for use in hydraulic
assessments.
Coastal events and flood events do not always occur at the same time, nor may be
driven by the same storm systems. Furthermore, the timing can be significantly
different. For example, a storm may pass across a catchment, which results in peak
discharges prior to it passing over the coastal area.
One option, for example, is to adopt a 100 year flood with a 100 year ocean level.
However, the challenge is that this is likely to be particularly conservative, with
the resulting estimated flood levels likely to be much higher than a 100 year
frequency.
4.11.2
Analyze the X year flood with the Mean Higher High Water tide level, where X
is the flood from the catchment to be analysed.
Analyze the 5 year flood with the X year storm surge level, as defined in
Engineering Standards for Port and Harbor Structures, Volume II, Chapter 6 of
PPA (2009).
The maximum of the above two results will be the X year flood level.
As with tidal influences, the key challenge is estimating the joint probability of a
river flood with a flood in the tributary. For very large river systems, for example,
a flood may occur in the river with no significant flood flows from the tributary
catchment.
In the absence of more detailed information and probability analysis, the following
is suggested as a potential approach:
Where the catchment area of the downstream river is more than 5 times the
catchment area of the tributary
Analyze the X year flood in the tributary with the 5 year flood in the river,
where X is the flood event to be analyzed.
Analyze the 5 year flood in the tributary with the X year flood in the river.
The maximum of the above two results will be the X year flood level.
Where the catchment area of the downstream river less than 5 times the
catchment area of the tributary
When this is the case, the timing of the flood in the river is more likely to coincide
with the flooding in the tributary. Therefore, an X year flood in the tributary should
be analyzed together with the X year flood in the river.
4.11.3
It is noted that for large river systems, it may be difficult to estimate the discharge
in the river. When this is the case, the specific discharge method is one alternative
for providing a representative flow for the river (refer to Section 3.4.5).
Downstream Structures or Controls
Downstream structures may include weirs, culverts, bridges etc. These types of
structures have the potential to create an upstream afflux, which may create a
backwater into the area of analysis.
4-32
4.11.4
4.12
4.13
It is noted that there are other factors, such as landslides and volcanic lahar, which
result in increased sediment runoff and movement of debris, which should also be
considered. Reference should be made to guidance of FCSEC for Sabo Engineering.
Computer Models
Many of the calculations and methods presented in this chapter are typically
undertaken through computer models. There are numerous computer models
available, and these models are constantly evolving to include greater levels of
complexity and application.
4.13.1
Designers who use computer models have a duty of care to ensure that they are
familiar with the software, including the underlying assumptions of the software
and algorithms, key input data and interpretation of output data.
It is noted that many of the problems that occur with computer models are not in
the development of the program itself, but rather in the application of the software.
Typical issues include:
4-33
Application of the model beyond the scope for which it was intended.
4.13.2
Flood and drainage computer models can generally be characterized as onedimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D) or some combination of the two. Table 49 provides an overview of these types of models and their application. A summary
of the key advantages between 1D and 2D models are provided in Table 4-10.
Table 4-8
GeoHazard
Subsidence
Description
Regional subsidence tends to be more of an issue in coastal areas, where the global landform elevations
changes relative to ocean levels. Where subsidence occurs in a coastal area, it may be necessary to
account for this in the design. This is because the landform may settle over time relative to ocean levels,
and reduce the flood immunity or coastal protection offered by a structure.
A flood control or coastal protection measure should incorporate the expected subsidence or settlement
over the design life.
This identification of the potential for subsidence will be identified with the best available information at
the time under Volume 2A: GeoHazard Assessment. The designer will need to undertake further
investigations and assessments to identify the scale of the subsidence and mitigating actions to
overcome this.
Seismic
Similar issues may result from changes in landform from seismic activity. However, the key difference is
that seismic may result in less uniform changes in landform, and therefore can have an impact on flood
levels and flood behavior.
The PGA (Volume 2A: GeoHazard Assessment) will identify the potential level of risk. The designer will
then need to incorporate this within the design. This should also be included in hydraulic analysis and
subsequent design of infrastructure.
Storm Surge
Particularly for rivers and drainage structures close to the ocean, storm surge has the potential to
influence the capacity and flood levels in these systems. The likely occurrence of storm surge with a
catchment flood can be difficult to estimate. A suggested approach is provided in Section 4.11.1.
Storm surge will also influence the design of coastal structures. This is further discussed in Section 7.
Sediment and
Debris Flow
Factors such as landslides and volcanic lahar, which result in increased sediment runoff and movement
of debris, should also be considered. These have the potential to reduce the capacity of dams, block
hydraulic structures such as bridges and change the path of rivers.
For mitigation measures, reference should be made to guidance of FCSEC for Sabo Engineering.
Floating Debris
Floating debris includes both anthropogenic (e.g. rubbish) and natural sources (e.g. trees). These have
the potential to obstruct culverts, bridges and other hydraulic structures.
In catchments where a significant level of debris is likely, then additional blockage factors should be
applied in the design of structures, or suitable debris control structures should be planned upstream.
Some general guidance on blockage of culverts is provided in Section 6.5.6, while for the design of
Bridges reference should be made to Volume 5 ; Bridge Design.
Increased
Development and
Settlements
Increase development in a catchment can impact on the runoff, by increasing the impervious area. Both
the existing and likely future catchment conditions should be considered when undertaking hydrological
analysis. Similarly, the level of demand for water supply systems should consider the changes in
development.
Development may also impact on the capacity of floodplains and drainage channels, where development
impinges upon the flow area. This may happen through both formal and informal settlement. The impact
that this has on the capacity of the floodplain or drainage area should be considered.
4-34
Table 4-9
Model
1D models
Typical Application
The use of 1D models is generally restricted to
modelling single waterway
branches, or simply connected (dendritic)
channel systems, where flow in the floodplain is
well connected to the main channel.
Due to their inherent limitations, 1D models have
generally been replaced by more flexible 1D
branched, full 2D or combined 1D/2D models.
Branched 1D Models
3D Models
4-35
Table 4-10
Features
Advantages
Disadvantages
1D Models
Series of linked channels with
discrete cross-sections at
regular intervals
Output at each cross-section
can include water level, depth
and velocity (averages)
Requires cross-sections to be
input to model, extracted either
from field survey or DEM
Can be time consuming to build,
but relatively quick to modify
Requires more interpolation and
interpretation of results
2D models
Detailed grid or mesh-based
topography with element
resolutions for an urban
environment typically ranging
from 1m to 10m. For more
extensive floodplain
environments, element
resolution can typically range
from 10m to 100m.
Output at each grid/mesh
element can include water level,
depth and velocity.
4.13.3
4.13.4
Available Software
In addition to the above, model types, there are also numerous utilities that are
available. These types of utilities include:
4-36
4.13.5
4-37
Mass balance Some models can generate or lose water as a result of the
computational scheme. The mass balance is a quick way of checking this, and
is measured as Input Volumes = Outflow Volumes less Storage at the end of the
model run. Errors greater than 1% to 2% should generally be investigated, and
the cause of the errors identified and rectified where possible.
Continuity discharge hydrographs should be obtained at several locations
along each flowpath, and at locations upstream and downstream of major
flowpath intersections, to check that the continuity and attenuation of flows is
reasonable.
Table 4-11
Software
4.14
Hydrology
Drainage
Flood
Estimation
1D or
1D/2D
Applicability
XP-RAFTS
N/A
XP-SWMM
Y (some
pipe and
drainage
design)
1D/2D
XPDRAINAGE
1D
DHI (MIKE)
Y (more
analysis
than design)
1D/2D
HEC-RAS
1D only
HEC-HMS
SOBEK
Y (more
analysis
than design)
1D/2D
Tuflow
Y (more
analysis)
1D/2D
DRAINS
Y (more
design
oriented)
1D
WinDES
1D
Similar to DRAINS.
RORB
N/A
WBNM
N/A
Y
(although
simple)
Y (design
orientated)
1D
Physical Models
Complex flow patterns may defy accurate or practicable mathematical
modelling. Physical models should be considered when:
4-38
4.15
Understanding Accuracy
The accuracy of hydrological and hydraulic analysis is dependent on a number of
factors such as the quality of the data used in the development of the analysis (such
as topographical data, boundary conditions), assumptions in undertaking the
analysis and any calibration data that might be used. Hydrology, in particular, can
be subject to wide ranges in estimates. Even flow gauges can high wide error
ranges, particularly in large flood flows.
It is important that this be considered in undertaking any design. Particularly in
the use of computer models, there is a tendency to believe the accuracy of the
results is the same as the number of decimal places that are produced.
4.16
Freeboard on flood level estimates is often used as a way to make allowance for
the various uncertainties in the estimates. Gillespie (2005) argues that
uncertainty in factors typically included in the freeboard, such as model error,
waves, afflux and climate change, may vary between studies or locations. For this
reason the freeboard allowance should be based on the best estimate of
uncertainty in the factors relevant to the specific study, rather than be a blanket
adoption of a standard or default value. Therefore, this Guide generally provides
minimum freeboard allowances. However, higher freeboards may be adopted in
some situations, particularly where uncertainty is expected to be higher.
Reporting Requirements
A hydrological report should be prepared for a project. In some cases, both the
hydrology and hydraulic report can be incorporated into a singular report, based
on the information identified in Table 4-12.
4.16.1
The report should contain, as a minimum, the information identified in Table 3-10.
When a computer model is used for hydraulic analysis, the following should also
be provided:
4-39
Specification of key parameters adopted for the analysis and why these
parameters were adopted.
Mass Balance Error report from the model (refer to Section 4.13).
Table 4-12
Component
Project Description
Study Area
A description of the study area should be provided, sufficient so that the reader is aware of the
location of the project. This will include:
Description of the study area
Map showing locality of the study area, including key features such as road names, river names
etc.
Coordinates of the project site location. If it is a linear structure (e.g. levee), then the approximate
centroid of the structure will suffice.
Why the hydrological analysis is required
Hydrology
Where a separate hydrological report is prepared, then a reference is required for the hydrology
report. This should include the date of the report, document reference number etc.
Where the hydrological report is not combined with the hydraulic report, then a brief description of the
catchment should be provided together with a catchment map.
If the hydrological report is combined, then the requirements of Section 3 of the DGCS for hydrology
reports should be included in this report.
Design Criteria
Where the hydraulic analysis is being undertaken as part of a flood control or drainage project, a
discussion should be provided on the selection of the design flood for the design. This should take
into consideration the discussion in Section 5.2 and Section 6.2, as appropriate.
Overview of general approach to the design, such as planning considerations etc.
Hydraulic Analysis
Results
The results should be summarized in a clear and concise format. The results may include:
Peak flood levels, depths, velocities
Water level time series
Plans showing flood extents
Discussion and interpretation of the results.
The results presented should be suitable for the project application.
Design
Where the hydraulic analysis is being undertaken as a part of a flood control or drainage project, then
details will be required on the design of the structure. This will include information on the following
(where relevant):
Specification of the freeboard above the design flood achieved, and how this compares with the
requirements of this Guide.
Estimated scour depth for the structure, calculated in accordance with Annex A, where appropriate
Sizing of any protection methods, and how this was calculated.
For urban drainage pipe design, traditional HGL calculation spread sheets are not required where
computer modelling is undertaken. However, the following should be provided:
Identification numbers or equivalent for manholes and pipes, to provide reference, together
with suitable reference plans or maps
Tabulation of the following:
Catchment area assumed for each inlet
Sizing of inlets
Size of each pipe
Invert on the upstream and downstream of each pipe
Flow capacity of each pipe
Details of other key calculations as identified in Section 5 and Section 6.
4-40
4.17
References
Arizona Master Watershed Steward (AMWS), 2007. Accessed 16 September 2013,
http://ag.arizona.edu/watershedsteward/resources/module/Stream/stream_pr
oc_page5.htm
Chow, V.T., 1959, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York.
Lauterjung, H., Schmidt, G., 1989, Planning of Intake Structures, Deutsches Zenturm
fur Entwicklungstechnologien (GATE).
Philippine Port Authority [PPA] (2009). Engineering Standards for Port and
Harbor Structures, March.
US Army Corps of Engineer, 1994, Channel Stability Assessment for Flood Control
Projects, Em 1110-2-1418, US Dept. of Army.
4-42
Flood Control
5.1
Introduction
This chapter of the guideline focuses on the design of flood control structures. It
is largely derived from the Technical Standards and Guidelines for Design of Flood
Control Structures (FCSEC [1], 2010) with updates and revisions. These revisions
are based on currently international practice as well as a review of the usability of
the guideline.
This guideline on flood control structures provides an overview of some of the key
issues, considerations and items to be incorporated into design. As with the entire
Guide, this is not meant to be an exclusive list of design criteria or a manual for the
design of these infrastructures.
The infrastructure covered in this chapter includes:
5.1.1
Dikes (levees)
Spur Dikes
Revetments
Ground Sill
Small Dams
Bank Stabilization
Bank stabilization and river training is a specialized field requiring familiarity with
the stream and its propensity to change, knowledge of the bed load and debris
carrying characteristics of the stream, and experience and experimentation at
similar sites on the same or similar streams.
Attempts at localized control should be avoided where the river is in the midst of
changes by studying long reaches. Regardless of the size of the stream and the
control measures used, consider stream response to the installation of the
measure. For instance, bank stabilization at a crossing can cause scour in the bed
5-1
To a large extent, design is an art, and many questions concerning the relative
merits of various measures have not been definitively answered. General
principles for the design and construction of bank protection and training works
are:
The cost of the protective measures should not exceed the cost of the
consequences of the anticipated stream action.
Inspect the work periodically after construction with the aid of surveys to
check results and to modify the design, if necessary.
The protective measures themselves are expendable.
5.2
General Criteria
5.2.1
Design Flood
The design flood for bank protection works and dikes is typically determined at
the master plan stage. However, where a master plan has not been undertaken,
then a design flood will need to be determined in consideration of a number of
factors, including economic, environmental and social.
Likelihood refers to the frequency of the flood event, such as a 100 year flood or a
5 year flood. Consequence refers to the implications of the inundation occurring,
and may include the economic damages of inundation and potential risk to life.
These factors should be weighed up in the determination of a suitable design flood.
5-2
For protection of existing assets, then the design flood may be a level that is
achievable considering available space and constraints in installing protection
measures.
Where a revetment or spur dike is adopted, then the aim may be to alleviate
more frequent erosion problems rather than from larger events.
In the absence of a risk assessment or master plan, Table 5-1 provides design
floods that can be adopted for different river sizes.
Table 5-1
5.2.2
Design Flood
100 year
50 year
Construction of spur dikes to protect against erosion issues on the outer bend
of a river. As a result, the inner bed starts to erode, placing properties on the
inner bend at risk.
Therefore, any assessment of potential flood control works will need to consider
changes to the flood behavior in the surrounding areas. Ideally, this should be
undertaken as a part of a wider flood control master plan, as defined in FCSEC [2]
(2010). However, where this is not available, the following is recommended:
5.2.3
5.2.4
Downstream Influences
Climate Change
Climate change should be considered as a part of the design and scoping for the
project. This is outlined in Section 7.
5-3
5.3
Dike/Embankment/Levee
5.3.1
Basic Concept
5.3.1.1
5.3.1.2
Potential for breach of the dike, and the subsequent damages as a result.
Overtopping of the dike in floods larger than those planned.
Local tributary and drainage problems, and the need to allow for these in the
design of the dike.
Types of Levees
Levees can be applied for the protection of urban areas or agricultural areas. In
general, given the lower value of agricultural land, and the lower impact from
resulting inundation, urban levees tend to be the most common type. Agricultural
levees may be used in some situations to reduce more frequent, nuisance flooding
that can impact on the use of the land.
The embankment should be well away from the estimated meander belt of the
meandering river.
Valuable tillable land, wells and historical or religious structures should be
avoided.
Significant environmental assets should be avoided.
5-4
5.3.1.3
The new dike shall be designed to protect the affected flood prone areas. In
consideration of the stability of the structure, the dike alignment shall avoid
unstable peat and muck, weak subsoil, and loose sand foundation to prevent
settlement.
Materials
Dikes generally consist of soil and sand. The advantages of using earth materials
are:
5.3.1.4
If the scale of flood control plan is increased in the future, it is easier to improve.
If the dike is damaged by flood, earthquake or other inevitable disasters, it is
easy to restore.
For environmental consideration.
There are many potential causes of damage and breaching of dikes. A general
overview of some potential causes of damage and potential countermeasures are
provided in Table 5-2. However, it is important to note that each individual case
may be different, and consideration of the specific issues will need to be made.
Table 5-2
Causes of Damage
5-5
Countermeasures
Erosion (Scouring)
The surface of the dike on both sides shall be covered with vegetation for
protection against erosion. The riverside should be protected with
revetment, if necessary. Further details on suitable protection is provided
in Section 5.5.
Overflow
Seepage
Seepage can cause the dike to potentially collapse. Further details for
dealing with seepage are provided in Section 5.3.3.
Earthquake
Figure 5-1
5.3.2
Design Criteria
5.3.2.1
Parts of Dike
5.3.2.2
The height of the dike is determined from the design flood level elevation plus an
additional freeboard allowance depending on the design discharge as shown in
Table 5-3.
Freeboard is the margin of height maintained between the top of the embankment
and the design flood level to guard against over-topping and wave wash. Table 53 shows the freeboard allowance corresponding to the design flood discharge.
Table 5-3
Freeboard (m)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
5-6
For levees around lakes and swamps or at the high tide areas where the design
discharge is not fixed, the height of the dike shall not be less than the value to be
obtained by allowing for wind driven waves. A minimum freeboard in these
situations should be 0.6 m.
Figure 5-3
Dike Height
For the backwater effect in a tributary, the height of the dike in the transition
stretch shall not be lower than that of the main river or even higher at the
confluence in order to prevent inundation in the subject areas. In general, the
dikes height of the main river at the confluence point is projected following its
design flood level. Note that the alternative is to undertake more complex
hydraulic analysis of the combined flows between the main river and the tributary,
as discussed in Section 4.11.
Figure 5-4
5.3.2.3
The crest width of the dike shall be based on the design flood discharge, and shall
not be less than the values given in Table 5-4.
When the landside ground level is higher than the design flood level, the crest
width shall be a minimum of 3 m regardless of the design flood discharge. Crest
width shall be designed for multi-purpose use, such as for patrolling during floods
and in the execution of emergency flood prevention works
Adequate widths of the top of the embankment are generally required to serve as
a road for facilitating the transport of materials during the construction stage and
maintenance operations.
5-7
For backwater effect on the affected tributary, the crest width of the dike shall be
designed such that it is not narrower than the dike crest width of the main river.
Table 5-4
The levee shall be provided with a maintenance/access road for river maintenance
and emergency flood prevention activity during the occurrence of a flood. The
width of the maintenance/access road shall be 3 m or more. It shall be constructed
near the existing peripheral and/or river side road with entrance facing the
downstream side. A built-in stairway is also necessary and should be built strong
enough to withstand the expected external forces acting on it.
The dike shall be provided with a maintenance road for patrolling the river during
emergency flood prevention activities as well as routine maintenance. The
maintenance road shall be 3.0 m or more. The crest of the dike may be used for the
maintenance road.
5-8
5.3.2.4
Levee crests should be constructed with a small cross fall, to shed heavy
rainfall. This will help prevent the pooling of water and possible piping
damage.
If the crest of the embankment is proposed to be used for the dual purpose of
a public access road, then extra care will be required for maintenance and
repair to ensure that the crest level is maintained.
The crest of the levee should be protected against drying out or cracking by the
use of gravel sheeting, or in the case of trafficked urban areas or roadways used
as levees, the crest can be sealed. This assists in maintaining the levee at close
to optimum moisture content.
Slopes
The slope of the embankment can be dependent on a number of factors such as the
soil type, access arrangements, construction methods and maintenance
arrangement. Typically, the soil type is one of the driving factors in determining
slope.
The slopes should consider:
5-9
The side slopes should be gentler on both landside and riverside of the
embankment than 1V:2H for low embankments (<6.0 m) and 1V:3H for high
embankments (>6.0 m).
Figure 5-6
5.3.2.5
Berms
On the riverbank side, when the crest height from the river bed is more than 6
m, berms shall be provided at every 3 to 5 m. These should have a width of 1
m or more.
On the landward side, when the crest height from the existing ground is more
than 4 m, berms shall be provided at every 2 to 3 m in height with a width of 1
m or more.
A masonry dike may have a minimum berm width of 1 m when necessary, for
stability purposes.
Berms should include swale drains that run parallel to the slope, and aim to reduce
the velocity of water running down the slope. These are discussed in more detail
in Volume 4: Highway Design.
Figure 5-7
5.3.2.6
Arrangement of Berm
Slope Stability
The slope stability should be confirmed and checked against the techniques
identified in Section 7.4 of Volume 4: Highway Design.
5-10
5.3.2.7
5.3.2.8
5.3.2.9
Vegetation
The preferred vegetation for levees is grasses. Trees and shrubs should not be
planted on or near batters as they increase the potential of risk of failure of the
levee due to cracking, piping failure or falling over.
When the levee is constructed along the road or the drain, toe protection is
required. It should have a height of 0.5-1.0 m and be made of dry stone masonry
to secure the drainage in the levee body.
Figure 5-4
5.3.2.10
Levees generally result in the obstruction of overland flow paths and drainage
from the landward side to the river. It is important that adequate drainage is
incorporated to ensure that there are no adverse local drainage issues caused by
the levee. In some situations, these adverse drainage impacts may be worse that
the flooding that the levee is intending to protect against.
Pipes or drainage culverts will be required to cross through the levee to relieve
local drainage. A discussion on the design of this cross drainage is provided in
Section 5.8.
5-11
5.3.3
Geotechnical Considerations
5.3.3.1
For proposed small-sized embankment dams, determining the feasibility may only
necessitate a review of commonly available data, including:
5.3.3.2
5.3.3.3
The limits and orientation of geological features such as joints, bedding and
sheared zones.
The potential for surface subsistence.
Suitable materials for the Dike should be selected in accordance with the
earthworks and fill discussion provided in Volume 4: Highway Design and taking
into consideration the DPWH Standard Specifications for Highways, Bridges and
Airports (2013).
Classification of Foundation
5-12
5.3.3.4
The preferred solution for most foundation problems, usually incurred by the
presence of deficient or unsatisfactory materials, is to remove the unwanted
material and, if necessary, replace it with suitable material (fill, concrete, grout,
etc.). Sometimes, however, this solution is not cost-effectivesometimes removal
of one layer of unsatisfactory material will expose additional or more deficient
material. At other times, the solution is simply not feasible. In these cases, an
engineered solution is necessary to treat the foundation so that the potential
adverse effects are eliminated or minimized to an acceptable standard. Here are
some common foundation problems and their respective treatments:
5.3.3.5
5.3.3.6
Embankment Zoning
5.3.3.7
The core covers the entire height of the dam at its center, that is, it extends beyond
the height of the water surface in the reservoir. The foundation is based on an
impervious stratum, so that seepage below the foundation is prevented, and to
check the seepage from the reservoir, a blanket is sometimes also laid out at the
upstream face of the embankment.
Stripping
The correct stripping of topsoil from the levee site is critical to ensuring the
necessary bonding of the bank with the underlying material. Stripping should be
carried out down to clay. Where clay is not within the sub-soil, then alternative
measures will be required. This is discussed in USBR Design of Small Dams (1987).
5.3.3.8
During flood, the pore pressures of the dike will increase due to the seepage of the
floodwater, which eventually decrease the shearing strength of dike. As a result,
the safety of the dike will be decreased. In the evaluation of seepage reduction or
seepage control measures, the following shall be reviewed and evaluated:
Filters and transition zones designed to prevent movement of soil particles that
could clog drains or result in piping.
Drainage blankets, chimney drains, and toe drains designed to ensure that they
control and safely discharge seepage for all conditions. The designs of these
5-14
features must also provide sufficient floe capacity to safely control seepage
through potential cracks in the embankment impervious zone.
Contacts of seepage control features with the foundation, abutments,
embedded structures, etc., designed to prevent the occurrence of piping and/or
hydrofracturing of embankment and/or foundation materials. If conduits or
pipes exist through the embankment, they should be inspected to ensure that
they are functional or have been properly sealed.
Grouting, cut-off trenches, and impervious blankets.
For existing embankments, all seepage records complied during the existence
of the structure should be reviewed for significant trends or abnormal changes.
5.3.4
5.3.4.1
Floodwall
Figure 5-9
5-15
Figure 5-10
5.3.4.2
The dike height affected by high tide (section at which design high-tide level is
higher than the design flood level) shall be designed in consideration of the hightide level plus the surge height due to wave action. It is necessary to provide
drainage at the dikes heel in order to collect local runoff and the floodwaters
resulting from the wave overtopping action.
5.3.4.3
The dike for special purpose, such as overflow levee, guide levee, separation levee,
etc. shall be planned to allow sufficient demonstration of the functions.
The height, length, width, etc. (of overflow levee, guide levee, separation levee, etc.)
depend on the place of construction, purpose, etc.; and therefore, must be
thoroughly analysed on a case by case basis. In some cases, hydraulic model tests,
etc. must be conducted to confirm the appropriateness of the design of each
structure.
Suitable protection works will need to be incorporated allowing for overtopping
of the dike. Refer to Section 5.9.
5-16
Figure 5-11
5.3.4.4
Retrofitting Improvements
Existing
5-17
5.4
Spur Dikes
5.4.1
Basic Concept
Spur dikes are river training structures constructed along the banks of rivers and
flood dikes to deflect or repel the flow for the purpose of training the course of
the river channel and to protect the banks from scouring by inducing siltation in
the area.
A spur dike is a river structure with the following functions:
Increases the flow roughness and reduces the flow velocity around the
riverbank.
Redirects river flow away from the riverbank.
Corollary to the above functions, installation of spur dikes has the following
purposes:
Figure 5-13
5-18
Figure 5-14
5.4.2
Spur dikes can be broadly classified into permeable and impermeable/semipermeable. The permeability of spurs is defined simply as the percentage of the
spur surface area facing the streamflow that is open.
5-19
Permeable type the spur dike of this type is made of piles and frames,
preferably in series. Its purpose is to reduce the river flow velocity at the
immediate downstream of the spur dike and induce sedimentation. In cases
where piles cannot be driven due to the presence of boulders on the riverbed,
crib frame, skeleton works or concrete block type shall be used.
Overflow type the main purpose is to reduce the river flow velocity. This type
of spur dike can be considered as a series of spur dikes.
Non-overflow type its main purpose is to change the river flow direction
away from the riverbank.
Impermeable spurs provide more positive flow control but cause more scour at
the toe of the spur and, when submerged, cause erosion of the streambank. High
permeability spurs are suitable for use where only small reductions in flow
velocities are necessary as on mild bends but can be used for more positive flow
control where it can be assumed that clogging with small debris will occur and bed
load transport is large. Permeable spurs may be susceptible to damage from large
debris.
Figure 5-15
5.4.3
The choice between the adoption of spur dikes and revetments is not always
straight forward in riverbank protection. Also, in some situations it may be
appropriate to adopt a combination of the two, where the spur dike can provide
protection for the revetment. Some considerations are provided below.
Revetments:
Spur dike:
If the cost of a continual revetment is expensive, then a spur dike, or small spur
dikes, may in some situations be more economical.
5-20
Typically used on wide, shallow rivers, rather than narrow deep channels.
May not be appropriate where the variation in water level from low flow to
flood level is large.
Can be useful for navigational rivers, where they can assist in defining the
navigational channel.
5.4.4
Design Criteria
5.4.4.1
The design flood level and the ordinary water level during the rainy season shall
be considered in the design of a spur dike. These should be indicated on design
plans.
5.4.4.2
5.4.4.3
The design water level needs to be calculated based on the hydraulic methods
presented in Section 4, and allowing for the reduced cross sectional area presented
by the spur dikes. It should generally be assumed that the cross sectional area is
the portion of the channel clear of any spur dikes, and that there is no effective flow
within the spur dike field.
Design Velocity
The design velocity, used in the sizing of any protection measures for the spur dike,
needs to be increased for the local velocity acting on the spur dike. It is
recommended to adopt a design velocity of 2 times the cross sectional average
velocity for the design of the spur dike (following Maynard, 1978).
Orientation
As per HEC23 (2009), it is recommended that the spur furthest upstream be angled
downstream to provide a smoother transition of the flow lines near the bank and
to minimize scour at the nose of the leading spur. Ideally, this first spur dike should
be located upstream of the most severe scouring area, to ensure that it remains
during larger flows. Subsequent spurs downstream should generally all be set
normal to the bank line to minimize construction costs.
5-21
5.4.4.4
Height
The height of impermeable spur dikes should not exceed the top of the banks.
Otherwise, erosion can occur at the overbank end of the spur dike. Where it does
not exceed this, the following shall also apply:
The height of a non-overflow type spur dike should be at the level of the design
flood.
The height of overflow type spur dike shall be the maximum of:
- 10% to 40% of the distance reckoned from the average riverbed to the
- 0.5 to 1.0 m above the ordinary water level during rainy season.
5.4.4.5
5.4.4.6
Permeable spurs, and in particular those constructed of light wire fence, should be
designed to a height that will allow heavy debris to pass over the top.
Top Width/ Crest Width
Usually, the top width or crest width of impermeable spur dikes ranges from 1 to
3 m.
Slopes
5.4.4.7
A spur dike should slope from the bank to the river, to prevent overtopping
occurring at a low point on the spur dike. The longitudinal slope of the
spurdike should be 1V:20H to 1V:100H toward the center of the river.
The side slopes shall depend on the quality of the subsoil, groundwater
flow and the type of structure. Slopes are typically between 1V: 1H and 1V:2H
on the upstream side and 1V: 1H and 1V:2H on the downstream side.
Length
Spur dikes should have lengths up to 10% to 15%of the width of the river or
channel but not to exceed 100 m.
The river flow capacity should be examined when the length of the spur dike is
more than 10% of the river width (distance of left to right bank); or when the spur
dike is to be constructed in a narrow river, since this could affect the opposite bank
and considerably reduce the river flow capacity.
Figure 5-16
5-22
5.4.4.8
Spacing
The spacing of spur dikes is related to the length of the spur dike, the angle of the
spur dike, permeability and the degree of curvature of the bend.
The effective length is the length from the desired bankline to the tip of a spur.
Where it is proposed to protect the bankline it its existing position, then the
effective length will be the same as the length of the spur. Where the spur dikes
are expected to result in an increase in the bankline, then the effective length is the
length from the planned bankline to the end of the spur. This is demonstrated by
L in Figure 5-7.
Permeable spurs should be spaced closer together. Based on the procedures
identified in HEC23, for a 75% permeable spur, the spacing should be approximate
70% of that for an impermeable spur.
A more detailed procedure for determining the spacing of spur dikes is provided
in HEC23, in Design Guidance 2.12, Section 2.2.7.
Figure 5-17
5.4.4.9
Embedment Depth
For concrete and stone masonry type spur dike, a minimum embedment depth of
0.5 m is recommended.
For gabion-type, boulder type and concrete block type spur dikes, only a provision
of about 0.2 m layer of gravel before placement of the main body is sufficient.
5.4.4.10
5.4.4.11
5.4.4.12
performs as designed, retardance and diversion of the flow within the length of the
structure may make it unnecessary to extend the facing material the full depth of
anticipated scour except at the nose.
Slope Protection
Impermeable spur dikes will require protection of the slope. Furthermore, if the
spur dike is expected to overtop during design flows, then the crest will also
require protection. Typical protection for spur dikes includes gabions, gabion
mattresses, concrete blocks and rip rap. The design of these can be adopted as per
revetments, which is detailed in Section 5.5.4.2.
Impact Loading
The structural design of any permeable spur dikes will need to be able to resist
dynamic and hydraulic loads based on the bankfull condition. An appropriate
design debris loading conditions will need to be selected by the designer. The
proposed log debris loading condition for bridges in Volume 5 could be adopted as
an initial estimate. However, this should be based on review and judgment by the
designer.
Toe Protection Works
Toe protection should be provided to prevent collapse of the spur dike due to
riverbed degradation or scouring. Riprap or gabion can be used for toe protection
work. The design of these can be based on the approach for revetments, which is
detailed in Section 5.5.6. However, the methods identified in Section 5.5.6 should
be adjusted to account for the scour estimated for a transverse structure. This is
identified in Annex A.
When the spur dike is not orientated at a right angle to the bank, then Figure 5-18
should be used to adjust the estimated scour depth calculated in Annex A.
Figure 5-18
5-24
Figure 5-19
5.4.4.13
In general, straight spurs should be used for most bank protection. Straight spurs
are more easily installed and maintained and require less material.
The shape of permeable spur dike will depend on the material adopted.
For impermeable and semi-permeable spur dikes, they should be straight with a
rounded nose, as identified in Figure 5-20.
Figure 5-20
5.4.4.14
Base Protection
The base of spur dike is the joint to the bank or to the revetment usually prone to
damage and outflanking. Therefore, the gap between the base and bank shall be
filled up by adequate materials, such as riprap and gabion.
5-25
5.5
Revetments
5.5.1
Basic Concept
Revetments are flood control structures constructed along river banks subjected
to direct attack of the river flow and along levee slopes for protection against
erosion, scouring, riverbed degradation and wave wash. They are used in many
situations where the riverbank is to be protected in its existing location.
A revetment should be designed based on the existing site conditions, such as river
flow velocity and direction, embankment material, topographical, morphological,
and geological conditions of the riverbank, etc. Further, the revetment should be
designed to withstand the lateral forces due to high velocity flow, when located in
flow attack zone, on a weak geological condition of riverbank, and with poor
embankment materials.
It is important to note that most flexible revetments (riprap, gabion mattress
(spread type), concrete blocks) do not provide resistance against geotechnical
instability, such as slumping failure in saturated streambanks and embankments
(HEC-23, 2009).
Typical applications of revetments include:
Figure 5-21
5.5.1.1
Types of Revetment
5.5.1.2
Components of a Revetment
Slope covering work: directly covers and protects the bank slope from direct
attack from flood water, boulders and floating debris.
Foundation work: constructed at the toe of the slope that supports the slope
covering works.
Backfilling material: materials which are backfilled to the slope covering work
to prevent residual water pressure underneath the slope covering work.
Filter material/cloth: installed behind the backfilling material to prevent the
coming out of fine materials underneath the revetment due to flow forces or
the residual water pressure.
Crest work: protect the crest of the slope covering work.
Key: installed at the end portion of the crest work to protect it against erosion
at the back of the revetment.
Crest protection work: installed at the end portion of the key to join the crest
and the original ground in order to protect against erosion at the back of the
revetment.
The components of revetment are illustrated in Figure 5-22 and Figure 5-23.
Figure 5-22
5-27
Components of a Revetment
Figure 5-23
5.5.1.3
During planning and design stage, the following are some general considerations:
Where revetments are used to provide scour or erosion protection, they should
be designed to have as little impact on hydraulic performance of the river as
possible.
The revetment should start at a stable, fixed point on the bank and continues
downstream to another stable location or to some point below which the river
can safely be left uncontrolled.
On a meandering river, the revetment will effectively stop the protected bend
from migrating. This may have subsequent impacts outside of the protected
5-28
5.5.2
The design velocity is the effective velocity acting on the revetment, and is not
equal to the average cross sectional velocity as determined in Section 4.
The cross section average velocity should first be estimated using the procedures
as outlined in Section 4. Note that this should be assessed at all cross sections
along the revetment. The highest velocity should be adopted in most cases, as for
construction purposes it is simpler to adopt a uniform protection measure.
The cross section average velocity then needs to be adjusted to the design velocity,
which represents a point approximate 20% up the slope from the toe of the
revetment. The following provides a simplified relationship for estimating this,
based on HEC23 (2009).
Equation 5-1
where:
Vdes
Vavg
=
=
design velocity
= 1.74 0.52log(
= 1.71 0.78log(
where:
RC
=
=
radius of bend
The velocity adjustment factor for natural channels is also provided in Figure 524.
5-29
Figure 5-24
1.8
1.7
Velocity Factor ()
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
10
15
20
25
30
Rc/W
5.5.3
There are many types of slope covering work, with some of these shown in Table
5-5. It provides an indication of typical constraints and considerations, but certain
slope protection works may be applicable outside of the ranges indicated. The type
of slope covering work at the site shall be selected based on the design velocity,
slope, availability of construction materials near the site, ease of construction
works and economy, etc. When there are constraints due to the required boulder
stones during flood and the slope of the bank, a combination of the slope covering
works shall be considered.
5-30
Table 5-5
Indicative
Maximum
Design Velocity
(m/s)
Slope (V:H)
Remarks
2.0
3.0 to 4.0
5.0
5.0
1:1.5 to 1:0.5
5.0
6.5
1:1.5 to 1:0.5
Vertical
Figure 5-25
5-31
Figure 5-26
Figure 5-27
Figure 5-28
5-32
5-33
Figure 5-29
Figure 5-30
Figure 5-31
Figure 5-32
Figure 5-33
5-34
5-35
Figure 5-34
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 5-35
Gravity Wall
Figure 5-36
5.5.3.1
Adequate grading of the rock to minimize voids within the protective layer
There are numerous methods for estimation of rock size for a dry boulder (riprap)
revetment. The following equation is recommended for its simplicity and ease of
application, while generally providing a relatively conservative estimate of the
D50 required (derived based on PNG DoW (1987) and Maynard (1978)). A
minimum diameter of 200mm should be adopted for any design.
Note that this equation assumes a specific gravity of the rock that is adopted for
the riprap of 2.6.
D50 values estimated using this equation should be rounded to the nearest 50 mm.
Equation 5-2
where:
D50
50 = 3
=
F
C
Table 5-6
Factor of Safety
Coefficient (C)
1V:3H or less
1.5
0.25
1V:3H or less
2.0
0.28
1V:2H
1.5
0.30
1V:2H
2.0
0.32
For ease of use, Table 5-7 provides the D50 for different velocities and depths of
flow, based on a revetment slope of 1V:2H.
Minimum specifications for riprap are provided in Section 9.
5-36
Table 5-7
Depth (m)
200
200
300
650
N/A
200
200
200
450
900
200
200
200
400
700
200
200
200
300
650
200
200
200
300
550
5.5.3.2
Key considerations for a gabion mattress (spread type, also known as reno
mattress):
5.5.3.3
Correct rock size and mattress thickness for the expected velocities
Provision of a filter layer
Gabion walls must be checked for stability against earth pressures, as they are
designed as mass gravity structures. Stability must be checked for resistance to
failure against:
An overview of the types of forces acting on a gabion wall is provided in Figure 537.
The design of a gabion wall is generally well documented in manufacturer
guidelines, and reference should be made to these in the design process.
5-37
Figure 5-37
5.5.3.4
5.5.3.5
Contraction and expansion joints to minimize the risk of cracking and seepage
and potential undermining. Vertical expansion joints should run normal to the
bank slope. Joints should be constructed careful to ensure that no protrusions
into the flow are present, as these may result in the undermining of the
structure. Expansion joints should be provided with a waterstop, smooth dowels,
sponge rubber filler, and sealant.
Allowance for scour, by either extending the wall below the maximum scour
depth (refer to Section 5.5.5) or in combination with a sheet pile wall
A sheet pile wall must be designed to withstand the earth pressures. In the design,
it should be assumed that there is no water on the river side.
Key considerations are:
Generally the sheet pile wall will require anchoring back to the bank.
Commonly sheet pile walls are used in combination with another revetment
protection type. In these cases, the revetment provides protection to the
bottom portion of the revetment.
5-38
5.5.3.6
The sheet pile wall should extend to below the maximum scouring depth, as
identified in Section 5.5.5. Toe protection is not suitable for sheet pile walls.
The depth of the sheet pile required should also be based on stability.
Weep holes must be provided, as described in Section 5.5.9.1.
Concrete Units
Concrete unit style revetments can either be orderly placed concrete units, or
random placed units. They rely on the mass of the concrete units, and the
interlocking of the units, to protect the underlying soil from erosion and scour.
The sizing of concrete units can be based on Figure 5-46, and adjusted in
accordance with Equation 5-3.
Equation 5-3
where:
1
( )3
M1
5.5.3.7
Vegetation can be a suitable technique for managing the upper bank, and can be
used in conjunction with any of the techniques identified above. It is also possible
to use reinforced grass or TRM (refer to Section 6.3.2.3 examples include
products such as coconet and polypropylene meshes) to provide additional
velocity resistance.
The use of vegetation usually occurs in areas outside of the ordinary water level,
to ensure that it is only inundated irregularly. Typically, vegetation is used on the
top 1/3 of the bank, but this is dependent on the application and the velocities.
Below this level other protection measures, such as gabion mattress or rip rap, are
used.
An example of this type of application is provided in Figure 5-25, with a
combination of vegetation and wooden pile fence. An example with rip rap is
provided in Figure 5-38. The velocity resistance of vegetation is discussed further
in Section 6.3.2.
5-39
Figure 5-38
5.5.4
5.5.4.1
Height of Revetment
5-40
5.5.4.2
Slope
After the determination of height of the slope covering work, the slope shall be
planned based on the following:
5.5.4.3
The slope of the revetment will generally be the same as those of a dike (refer
to Section 5.3) at 1V:2H (vertical and horizontal, respectively) or milder. In the
case when the slope of revetment should be steeper than a dike, the slope
should aim to be as gentle as possible for stability purposes and should aim to
align with the natural slope of the adjacent bank.
In case of rapid flow stretches wherein floodwater contains a large quantity of
boulders or gravels, the slope shall not be necessarily gentle but shall be milder
than 1V:0.5H.
In case of joint portion with a rock-strewn slope, the slope of revetment shall
be gradually changed to smoothly connect with the natural slope.
For the retaining wall type revetment (reinforced concrete, gravity wall, rubble
concrete etc.), a maximum slope of 1V:0.3H shall be observed considering
stability and the resulting residual hydraulic pressure.
Berms
If the height of revetment is more than 5.0 m, a berm must be provided in order
to separate the revetments into segments. This should be identified
considering site conditions as well.
Figure 5-40
5.5.4.4
Segment Length
For rigid revetments, the length of one segment of revetment along the
longitudinal direction should not be more than 50 m in order to prevent
damage on the adjoining section of the revetment once it collapses. Edge of the
segment shall be provided with end protection and adequately filled with joint
filler or sealer to connect with the adjoining section.
5-41
5.5.4.5
Thickness
5.5.5
Further details on the design of the protection measures are provided in Section
5.5.3.
Depth of Foundation
There are two options for the depth of the top of the foundation for a revetment:
1. The depth of the foundation is below the maximum scouring depth, which is
2. The depth of the top of the foundation is above the maximum scouring depth,
5.5.5.1
and therefore additional works are required. This should only be done where
there is a difficult in achieving point 1 above due to large scouring or riverbed
degradation. This is typically only undertaken for flexible revetment types.
Refer to Section 5.5.5.2.
The depth of the foundation shall be deeper than 1 m from the maximum scouring
depth. The maximum scouring depth can be estimated based on the procedures
identified in Annex A.
The top elevation of the foundation work is determined as follows:
2. Draw the line of the lowest elevation from 1 with the same longitudinal
Figure 5-41
Depth of Foundation
5-42
5.5.5.2
The following alternatives can be considered when the depth of the foundation is
above the maximum scouring depth:
i.
The top elevation of the foundation work is set at the maximum scouring depth,
and the minimum foot protection work shall be installed.
ii. The top elevation of the foundation is set above the maximum scouring depth,
and a flexible foot protection shall be installed to cope with the scouring.
iii. The top elevation of the foundation is set above the maximum scouring depth,
and the foundation work by sheet pile and the foot protection shall be applied
in order to cope with scouring.
iv. In cases it is difficult to have adequate depth of embedment for the foundation
work, such as high ordinary water level, tidal river, etc.; cantilever sheet pile
shall be installed as foundation work.
These alternatives are shown in Figure 5-42. For cases ii and iii, the top elevation
of the foundation work shall be set at 0.5-1.5 m deeper than the average riverbed
level.
Foot protection work is detailed in Section 5.5.6.
Figure 5-42
5-43
Foundation Work
5.5.6
5.5.6.1
Basic Concept
5.5.6.2
The foot protection shall have a minimum width of 2 m towards the centerline of
stream.
The type of foot protection work shall be determined based on river conditions,
convenience in construction, economy, etc. The basic requirements for the foot
protection work are as follows:
Riprap Type
The diameter (D50) of the boulder to be used should be based on Table 5-8. These
values are based the simplified equation that is presented in Section 6.5.7.2. It
assumes a specific gravity of 2.6.
Maintenance is required to ensure that significant movement of rock over time is
rectified.
Minimum specifications for riprap are provided in Section 5.9.
5-44
Table 5-8
Diameter (mm)
200
350
600
950
1450
Gabion Type
This type shall not be used for rivers with saline water intrusion and for rivers with
riverbed and banks consisting of boulders. The gabions shall be connected to each
other. Gabions and gabion mattresses should be designed in accordance with
manufacturer specifications. Indicative velocity limits for preliminary sizing are
provided in Table 5.9. Note that the critical velocity is the velocity where the
mattress reaches the limit of deformation. Mattresses and gabions should be
designed in accordance with the critical velocity.
Table 5-9
Type
Thickness
(mm)
Gabion
Mattress
Gabions
Rock Fill
Size (mm)
D50 (mm)
Critical
Velocity (m/s)
Limiting
Velocity (m/s)
150
70-100
85
3.5
4.2
180
70-150
110
4.2
4.5
230
70-100
85
3.6
5.5
250
70-150
120
4.5
6.1
300
70-120
100
4.2
5.5
100-150
125
5.0
6.4
100-200
150
5.8
7.6
120-250
190
6.4
8.0
500
The weight of the concrete block can be estimated based on Figure 5-46 (where
orderly pile up types of units represent those that are embedded while
disorderly or random pile up types represent exposed units). This is based on the
equations presented in PPA (2009), which are derived from work undertaken by
US Army Coastal Engineering Centre.
5-45
Figure 5-44
Figure 5-45
Figure 5-46
100000
10000
1000
100
10
10
Design Velocity (m/s)
Embedded Concrete Units
5-46
5.5.6.3
The top elevation of foot protection work shall be at the same elevation as the top
of the foundation work of the revetment.
5.5.6.4
In order to prevent scouring, the top elevation of foot protection work may
sometimes be set above the top of foundation work of the revetment. When the
thickness of the foot protection work is more than 1 m, the bottom elevation of the
foot protection work shall be set at the same elevation with the bottom of the
foundation work.
The foot protection work requires sufficient width that will prevent scouring of
riverbed in front of the foundation work of the revetment.
The foot protection work shall consider width of at least 2 m in front of the
revetment after the scouring. The required width of the foot protection work (B)
can be calculated from Equation 5-4. This is represented in Figure 5-47.
Equation 5-4
= +
where:
Ln
height between the foot protection work and the scoured bed
level.
Figure 5-47
An alternative to the above approach is the adoption of the mounded toe approach
or falling apron. For a flexible rip rap solution, the toe above the maximum
anticipated scour level, but with a flexible toe protection that can respond to scour
and thereby protect the revetment from being undermined. This is typically
achieve through rip rap, as solutions like gabion mattresses may be less flexible
5-47
and unable to respond to local scour. This solution is demonstrated in Figure 548.
The riprap mound height should be equivalent to Z (maximum scour expected).
As scouring occurs at the base of the revetment, the rock will in fill the scour hole
and provide the appropriate protection.
This falling apron approach is typically only successful in coarse grained rivers
(sand and above).
Figure 5-48
5.5.7
The end protection work is indispensable to the rigid structure type revetments.
These types of structure are particularly susceptible to undermining and scouring
of backfill materials:
The end protection shall cover the extent of the covering work and crest work.
The thickness of the end protection work shall be from the surface of
revetment up to the backfill material. The thickness of the end protection shall
be more than 50 cm.
5-48
Figure 5-49
5.5.8
When the design flood event adopted for the height of the revetment is low (such
as in a non-diked river), the overflow frequency of the revetment can be high. In
these situations it is necessary to protect the crest of the revetment (Figure 5-50).
Revetments are particularly susceptible from damage from overtopping flows.
For the design of the crest works:
The thickness of the crest end work shall be more than 0.5 m.
Figure 5-50
Crest Protection
5.5.9
5.5.9.1
Drainage pipes/weep holes shall be designed and provided for both types of
revetment for diked and non-diked rivers. During flood times, the rise of flood
water level in the river almost coincides with the rise of groundwater behind the
revetment especially when the ground is already saturated. After the floods, the
5-49
rate of subsidence of floodwater in the river is usually greater than the recession
of groundwater level behind the revetment without drainage pipes/weep holes. If
the disparity between the subsiding floodwater and groundwater stages is
significantly high, residual hydraulic pressure exists at the back of the revetment
(refer to Figure 5-51). Weep holes shall be provided in the revetment using 50~75
mm diameter PVC drainpipes, placed in stagger horizontal direction and spaced 2
m center to center.
One of the main causes of caving in of soil particles behind the revetment is the
outflow of backfill fine materials through the joints of revetment and weep holes,
which eventually leads to the collapse of the revetment (refer to Figure 5-52).
Pervious materials consisting of crushed gravel or geo-textile filters are to be
placed between the revetment and original ground to prevent the outflow of the
bank materials through the weep holes. The lowest weep holes shall be installed
just above the ordinary water level.
5.5.9.2
Figure 5-51
Figure 5-52
Backfill Material
In situations where backfill is used to reclaim land, it is important that the backfill
is as close to the natural material of the riverbank as possible to avoid significant
changes of drainage characteristics.
5-50
5.5.9.3
5.5.9.4
5.5.9.5
For permeable type revetment such as wooden fence type and gabion mattress
type, the backfilling materials shall not be installed.
The backfilling materials shall be with high permeability, such as crushed
gravel etc.
Thickness of the backfilling materials shall be 30-40 cm for wall type and 1520 cm for pitching or lining type.
Filter Layer
For flexible revetments such as (dry boulder or riprap and gabions), a filter layer
will generally be required to prevent material being washed from the bank
through to the river. Filters should have two key characteristics (PNG DoW, 1987),
stability and permeability. It must be fine enough to prevent the base material from
escaping through the filter, but it must be more permeable than the bank material
(PNG DoW, 1987).
Outflow Prevention Materials
Outflow prevention materials (e.g. filter cloth, geotextile) shall be installed behind
the permeable revetment types.
At the upstream and downstream portions of the bridge, sluice gate and culvert,
weir, groundsill and confluence of rivers, the river flow is constricted by the
presence of these structures, which changes the river conditions. It is, therefore,
necessary to provide adequate length of revetment in these areas to prevent bank
erosion due to the adverse effects of constricted river flow.
5.5.9.6
5.5.10
It is also important to note that the computation of the scour under these
conditions is different to a scenario where no constriction exists.
Construction Joints
5-51
Movement/ Extraction of
Particle/ Block Caused
by High Velocity Flow
Description
Failure Mechanism
Table 5-10
Insufficient toe support resulting in gaps in protective blockwork (source : Mott MacDonald
http://www.geotechnics.mottmac.com/projects/portsmouthharbourrev/)
Example Figure
5-52
Residual Water
Pressure
5-53
The fine materials behind the revetment are sucked out from the
crevice/weep hole of revetment.
Description
Failure Mechanism
Example Figure
When the floods overtops the revetment and flows back to the
river, the back portion of the top of revetment might be damaged.
Logs, rocks and debris carried by strong river flow directly hit the
revetment resulting in damages. For gabion style revetments, for
example, this may result in puncture of the basket or mattress.
Description
Failure Mechanism
Example Figure
5-54
5.6
Groundsill
5.6.1
Definition
Groundsills (also termed check dams) are drop structures located within a
channel, commonly used downstream of culverts to prevent head cutting from
discharge flows and maintain a consistent streambed profile in the vicinity of the
culvert. A typical groundsill layout is shown in Figure 5-53.
Figure 5-53
5.6.2
Groundsill Components
5.6.2.1
Main Structure
The main structure of the groundsill is the structure that provides the drop in
elevation of the channel base.
The main structure may be constructed of rock riprap, concrete, sheet piles,
gabions or treated timber.
Riprap and treated timber groundsill have been found to most effective for
channels have small drops and relatively narrow widths (up to 30 m).
Gabions, sheet piling and concrete are generally used for larger drops or on wider
channel sections. They have been successfully used on channel sections up to 100
m wide.
5.6.2.2
If the design requires a large change in elevation, both a single large structure and
multiple small structures should be investigated. A string of small structures may
be found to result in reduced erosion potential and cheaper construction costs, if
they allow for the use of local materials.
Apron
5.6.2.3
The length and type of apron will be dependent on the flow conditions. A
discussion on the design of the apron is presented in FHA (2009).
Channel Protection
Channel bed protection should be provided both upstream and downstream of the
groundsill structure, in order to prevent erosion from overtopping flows and the
turbulence at the drop structure.
In addition to providing protection to the channel bed, it is often necessary to
protect the adjacent channel slopes. Groundsills can result in the lateral erosion of
channel banks caused by the turbulence produced by energy dissipation at the
drop or eddy action at the banks. If this occurs, the erosion may progress upstream,
potentially leading to a failure of the groundsill.
5.6.2.4
Fish Way
A fish way may be required if the river is used for fish migration. As groundsills
may interrupt the upstream movement of fishes and other aquatic species, and
alternative path for these species should be provided.
The selection and design of fish way options are discussed in Design of Small Dams
(USBR, 1987).
5.6.3
Design Criteria
5.6.3.1
Location
5.6.3.2
While proximity to the channel structure they are used to manage is required, they
should ideally be placed in straight, constant sections of the channel in order to
operate most effectively. Locations on bends, or at changes in channel sections or
slopes should be avoided where possible.
Height
It is generally best to keep the height of the groundsill smaller. If a greater height
drop is needed, then it is better to separate the groundsill into a number of steps
spaced well apart.
5-56
5.6.3.3
Alignment
5.6.3.4
5.7
5.7.1
Groundsill Locations
Scour
The check dam must be designed structurally to withstand the forces of water and
soil assuming that a scour hole, is as deep as estimated from Annex A, in order to
ensure successful operation over the design life of the groundsill.
Small Dams
Definition
This Guide covers the design of small dams. The definition of a small dam is based
on the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) definition. These are any
dams that are less than 15 m in height, and which do not fit into the category of
large dams as defined by ICOLD (refer to Table 5-11).
Table 5-11
Height (m)*
Length (m)
Volume (m3)
Flood Discharge
(m3/s)
Type of
Foundation
>15
Any
Any
Any
Any
10 to 15
500
>1 million
>2,000
Unusual
*measured from the foundation to the crest of the spillway. If the spillway has multiple crests (a low flow and
high flow crest for example) then the height is measured to the highest crest.
5-57
5.7.2
Small dams are hydraulic structures that may be constructed to meet a variety of
needs, including:
5.7.3
5.7.3.1
Usage Classification
5.7.3.2
Storage for dams that are designed to permanently retain water, whether for
water supply, power, irrigation or recreation.
Diversion for dams that are constructed to divert water into conveyance
systems. Commonly used in agriculture to direct water to irrigation canals.
Detention for dams that retard water during flood events to reduce the flood
impacts.
5.7.3.3
Overflow these dams are designed to convey water over the dam crest. These
dams are typically constructed of concrete.
Non-overflow these dams are not designed to overtop, but rather to simply
store / detain water that will then be removed for usage. As they are not
designed to overtop, they are commonly constructed of earth or rock. It is
noted that an emergency spillway will still be required.
Material Classification
There are three principal materials used in the construction of small dams;
concrete, rock and earth.
Earthen dams are the most common type of dam, as they may be constructed
from locally available material, that requires little processing. Also, the
foundation and topographical requirements for earthfill dams are less
stringent than those for other types.
Rock dams are constructed of rock of various sizes to provide stability, and an
impervious membrane to prevent water passing through the dam. This
impervious membrane may be constructed of soil, concrete, metal sheeting, or
other available impervious materials. Rock dams are well suited to remote
5-58
locations where high rainfall or scarce soils prevents an earthen dam being
constructed, or where concrete dams are too costly.
Concrete dams are constructed of concrete that may be reinforced as
required. Their durability makes them well suited to overflow dams. Concrete
spillways are also commonly constructed on earth or rock dams where high
flows may be experienced, in order to protect from dam failure.
5.7.4
Design Considerations
5.7.4.1
Location
The location of the dam should be carefully selected to ensure that is it appropriate.
This is highly dependent on local conditions, but the following may serve as a
starting point in determining an appropriate location:
5.7.4.2
The extent of the reservoir should be assessed to ensure that it does not impact
existing communities or infrastructure. This may influence the height of the
dam wall adopted.
Material
A range of materials are available for the construction of small dams. Typical
materials are concrete, rock and earth. The selection of the dam material will be
influenced by the proposed use of the dam, as well local conditions.
5.7.4.3
Thought should also be given to what materials are available locally, and what
materials local contractors have a familiarity in working with. This will aid in
reducing construction costs, and ensuring the dam is correctly constructed.
Freeboard
speed, the wind duration and the length over which the wind is able the act.
Minimum freeboard is typically set assuming a wind speed of 80 km per hour.
Based on this wind speed, minimum freeboard requirements may be interpolated
from Table 5-12 based on the greatest distance of water across the reservoir.
Table 5-12
5.7.4.4
<2
1.3
1.6
10
15
2.3
The size and height of a small dam is determined based on the local topography
and the amount of water storage / retardation that the dam is required to provide.
For water supply dams, a water balance model can be used to determine the dam
size by investigating the inflows and outflows to the dam reservoir over a period
of time (at least 12 months) to ensure that the dam storage is able to meet the
usage requirements.
5.7.4.5
5.7.4.6
Methods for determining the catchment inflows into the dam reservoir are
available in Section 3.
Easement
Outlet Works
Outlet works controls the outflow of water from a dam. For a detention dam, it
may release flows at a retarded rate, while for a water supply dam it may divert
water to a reticulation system or treatment plant. Key considerations in the design
of outlet works include:
5.7.4.7
typically close to the invert of the creek or channel, while for water supply,
these are dependent on likely water quality, reliability of supply etc.
Outlet protection works these are required to prevent scour at the discharge
point. There are numerous potential alternatives, and these will be a function
of site specific constraints.
Inlet controls controls on the inlet, such as gates and other regulating
structures.
Cut-offs or filters outlet works generally represent a weak point in the dam
structure, and may result in piping failure of the dam if not designed
appropriately. Concrete cut-offs or filters will likely be required to prevent this
from occurring.
Details on designing outlet works are provided in Design of Small Dams (USBR,
1987).
Overflow Control
Provision for the control of overtopping flows should be made for all small dams,
regardless as to whether they are designed to overtop or not. Overtopping flows
are a common source of dam failure for both overtopping and non-overtopping
dams, and it is critical that appropriate provisions be made to control overtopping
flows.
For overtopping dams, discharge is likely to be controlled through a spillway. The
spillway serves to release surplus water from storage and flood control dams, or
to convey additional water that is not diverted from diversion dams.
For non-overtopping dams, the controls of overtopping flows are managed by two
typical methods. The first is an emergency spillway which is designed to convey
overtopping flows in the case that the dam storage is exceeded. This prevents the
overtopping flows from damaging the dam wall, and confines them to a single
location.
Alternatively, a discharge channel may be constructed that activates before the
water level reaches the dam crest, and conveys the excess water around the dam
wall, preventing flows from overtopping the dam crest.
The nature of the spillway will be dependent on the overtopping flows, velocities
and durations expected. Further details on spillway design may be found in the
Urban Design Manual (Federal Highways Administration, 2001). Details on
designing each of these systems are provided in Design of Small Dams (USBR,
1987).
5-61
5.7.4.8
Access
5.7.4.9
Sufficient access to be able to inspect the spillway crest and back slope
Sufficient access to be able to inspect any outlet pipes (if applicable)
An access track to the bottom of the dam spillway
An access track around the reservoir, or to key locations around the reservoir,
to allow for monitoring and inspections of the reservoir
Maintenance
To ensure that the dam continues to operate successfully and safely, a maintenance
plan should be developed for each structure.
The detail of the plan will be dependent on the size and purpose of the dam, as well
as the consequences of failure of the dam. Smaller dams may only require
occasional inspections. Larger dams, that have serious failure consequences,
would require a more detailed and frequent inspection and maintenance schedule.
5.7.5
5.7.6
Easements
If easements are required along the shores of the reservoir, they are to conform to
Article 50 and Article 51 of the Water Code of the Philippines.
It is important that the environmental and social impacts of dam constructions are
appropriately considered. The construction of dams on watercourses has the
potential to significantly affect the surrounding environment and local
communities. The scope of the investigation will be dependent on the size and
project extent of impacts of the dam. Typical considerations include:
The impact on aquatic species. Impacts may result from changes in flow
behavior, changes in flow volumes, and restrictions on upstream/downstream
migration.
The loss of land to the reservoir. As the reservoir fills it will cover upstream
land. The current use of this land needs to be assessed to determine if this is
suitable. Both natural uses (nesting of birds, grazing of wildlife, sensitive
habitats) and social uses (agriculture, development) needs to be assessed.
The impacts on water quality, both within the reservoir and downstream of the
dam. The water quality has implications for the surrounding environment, as
well as for the suitability of the dam, particularly if the reservoir is proposed to
be used for water supply or irrigation.
5-62
5.7.7
5.8
5.8.1
The effect on the existing water usage regimes of nearby communities. The
dam has the potential to reduce available downstream water that may
presently be used for irrigation or water supply.
Implications for local heritage and archaeological sites.
The design of small dams is dependent on the local conditions, the material type
and the proposed usage. For a comprehensive design procedure for common small
dams, constructed from different materials, refer to the Design of Small Dams
publication by USBR (1987).
Basic Concept
A sluiceway is a structure that incorporates a culvert passing through the dike and
an associated control structure such as a gate. A sluiceway can be categorized into
two types according to its purpose: one is to drain the inland water into river, and
the other is to draw the water (as an intake structure) from the river for irrigation
use or some other purposes.
Sluiceways shall be carefully planned and so designed to conform to the master
plan and other relevant plans to meet with the functional and safety requirements
for the dikes/levees.
5.8.2
Type of Sluiceway
5.8.2.1
Dikes generally result in the obstruction of overland flow paths and drainage from
the landward side to the river. It is important that adequate drainage is
incorporated to ensure that there are no adverse local drainage issues caused by
the levee. In some situations, these adverse drainage impacts may be worse that
the flooding that the levee is intending to protect against. A sluiceway (Figure 555) can allow for the drainage upstream to pass through the dike into the river.
It is generally preferable for a sluiceway to be incorporated for smaller drainage
catchments. For larger drainage catchments, it may be necessary to provide an
opening in the dike structure and provide additional protection along the length of
the tributary.
The sluiceway will typically be opened to allow for drainage from the upstream
catchment through the dike. However, when the river rises during a flood, the gate
should be closed to prevent inundation of the areas on the landward side of the
dike. For many types of gate, this will require a manual operation and therefore
this should be considered in the design of the gate.
A key issue during flooding is when rainfall continues on the drainage catchment
on the landward side of the dike while the river is in flood. If the gate is closed,
there is the risk that flooding may rise to a higher level on the landward side of the
5-63
dike. Therefore, it may be necessary to incorporate a pump with the design of the
sluiceway. Pumps are discussed in more detail in Section 6.10.2.
Figure 5-55
5.8.2.2
A sluiceway for water intake allows transfer of water from the river, through an
embankment or dike, to the landward side. This is typically adopted for irrigation,
transferring water from the river to an irrigation canal, for example. The gate will
be opened when water is required on the landward side. However, when it is not
required or the river level rises due to flooding, then the gate will be closed.
5.8.3
The location of a sluiceway shall be selected according to its intended purpose. For
example, a drainage sluiceway will be located at the natural low point or drainage
point for the area.
A sluiceway represents a weak point in the dike structure.
sluiceways, the following should be considered:
In location of
5-64
5.8.4
Design Criteria
5.8.4.1
Direction/ Alignment
5.8.4.2
Opening Level
The opening level of a sluiceway for irrigation shall be according to its particular
intake (for example, the invert of the irrigation canal on the landward side of the
dike) and taking into account the bed variations in the future.
There are cases where the water intake for irrigation becomes difficult due to a
bed drop. For the construction of a sluiceway, it is necessary to examine and
analyze the trend of bed variation in the past and the possibility of bed drops in
the future. However, if the opening level is too low, the volume of intake might be
more than the water demand; and therefore, the level or capacity (cross section
area) of the sluiceway must be adjusted.
For drainage, the opening level shall consider the height of the riverbed or the
foundation height of the channel to be connected. If the opening height is too low,
sedimentation is induced; thus decreasing the effective sectional area. If the
foundation height is too high, the drainage capacity decreases, which may require
a larger sluiceway. The relationship with the river bed height or opening height
(level) of the channel to be connected with a conduit must be analyzed and
evaluated to decide the opening level of the sluiceway.
5.8.4.3
Where a drainage sluiceway discharges above the river bed, protection will be
required to prevent erosion of the river side of the dike.
Capacity
For an irrigation sluiceway, the cross section area (or capacity) shall be large
enough to secure the design intake volume even during dry season or based on the
specific requirements of the project.
For a drainage sluiceway, the capacity shall be determined by analyzing the runoff
from the drainage basin connected to the sluiceway using the hydrological
principles outlined in Section 3. The capacity of the sluiceway should be based on
the design capacity for drainage, as identified in Section 6.2.
The minimum diameter of the sluiceway shall be 910 mm, in accordance with the
requirements for drainage as identified in Section 6.4.
5-65
5.8.4.4
5.8.4.5
Embankment Failure
Gate
The type of gate or control structure adopted for the sluiceway will depend on the
application. There are many types of control structure. An overview of some of
the structures are provided in Table 5-13.
Each particular structure will result in specific head losses associated with it,
which will affect the capacity of the sluiceway. It is important to consult with the
manufacturer specifications to determine the appropriate losses to account for.
5-66
Not suitable.
Automatically
Operated Gate
Flap Gates
5-67
Yes
Yes.
Yes
Manually Operated
Gate
Drainage Sluiceway
Water In-take
Sluiceway
Description
Type of Control
Structure
Table 5-13
Example
Type of Control
Structure
Description
Not Suitable
Water In-take
Sluiceway
Yes
Drainage Sluiceway
(source : Tideflex.com.au)
Example
5-68
5.9
Overtopping Embankment
Overtopping embankments include:
When these structures overtop, there is potential for scour to occur at the
downstream face of the embankment. Scour damage will occur first on the
downstream face of the embankment before advancing through the road
pavement. In severe cases, the scour will continue advancing until the
embankment is breached. The causes of scour at these positions are due to (DTMR,
2013):
5.9.1
Design Considerations
5.9.1.1
Hydraulic Analysis
5.9.1.2
In order to estimate the overtopping flows across the embankment, the weir
equation presented in Section 4.9.1 should be used.
Uplift Pressures
Flow through the embankment can lead to high uplift pressures under impervious
types of batter slope protection such as concrete slabs. Relief holes are required to
allow drainage through the protection system and avoid pressure build-up.
Dumped graded rock and gabion mattresses are not impervious and pressure
build-up is unlikely to be a problem (DTMR, 2013).
5.9.1.3
It should be noted that during the early stages of overtopping relatively high
velocities may be present and thus slope stability should be a design consideration.
Also note that the maximum flow rarely corresponds to the peak velocity. The risk
of damage to the downstream shoulder can be reduced by rounding the shoulder
as much as possible, to avoid the generation of negative pressures at the change of
flow direction. A radius of approximately 3.3 m is recommended (DTMR, 2013).
5-69
5.9.2
Rigid
- Grouted rock typically used where riprap rock is not sufficient in size.
Flexible
- Dry boulder riprap typically the least costly form of protection. Details on
- Grass this can only be used in low velocity environments, where minimal
- Reinforce Grass and TRM similar to above. Refer to Section 6.3.2. These
5.9.2.1
should generally be used in overtopping that occurs for less than 12 hours
during the design flood.
5.9.3
Cut-off
5-70
5.9.4
5.9.5
crest of the structure. These walls are typically 0.50-0.75 m deep and 0.20-0.30 m
wide and are generally constructed of low strength mass concrete (DTMR, 2013).
Apron
Types of Protection
Six types of treatment (refer to Table 5-14, Figure 5-57 and Figure 5-58) are
presented in DTMR (2010) and are provided as a guide for potential treatment
measures. These are presented specifically for floodways and road embankment
overtopping, but can also be extended more generally.
Table 5-14 Different Types of Floodway/ Road Embankment Protection
Type*
Description
Type I
The reinforcement selected should not only satisfy strength requirements, but also
prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks.
Where cut-off walls have been used without the downstream apron, failures have
occurred.
With a suitable width of downstream apron and weep holes, the Type 1 Floodway
is recommended as suitable for all crossings where other than grass protection is
required, cost permitting.
Type II
Type IV
Type V
This type of protection incorporating a bituminous seal is probably the lowest cost
of the types shown, but its use is limited. It should only be used only where:
Fill height is not higher than 900mm;
Tailwater at overtopping is not more than 300 mm below the crown of the
road; and
Time of submergence is low (only a few hours)
Type VII
Note: Type III and Type VI are no longer recommended by DTMR (2010)
Source: DTMR, 2010
5-71
Figure 5-57
5-72
5.10
Design Drawings
The main components that should be included in design drawing are the following:
5-73
5.11
References
CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007). The Rock Manual. The Use of Rock in Hydraulic
Engineering (2nd edition). C683, CIRIA, London.
Department of Natural Resources and Environment [Victoria NRE] (2002). Levee
Design, Construction and Maintenance.
Department of Transport and Main Roads [DTMR] (2010). Bridge Scour Manual,
State of Queensland, March.
Department of Transport and Main Roads [DTMR] (2013). Bridge Scour Manual,
State of Queensland, March.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center [1] (2010), Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Design of Flood Control Structures, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Philippines.
Flood Control & Sabo Engineering Center [2] (2010), Technical Standards and
Guidelines for Planning of Flood Control Structures, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, Philippines.
Papua New Guinea Department of Public Works [PNG DoW] (1987). River Training
Manual, prepared by The Binnie Group.
5-74
Drainage
6.1
Introduction
This chapter provides guidelines on the design of drainage related infrastructure.
This infrastructure includes channels, pipes, pumps and basins.
Section 6.2 General Design Criteria provide overall general design criteria and
requirements that feed into the subsequent sections. The remainder of the chapter
includes:
This chapter also forms a core reference chapter for elements in the DGCS volumes
on Bridge Design and Highways.
6.2
6.2.1
The design of a stormwater drainage system should consider both the minor and
major drainage systems:
6.2.2
The minor drainage system consists of the components that have been
historically considered as part of the storm drainage system (FHWA, 2001),
such as culverts, pipes and drainage channels. The key aim of the minor system
is to minimize relatively frequent and nuisance flooding.
The major drainage system is intended to provide relief for stormwater flows
exceeding the capacity of the minor drainage system (FHWA, 2001). Design
should allow for the conveyance of these larger flows along overland flowpaths
such as roads, parks, drainage reserves and other features. The major drainage
system is intended to protect the community from larger flood events that
exceed the minor drainage system capacity.
For highway, road cross drainage and bridges, refer to Volume 4: Highway Design
and Volume 5: Bridge Design.
Table 6-1
Design Capacity
Check Capacity
Major Drainage
System Drainage
Capacity (Note 2)
Drainage Pipes
15 year flood
25 year flood
Culverts (Note 1)
25 year flood
50 year flood
15 year flood
25 year flood
Land-use (Note 1)
Minor System
6.2.3
Any proposed drainage works should ensure that there are no adverse impacts
upstream or downstream of the study area. Potential impacts include:
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.3
Downstream Influences
Drainage Reserves
Climate Change
This section of the chapter on urban drainage provides guidance on the design of
open drains and channels. These features represent one of the minor system
components of urban drainage infrastructure.
There are three key types of channels that are typical utilized (based on FHWA,
2005):
6-2
- Concrete
-
Concrete blocks
- Masonry blocks
Table 6-2
Channel Type
Channel with
Rigid Lining
Comments
Examples
Channel with
Flexible Lining
6-3
Channel Type
Comments
Examples
Composite
Channels
6.3.1
Flow Capacity
6-4
adjust the Mannings n value. For the types of flows dealt with in drainage design,
this is generally only required for flexible channels.
A procedure is identified in the following sections for rock lined and grass
channels. For other types of channel, it is recommended to refer to the
manufacturers specifications.
6.3.1.1
For rock lined channels, Mannings n may be calculated using either Table 6-3 or
Equation 6-1 (based on QUDM, 2013).
Mannings Roughness of Rock Lined Channels with Shallow Flow
Table 6-3
d50/d90 = 0.5
d50 (mm)
200
300
Hydraulic
Radius (m)
d50/d90 = 0.8
400
500
200
300
400
500
0.2
0.1
0.14
0.17
0.21
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.3
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.16
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.4
0.07
0.09
0.12
0.14
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.5
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.6
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.8
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.05
where:
m
R
d50
d90
6.3.1.2
(90 )1/6
=
26(1 0.359 )
=
[(R/d90)(d50/d90)]0.7
mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
mean rock size for which 90% of the rocks are smaller (m)
In natural gravel-based streams the factor d50/d90 is typically in the range 0.2 to
0.5, while in constructed channels where imported graded rock is used, the ratio
is more likely to be in the range 0.5 to 0.8 (QUDM, 2013).
6-5
Table 6-4
Hydraulic
Radius (m)
Slope (%)
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.105
0.081
0.046
0.2
0.091
0.068
0.057
0.043
0.03
0.3
0.078
0.064
0.053
0.043
0.031
0.03
0.4
0.063
0.054
0.044
0.033
0.03
0.03
0.5
0.056
0.05
0.038
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.6
0.051
0.047
0.034
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.8
0.047
0.044
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.044
0.044
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
>1.2
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.1
* Mannings values determined from vegetation retardance Chart-D (refer DTMR, 2010). Values are
presented to three significant figures for convenience. This should not imply the values are accurate to three
significant figures. A Mannings roughness of 0.03 is adopted for hydraulic radius greater than 1.2 m in
accordance with recommendations of original research; however, this may not always be appropriate.
Further information is available in DTMR (2010) and FHWA (2005).
Source: QUDM, 2013
6.3.2
Soil Type
1.0
2.0
3.0
>256
4.6
5.1
5.8
6.2
Large Cobbles
256-128
3.6
4.5
4.7
5.0
Small Cobbles
128-64
2.3
2.7
3.1
3.4
64-32
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
Coarse Gravel
32-16
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.9
Medium Gravel
16-8
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.4
Fine Gravel
8-4
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.2
4-2
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
2-1
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Coarse Sand
1-0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
Medium Sand
0.5-0.25
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.25-0.125
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.5
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.5
Loess (settled)
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.3
Boulders
Fine Sand
6-6
6.3.2.1
The maximum average flow velocity of 4 5 m/s is recommended for hard lined
channels.
Other considerations in the design of channels with rigid linings, such as concrete,
include:
6.3.2.2
Contraction and expansion joints to minimize the risk of cracking and seepage
and potential undermining. Note that if a hydraulic jump is intended to move
over a joint, then additional joint reinforcing may be required.
Pressure relief weep holes in impermeable linings both within the channel
invert and within the channel side slopes. The extent and density of pressure
relief weep holes should be sufficient to prevent hydraulic uplift of the channel.
Vegetated Channels
For channels with flexible linings, there are generally two approaches:
Both approaches have been adopted around the world. As identified in FHWA
(2005), the permissible shear stress approach better reflects the physical
processes that are occurring and is constant over a wide range of channel shapes
and slopes. However, the application of the permissible velocity is generally more
straightforward to apply and is detailed in this guideline.
Details on the permissible shear stress approach are provided in Design of
Roadside Channels with Flexible Linings (FHWA, 2005).
A key concern for vegetated channels is what happens when the grass cover cannot
be maintained, such as during drought, after fire etc. This aspect should be
considered and if there is a reasonable risk of occurrence and channel scour is
likely / not desirable, then design should be undertaken assuming bare-earth
design values (DTMR, 2010).
6-7
Be quick to establish
Be able to self-repair
Have a relatively short blade length (< 50 mm). Longer blade lengths can
increase flow resistance and subsequently result in a reduction in capacity of
the channel
Be able to survive short durations of inundation
Indicative permissible velocities for vegetated channels are provided in Table 6-6.
In using Table 6-6, it is important that a good cover of grass be maintained,
designers should assess the percentage of stable vegetal cover likely to persist
under design flow conditions.
Table 6-6 assumes a consolidated surface, rather than a cultivated surface.
Table 6-6
Vegetation
Bermuda Grass
Grass Mixture
Permissible Velocities
Stable soils
Erodible soils
0-5
2.40
1.80
5-10
2.10
1.50
>10
1.80
1.20
0-5
2.10
1.50
5-10
1.80
1.20
>10
1.50
0.90
0-5
1.50
1.20
5-10
1.20
0.90
0-5
1.10
0.80
0-5
1.10
0.80
6.3.2.3
Turf reinforcement matting (TRM) and reinforced grass (using products such as
coconet and numerous proprietary polypropylene products) provides additional
protection from erosive forces. The concept of turf reinforcement is to provide a
6-8
structure to the soil/vegetation matrix that will both assist in the establishment of
vegetation and provide support to mature vegetation (FHWA, 2005).
There are many products on the market, and the designer should refer to the
manufacturer specifications to determine operating flow regimes and velocities
that are acceptable, as well as guidance on installation. As an indication, reinforced
grasses may have a permissible velocity in the order of 4 m/s, but this should be
confirmed by manufacturer specifications.
The performance of TRM is subject to vegetation cover, and therefore is subject to
some of the key considerations identified in Section 6.3.2.2.
Figure 6-1
6.3.2.4
Rock lined channels, or rip rap, is a conventional treatment for channels to provide
erosion resistance. Typically, the hydraulics of the channel is determined, and then
an appropriate rock size is adopted. Some iteration may be required, as the rock
size will affect the Mannings n value adopted (refer to Section 6.3.1).
When designing and constructing a rock lined channel, the specification for riprap
as identified in Section 5.9 should be adopted.
For mild channel slopes (less than 5%), angular rock and a specific gravity of 2.6,
the following simplified equation can be adopted to determine an appropriate rock
size (QUDM, 2013):
Equation 6-2
50 = 0.04 2
where:
d50
V
6-9
=
=
mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
average cross sectional velocity (m/s)
A more refined version of the equation is provided below, which allows for
different types of rock and flow conditions:
Equation 6-3
where:
d50
V
sr
K1
K
6.3.2.5
50 =
=
1 2
2. . 2 ( 1)
mean rock size for which 50% of the rocks are smaller (m)
=
=
Rock filled wire mattresses or gabions may also be used to line the channel bank
or bed. Smaller sized rocks can be used because the wire basket surrounding the
rock in the mattress or gabion tends to make the mass act as a unit while retaining
flexibility.
Some specific design considerations include:
6.3.3
Recommended side slopes for design of different types of channels are provided in
Table 6-7. In specifying a side slope, consideration should also be made for
maintenance and safety.
For channels adjacent to highways, the following should apply:
6-10
Where the above cannot be achieved, or the depth is greater than 3 m, then a
safety barrier is required
Table 6-7
nearly vertical
1:3
Gabion Mattress
Hard Clay
1:2 to 1:1
1:2
Sandy Loam
1:2
Sand
1:3
Source: DID, 2012, Kinori, 1970, QUDM, 2013 & DPWH, 1984
6.3.4
Freeboard
Freeboard refers to the height from the top of the channel to the water surface at
the design capacity (refer to Figure 6-2). A freeboard is allowed to account for
effects like waves and water surface fluctuations, sedimentation and water surface
estimation errors.
A freeboard should be selected that is 15% of the depth of flow in the channel at
the design capacity, with a minimum of 100 mm.
Figure 6-2
6.3.5
Minimum Velocities
In hard lined channels, a minimum velocity of 0.8 m/s should be maintained in the
channel to prevent deposition and sedimentation. This also has the added
advantage of minimizing stagnant water and associated mosquito growth.
During dry weather flows, it may become difficult to maintain this velocity. In such
situations, it is possible to introduce a smaller channel in the bottom of the drain
6-11
to confine these smaller flows to a smaller cross section (refer example in Figure
6-3).
Dry weather flows can be estimated by using the baseflow estimate discussed in
Section 3.
Figure 6-3
6.3.6
Sub-Critical Flow
6.3.7
Flows between a Froude number of 0.8 to 1.2 are unstable and unpredictable and
should be avoided (UDFCD, 2008). As general practice, Froude numbers below 0.8
should be adopted for design.
Transitions
Changes from one channel cross section to another cross section should be
undertaken smoothly, with no sudden changes in cross section. An expansion rate
(Figure 6-4) of 1 on 4 is recommended as a minimum, while a contraction of 1 on
1 is recommended as a minimum.
Typical transition losses are shown in Table 6-8.
Figure 6-4
6-12
Table 6-8
Contraction Coefficient
Expansion Coefficient
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.8
6.3.8
Bends
The superelevation around a bend may be calculated from Equation 6-4 (FHWA,
2001). The height of the channel on a bend should be designed to accommodate
the expected water elevation on the bend at the design capacity as identified in
Section 6.2.2, as well as freeboard as identified in Section 6.3.4.
Equation 6-4
where:
d
=
=
Rc
Conclusive values for head losses in open channels are not available. A
conservative estimate for bends between 90 and 180 degrees may be calculated
using:
Equation 6-5
where:
2B
2
) ( )
hb
Rc
6-13
= (
channel width
gravity
6.3.9
The equation is applicable for bends between 90 and 180 degrees. For bends
between 0 and 90 degrees, linear interpolation is recommended.
Safety
The recommended inclusions for safety in channels are provided in Table 6-9.
Table 6-9
Safety Feature
6.4
Comments
Safety Railings
To be provided for all channels where the design capacity depth is greater
than 1 m.
Rungs in Channels
Appropriate energy losses should be accounted for in the design. Losses include:
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
Losses at junctions
Inlets and outlets
Minimum Size
The minimum size of pipe to be adopted shall be 910 mm in order to allow the
passage of debris and minimize the risk of blockage.
Minimum Velocity
In order to encourage self-cleaning, and minimize sediment build up, pipes should
be designed to ensure a minimum flow velocity of 0.8 m/s at pipe full.
Maximum Velocity
Cover
Cover refers to the distance from the top of the pipe to the surface.
A minimum cover of 600 mm should typically be adopted.
For pipes under highways, or heavily trafficked areas, a cover of 900 mm should
be adopted.
A cover depth of 450 mm may be adopted on private property or under open space
that experiences only occasional traffic.
6-14
6.4.5
Alignment
Pipes should run straight between pits wherever possible. Where curves in the
pipe are absolutely required, standard curved pipes from suppliers should be
adopted.
6.4.6
Capacity
The capacity of a pipe flowing full, but not under pressure, should be calculated
using Mannings equation, as discussed in Section 4.5.
6.4.7
6.4.7.1
6.4.8
6.5
6.5.1
Culverts
Culverts are a relatively short length of pipe or closed conduit used to convey
stormwater through an embankment or road, connected at each end to an open
channel.
Minimum Sizing
For culverts crossing under local roads, a minimum internal width and clear depth
of 910 mm is required.
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
For culverts crossing under expressways, a minimum internal width and clear
depth of 1 m is required.
Minimum Velocity
Maximum Velocity
Flow Conditions
Flow behavior through culverts varies depending on whether the inlet and outlet
are submerged.
6-15
Computer design programs will automatically adjust the culvert flow conditions
based on the upstream and downstream water levels.
Culvert flow calculations are discussed in Section 4.7
6.5.5
6.5.6
Further details on calculating culvert flow are provided in the Urban Drainage
Manual (Federal Highways Administration, 2001).
Cover
The cover for a culvert depends on the concrete/ loading class. In general, a
minimum cover of 600 mm should typically be adopted. A cover depth of 300 mm
may be adopted on private property or under open space that experiences only
occasional traffic.
Blockage
Blockage Factor *
20%
10%
Handrails
50%
6-16
Figure 6-5
6.5.7
Inlet and outlet structures are provided to direct the flow between the open
channel and the culvert. Typical structures are shown in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6
6.5.7.1
Outlet flow controls include structures such as tidal flaps, flood gates and duck
billed valves. These structures control the backflow of water from the receiving
water body into either the culvert or pipe. They may be incorporated for a variety
of reasons, including:
6-17
Outlet scour control may be required at outlets to reduce flow velocities prior to
discharging to watercourses in order to reduce the risk of erosion. Outlet
protection may be required where:
The outlet velocity exceeds the scour velocity of the bed or bank material
The outlet channel and banks are actively eroding
Protection requirements may range from a riprap apron to stilling basins and
concrete structures.
In all cases, a concrete cut-off wall is required at the end of the culvert to prevent
undermining.
Rock pad outlets or dry boulder outlets are commonly adopted for culvert outlets
(refer to Figure 6-7). These should generally be considered where outlet velocities
are less than 5 m/s and the Froude number of the flow is less than 1.7.
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-8 and Figure 6-9 provide guidance on the selection of mean rock size (d50)
and the length of the dissipater (L). Note that these design graphs assume a
specific gravity of 2.6. Refer to standard specification for riprap in Section 5.5.6.
The minimum recommended width of the rock pad is defined as:
Immediately downstream of the outlet: the width of the outlet apron, or the
width of the outlet plus 0.6 m (if there is no apron).
At the downstream end of the rock pad: the above width plus 0.4 times the
length of the rock pad (L) as shown in Figure 6-10.
6-18
If the width of the outlet channel is less than the recommended width of the rock
protection, then rock protection should extend up the banks to either the height of
the pipes obvert or to the design tailwater level.
Note that this type of protection is only applicable for slopes of less than 10%.
Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Single Pipe or Box Culverts
6-19
Figure 6-9
Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Multiple Pipe or Box Culverts
6.5.7.3
Orientation of Outlet
Where practical, storm water outlets should be recessed into the banks of any
watercourse that is likely to experience bank erosion, channel expansion, or
channel migration. Typically the minimum desirable setback (Figure 6-11) is the
greater of (based on QUDM, 2013):
6-20
10 times the equivalent pipe diameter (single cell) or 13 times the equivalent
diameter of the largest cell (multiple outlets) measured from where the outlet
jet would strike an erodible bank.
Figure 6-11
6.6
6.6.1
The channel width at the bed is less than 5 times the equivalent pipe diameter,
or
The distance from the outlet to the opposite bank (along the direction of the
outlet jet) is less than 10 times the equivalent pipe diameter, and
The inflow is more than 10% of the receiving channel flow
Inlet Manholes
6-21
Such that the capacity of the reach between inlet pits is not exceeded. This will
require an iterative process of pit location. An initial spacing can be determine
based on individual pit catchment areas and pit inlet capacities. For a worked
example, refer to FHWA (2001), Example 4-15.
6.6.2
Inflow Capacity
The capacity of an inlet is dependent on the depth of water over the inlet. Under
shallow flow conditions the inflow behaves as for a sharp crested weir. As the
depth increases, the inlet becomes submerged, and the inflow behaves as for an
orifice.
Equations for determining the inflow capacity under weir flow conditions and
orifice flow conditions are provided in Section 6.6.2.1 and Section 6.6.2.2,
respectively.
Alternatively, the inflow capacity can be estimated from the inlet rating curves
shown in Figure 6-12 and Figure 6-13.
Note that these curves are applicable only to pits located in low points and
depressions. For grated pits on grade (such as roadside drains) refer to Volume 4:
Highway Design.
6-22
Figure 6-12
6-23
Figure 6-13
6.6.2.1
Weir Flow
Weir flow behavior is illustrated in Figure 6-14. Inflow under weir flow conditions
can be derived based on the simplified version of the weir formula, as identified
below:
Equation 6-6
where:
= 1.66. . 32
Qg
inflow
1.66
weir coefficient
BF
L
=
=
blockage factor
height of the energy level above the weir crest (Equal to the water
level at low velocities)
6-24
Figure 6-14
6.6.2.2
Orifice Flow
Orifice flow occurs under two conditions. Free flow, where a free surface remains
within the inlet and atmospheric pressure is within the chamber, and fully
drowned, where the pit is filled with water and the pressure within the pit is
governed by the head and flow conditions. These flow conditions are illustrated in
Figure 6-14.
The flow under both conditions should be assessed and the less capacity adopted
in design.
Orifice flow is given by the orifice equation:
Equation 6-7
where:
Qg
inflow
Co
orifice coefficient
BF
Ag
h
g
6-25
= . . (2. )12
=
=
=
=
0.67
Figure 6-15
Atmospheric
Non-Atmospheric
6.6.3
Blockage
6.7
6.7.1
For inlets located in depressions and low points, a blockage of 50% should be
adopted.
Manholes and access chambers are used to provide access to the drainage system
for inspection and maintenance. Inlet pits (Section 6.5.7.3) can also serve as access
points and should be used in lieu of access chambers where possible as they
provide the additional benefit of stormwater interception at a minimal additional
cost. Inlet pits used as access locations, and dedicated access points are to follow
the guidelines below.
Location & Spacing
6.7.2
Changes in alignment
Changes in grade
In addition to the above locations, access points should also be provided along
straight pipe sections to facilitate cleaning and maintenance. The maximum
recommended distance between access locations is recommended at 50 m.
Entry
In order to allow safe entry and exit from access points, all access chambers should
have a minimum inside diameter of 1.2 m, or 1.5 m for pipes larger than 2.1m. The
top of the access shaft may taper to 0.9 m, so long as the tapered zone does not
affect working at the base of the shaft.
6-26
6.7.3
Access
Access down the access chamber may be either by steps or rungs embedded in the
chamber wall, or by a ladder that workers carry with them.
If steps or rungs are used, they should be made from a non-corrosive material and
be maintained appropriately. They should provide a secure grip to allow safe entry
and exit.
6.7.4
The use of ladders reduces risks from rust damages steps, and helps to prevent
unauthorized access. If ladders are used, the geometry of the access shaft must
allow for the safe usage of the ladder.
Access Chamber Cover& Frame
6.8
6.8.1
If the hydraulic grade line of the system extends above the surface, the cover must
be secured so that they remain in place during peak flood events.
Detention Basins
Purpose
Detention basins are used to reduce the peak outflow from a location. Urban
development results in increased impervious areas which causes faster catchment
responses and higher peak flow rates. Basins are often employed to return peak
flow rates and volumes to the pre-developed condition to prevent the
development resulting in adverse flood impacts downstream. They can assist in
meeting the requirements of Section 6.2.3.
Basins can also be used to reduce upgrade works that might be required for
stormwater drainage, and may be more economical than increasing pipe sizes or
channel dimensions.
Basins perform this through intercepting stormwater flows, and releasing the
stormwater volume in a controlled manner over a period of time.
There are many types of basins and configurations. In general, detention basins
may be either open air basins, located within parkland areas, road reserves etc., or
underground systems. A typical schematic of an open air basin is provided in
Figure 6-16 and Figure 6-17, while an underground system is shown in Figure 618. Underground systems will generally require design in accordance with the
manufacturers specifications.
6-27
Above ground detention basins are a type of small dam structure, and reference
should be made to Section 5.6.3.4 for specific design considerations on small dams.
Figure 6-16
6-28
Figure 6-18
6-29
Figure 6-20
Source: http://www.lakesuperiorstreams.org/stormwater/toolkit/underground.htm
6.8.2
Sizing
The size of the basin will be governed by the volume of flow generated from the
upstream catchment, and the amount of retardation required of the flow.
where:
+1 =
( ++1 )
2
( ++1 )
2
+ .
inflow rate
outflow rate
1,2
=
=
volume in storage
routing time step
6-30
Given the initial inflow and outflow values shown in Table 6-11, the first three
steps of calculating the storage volume is shown below.
The completed table is shown in Table 6-12.
Table 6-11
Time (min)
Inflow (m3/min)
Outflow (m3/min)
Count (n)
0.5
0.8
1.5
Step1:
2 =
2 =
(1 +2 )
2
1 (0+1)
2
2 = 0.25
Step2:
3 =
3 =
1 (1+3)
2
3 = 1.6
Step3:
4 =
4 =
1 (3+5)
2
4 = 4.45
6-31
(2 +3 )
(3 +4 )
(3 +4 )
2
(1 +2 )
(2 +3 )
2
1(0+0.5)
2
+ 0.
1(0.5+0.8)
2
+ 2.
+ 0.25.
1(0.58+1.5)
2
+ 1.
+ 3.
+ 1.6.
Table 6-12
Time
(min)
Discharge (m3/min)
Storage (m3)
I1
Q1
S1
I2
Q2
0.5
S2
0.25
I3
Q3
0.8
S3
1.6
I4
Q4
1.5
S4
4.45
I5
10
Q5
2.5
S5
9.95
I6
Q6
3.4
S6
14
I7
Q7
S7
14.3
I8
Q8
S8
16.8
I9
Q9
2.8
S9
20.4
I10
Q10
2.7
S10
21.15
10
I11
Q11
S11
19.8
11
I12
Q12
S12
17.8
12
I13
Q13
1.9
S13
15.85
13
I14
Q14
1.9
S14
13.95
14
I15
Q15
1.9
S15
12.05
15
I16
Q16
1.8
S16
10.2
16
I17
Q17
1.5
S17
8.55
17
I18
Q18
1.3
S18
7.15
18
I19
Q19
1.2
S19
5.9
19
I20
Q20
S20
4.8
20
I21
Q21
0.8
S21
3.9
21
I22
Q22
0.8
S22
3.1
22
I23
Q23
0.5
S23
2.45
23
I24
Q24
0.5
S24
1.95
24
I25
Q25
0.2
S25
1.6
25
I26
Q26
0.2
S26
1.4
Alternatively, the storage volume may be determined from the inflow and outflow
hydrographs, with the storage being equal to the difference in the hydrographs.
This option should be used only to determine an initial estimate, as it requires the
outflow hydrograph to be estimated. The approach is shown in Figure 6-21.
6-32
Figure 6-21
6.8.3
An example of some of the models which can be utilized in the design and analysis
of detention basins are HEC HMS, xpswmm, HYDRAIN and xpstorm. The HEC HMS
is the widely use within the Philippines and a detailed description is provided in
Section 3.5.2. It is noted that this is not necessarily a recommendation of these
particular software, as many suitable software exist in the market.
Freeboard
6.8.4
Freeboard Requirement
Underside of ballast
Basin Drainage
The basin floor should be graded at a minimum cross gradient of 1 in 80 for grassed
or concrete basins, or 1 in 100 for vegetated basins, in order to allow efficient
surface drainage.
The outlet structure should be located at the low point of the basin, typically near
to the downstream end. The outlet may be constructed as a pipe, culvert, orifice
plate, drop pit or similar. The construction method may be selected based on local
constraints. The important factor is that whatever solution is adopted, it is capable
of restricting basin outflow to the desired rate under a range of storm events.
6-33
The intake to a detention basin outlet should be protected against expected debris
blockages and designed to minimize the safety risk to a person trapped against the
outlet structure, where public access to the basin is possible. The level of
protection will vary depending on the consequences of failure caused by blockage
of the intake and the potential frequency of blockage. Protection can be achieved
by the installation of a trash rack, bar screen and/or a fence.
Outlet pipes should have spigot and socket rubber-ring joints and lifting holes
should be securely sealed. Pipe and culvert bedding should be carefully specified
to minimize its permeability. Cut-off walls or seepage collars must be installed
where appropriate, to control seepage and prevent piping failure adjacent to the
outlet pipe.
6.8.5
Appropriate measures, such as internal sealing of pipe joints and lifting holes, and
bolting down of access chamber lids, should be applied to any existing downstream
systems which could be pressurized by the discharge from the outlet.
Alternatively, surcharge chambers may need to be incorporated into the outlet
pipe to limit the internal pressure.
Emergency Spillway
6-34
Figure 6-22
6.8.6
6.8.7
Outlet Protection
Protection must be provided as required at the basin outlet to prevent erosion and
scour. Refer Section 5.7.4.6.
Release Timing
The design of the release of stored storm water is critical to the success of a
retention basin. A typical basin with reduce the peak of the downstream flood
hydrograph, and produce some attenuation of the flood peak.
Care needs to be taken to ensure that the delayed flood peak does not cause
adverse effects downstream through coincident flooding. This is particularly
important if multiple basins are employed in a single catchment.
6.8.8
Embankment
6-35
6.8.9
Public Safety
Basins can pose a public safety risk due to the depth of the ponding water, and
through currents in the basin, particularly around the outlet structure. Hazards
may not be immediately apparent to the public, particularly if the basin serves a
dual use as public space.
A detailed risk assessment of all basins should be undertaken. At a minimum, the
assessment should address:
6.8.10
Ponding depth - basin depths should be restricted to 1.2 m for at least the 20
year flood, and preferably larger events. This is unless public access to the
basin is excluded completely with fencing (i.e. it is not a dual purpose basin).
Signage warning signs and depth gauges may be appropriate.
Maintenance
6.9
Mowing typically twice a year, but this should be reviewed based on local
needs.
Sediment, debris and litter removal typically twice a year. Particular
attention should be paid to the control device and any spillways, and
Repairs and Replacement drainage devices will deteriorate over time and will
require replacement when their operation becomes compromised.
Overland Flowpaths
Overland flowpaths are designed to carry flow in excess of the piped capacity.
6-36
The design of the overland flowpath should control flow such that:
The product of flow depth and velocity (V*D) is less than or equal to 0.4 m2/s
The flowpath has sufficient capacity to meet the design discharge for major
drainage as identified in Section 6.2.2
If the flow is contained within an open channel, the freeboard is as per Section
6.2
6.10
Pumping Stations
6.10.1
Purpose
6.10.2
Pumping stations allow for the removal of stormwater from pipe systems that
cannot be drained through gravity. Pumping stations are complex and expensive,
both to construct and maintain, and their use is only recommended if other options
are proven to be unfeasible.
6.10.3
Have available back up pumps, pumping mains, and a means of supplying back
up power
Pumping start / stop shall be automatic with the option for manual override
provided
Provide an operation and maintenance schedule
There are two broad types of pumps centrifugal pumps and positive
displacements pumps
Centrifugal pumps operate using a rotating impeller to move water into the pump
and pressurize it. The difference in pressure between the water in the pump, and
the water at the outlet, generates a flow of water through the pump. As centrifugal
pumps are reliant on pressure differences to generate flow, they are sensitive to
changes in pressure heads at the outlet. A common centrifugal pump design is
shown in Figure 6-23.
6-37
In general, there are a large range of pumps available that are applicable to
different situations. It is important to select a pump that is appropriate for the
proposed use. A detailed guide to pump selection, and the relative merits of
different systems, is provided in Hec-24: Highway Stormwater Pump Station Design
(FHWA, 2001).
Figure 6-23
Centrifugal Pump
6-38
Figure 6-24
6.10.4
6.10.4.1
Pump Storage
The storage required should be determined based on the pumping rate of the
selected pump, and the inflow hydrograph, as shown in Figure 6-25. The storage
volume required is the difference between the hydrograph and the pumping rate.
Cycling Sequence
Cycling is the starting and stopping of pumps, the frequency of which must be
limited to prevent damage and possible malfunction. The pumping system must be
designed to provide sufficient volume for safe cycling. The volume required to
satisfy the minimum cycle time is dependent upon the characteristics of the power
unit, the number and capacity of pumps, the sequential order in which the pumps
operate and whether or not the pumps are alternated during operation (FHWA,
2001).
6-39
Figure 6-25
6.10.5
Collection System
Storm drains leading to the pumping station are typically designed on mild grades
to minimize depth and associated construction cost. To avoid siltation problems in
the collection system, a minimum grade that produces a velocity of 1 m/s in the
pipe while flowing full is suggested.
The inlet pipe should enter the station perpendicular to the line of pumps.
The inflow should distribute itself equally to all pumps. Baffles may be required to
ensure that this is achieved. Further details on pump station layout are provided
in Hec-24: Highway Stormwater Pump Station Design (FHWA, 2001).
6.10.5.1
6.10.6
It is recommended that screens be used to prevent large objects from entering the
system and possibly damaging the pumps. Larger debris may be screened either at
the surface or inside the wet well/storage system. The level of maintenance
required should be considered when selecting debris removal procedures (FHWA,
2001).
There are two key types of pump stations; wet-pit (Figure 6-26) and dry-pit
(Figure 6-27) stations.
6-40
The main advantage of the dry-pit station for storm water is the availability of a
dry area for personnel to perform routine and emergency pump and pipe
maintenance.
Since dry-pit stations are more expensive than wet-pit stations, wet-pit stations
are most often used. Dry-pit stations are more appropriate for handling sewage
because of the potential health hazards to maintenance personnel.
The station depth should be kept to a minimum. No more depth than that required
for pump submergence and clearance below the inlet invert is necessary, unless
foundation conditions dictate otherwise.
Figure 6-26
6-41
Figure 6-27
6.10.7
6.10.8
Submergence
Submergence is the depth of water above the pump inlet necessary to prevent
cavitation and vortexing. It varies significantly with pump type and speed and
atmospheric pressure. This dimension is provided by the pump manufacturer and
is determined by laboratory testing (FHWA, 2001).
Power Supply
Pump stations also require a backup power source that is capable of powering the
pump in the event of a failure of the main power system.
6-42
6.10.9
Pump Control
Manual controls are well suited to small, non-critical installations that do not
warrant the additional expense of automatic control. Automatic control is well
suited to large pump systems, critical systems or remote systems.
6.10.9.1
It is important that any automatic system has a manual backup system provided in
case of power failures.
Water Level Sensors
Water-level sensors are used to activate the pumps and, therefore, are a vital
component of the control system. There are a number of different types of sensors
that can be used. Types include the float switch, electronic probes, ultrasonic
devices, mercury switch, and air pressure switch.
6.10.10
6.10.11
The location or setting of these sensors control the start and stop operations of
pump motors. Their function is critical because pump motors or engines must not
start more frequently than an allowable number of times per hour (i.e., the
minimum cycle time) to avoid damage. To prolong the life of the motors, sufficient
volume must be provided between the pump start and stop elevations to meet the
minimum cycle time requirement (FHWA, 2001).
Flap gates or valving are generally required on the discharge point from the pumps
to restrict water from flowing back into discharge pipe. Flap gates and valving are
discussed in Section 6.5.7.1.
Number of Pumps
Where the above approach is adopted, standby pumps are typically not warranted.
However, this should be based on a risk assessment and the critical nature of the
area being pumped.
6-43
6.10.12
6.10.13
6.11
Pump Foundations
Where the pump is directly connected to the motor (via gears or drive trains for
example) a single common foundation should be constructed for both the pump
and the motor to prevent misalignment due to differential settlement.
Additional Design Details
Water Quality
6.12
Wetlands
Design Drawings
The main components that should be included in design drawing are the following:
6-44
6.13
References
Sub-Surface Stormwater Management,
http://www.brentwoodprocess.com/stormwater.html , accessed : October 2nd, 2013.
Brentwood
Industries
(2012).
Public Utilities Board [PUB] (2011). Code of Practice on Surface Water Drainage,
6th Edition, December, Singapore.
6-45
Coastal Structures
The design of coastal structures of different types is presented in detail in the
Philippine Port Authority (PPA) Engineering Standards for Port and Harbor
Structures Volume II (2009). PPA (2009) provides a comprehensive design
manual on the design of ports and harbors, which includes numerous coastal
structures and protection measures.
This Guide focuses on coastal structures that are relevant to projects undertaken
by DPWH. These are namely revetments and sea walls. A general discussion and
overview of the considerations is provided, with key referencing to PPA (2009) for
more detailed design information.
7.1
General Criteria
7.1.1
Design Event
7.1.2
Protection Level
The level of protection offered by the sea wall or revetment should be dependent
on the structure or land-use that is protected, and the implications of overtopping
waves should this occur. Ideally, this should be identified as a part of a master
planning process, similar to that recommended by FCSEC for flood planning (refer
to Section 1.3).
Similarly, the protection of roads should be based on the road type, the relative
importance of the road etc. More discussion on some of these factors is provided
in Volume 4: Highway Design.
In the absence of the above, Table 7-1 provides some recommended protection
levels for structures. The protection level refers to the frequency of the event that
is being protected against for example, a 25 year protection level refers to an
event that will only be exceeded on average once every 25 years.
For retro-fitting applications, where a sea wall or revetment is designed to protect
an existing asset that is subject to erosion or overtopping, then a lower protection
level might be adopted based on other constraints such as available space, social
7-1
constraints etc. The key aim for these types of applications is to maximize
protection for these existing assets within the constraints.
In some applications, it may also be necessary to increase the protection level. For
example, for the protection of a critical facility like a hospital or where an asset is
particularly susceptible to damage as a result of inundation.
Protection Level
25 year
Urban Areas
100 year
Roads
7.1.3
Expressway
100 year
National Road
50 year
Other Road
50 year
Tides
Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels in response to the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon. Table 7-2 provides some of the key terminology
used for reference to the tides.
Table 7-2
Tidal Terminology
Tidal Parameter
7.1.4
Description
The average of the sea water surface for all stages of the tide over
a 19 year period
The average height of the low water heights over a 19 year period.
The average height of the lowest water heights recorded for each
tidal day over a 19 year period.
The average height of the high water heights over a 19 year period.
The average height of the highest water heights of each tidal day
over a 19 year period.
Storm Surge
Storm surge is a combination of wind driven surge and low pressure surge
(associated with a low pressure weather system). Typhoons are generally
associated with larger storm surges in the Philippines.
7.1.5
Storm surge is typically estimated using computer models, such as ADCIRC and
SWAN.
The values for tide and storm surge are considered part of the "design still water
level.
7-2
Revetments should be designed for the design still water level plus wave runup.
Historical analysis on long-term tide gauge data can provide water level-return
period information. Typically, determining the return period associated with these
tide station record involves application of log-Pearson Type III (or similar)
statistical methods. Either graphical or analytical statistical approaches can be
used. However, such analyses are typically restricted to locations near one of the
long-term tide stations, and these are rarely close enough to a study area. In some
cases, a transfer function may be adopted.
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.2
7.2.1
An alternative is to use the maximum breaking wave height (Section 7.2.4.1). This
provides a conservative estimate of the wave height, but may be too conservative
in deeper water scenarios.
Ship induced waves should be accounted for where these are likely to be important
(for example, near navigational channels).
Riverine Applications
Some revetments are located in zones that are influenced by both coastal wave
action and also river flows. In these cases, the structure should be designed taking
into consideration the guidance in Section 5.5. The worst case in terms of
protection requirements should be adopted.
Climate Change
Coastal Revetments
General Overview
The terminology used for different types of wall is typically categorized as:
Revetment typically associated with lakes and bays and large wave heights.
Seawall (Figure 7-1) typically for very large wave heights, with large fetch
lengths (thousands of kilometers) and in ocean conditions.
There is not always a clear distinction between revetments (Figure 7-2) and sea
walls, and quite often the terms are used interchangeably. For this Guide, the
terminology of revetment is typically adopted.
Figure 7-1
7-4
7.2.2
Armor layer
Underlayer (filter)
Toe protection
7.2.3
There are five typical failure mechanisms for coastal revetments, as identified in
FHWA, 2008):
7.2.4
Toe scour
Overtopping splash.
7-5
Equation 7-1
where:
3
( 1)3
W50
wr
KD
Sr
7.2.4.1
50 =
specific gravity
slope of revetment
The design wave height (H) for revetment design for use in the Hudson formula
(Equation 7-1) should be based on the lesser of either:
the average of the highest 10% of all wave heights (H1/10) in the design seastate (where H1/10 ~ 1.27Hs (based on CIRIA, 2007))
Often coastal revetments are located in areas where the design sea-state is depth
limited. In these situations, the depths are so shallow immediately off-shore from
the revetment that wave have already broken. The maximum breaking wave
height for flat slopes (of the bathymetry in front of the revetment) can be
determined using Equation 7-2 (FHWA, 2008). For non-flat slopes, reference
should be made to PPA (2009).
The Hudson formula has performed well in testing for wave heights of 1.5 m or less
(refer FHWA, 2008). For greater wave heights, more judgment and specialist input
is required.
Equation 7-2
where:
Hb
7.2.4.2
ds
= 0.8
=
7-6
Table 7-3
Armour
Unit
7.2.4.3
7.2.4.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
Thickness
Placement
Breaking
Wave (KD)
NonBreaking
Wave (KD)
Recommended
Maximum Slope
(V:H)
Smooth
Rounded
Rock
Random
1.3
2.4
1:2
Rough
Angular
Random
1:2
Damage to Revetment
The Hudson Formula (see Equation 7-1) generally assumes a level of damage. The
damage level is generally expected to be in the order of 5% of the armor units in
the rock face which have moved.
Rock Grading
For dry boulder riprap revetments, a gradation of D85/D15 consistent with Section
5.9 should be adopted.
Height of Structure
The height of the structure should be designed to prevent overtopping for the
protection level identified in Section 7.1.2. A freeboard of 0.6 m should be added
to design still water level plus wave runup.
The maximum wave runup can be determined from Equation 7-3, which is based
on the procedure presented in FHWA (2009). The parameters for the equation are
presented conceptually in Figure 7-4.
Equation 7-3
= 1.6 ()
= 3.2
7-7
where:
Ru
Hs
Figure 7-4
Table 7-4
< 0.5
Spilling
Plunging
Collapsing
> 3.5
Surging
Figure 7-5
7-8
Types of Waves
7.2.7
Slopes of Revetment
For very mild slopes, the Hudson formula can underestimate the armor unit sizing,
and care should be taken in designing in mild slopes.
Hudsons formula was derived specifically for regular sloped cross sections. When
the cross section differs, then care should be taken a more assessment may be
required.
7.2.8
7.2.9
For example, the incorporation of a vertical wall with a revetment can result
different reflective and turbulent behavior, which would result in a change to the
armor units required.
Flanking
Overtopping splash at the top of a revetment can lead to failure through exposing
and eroding the soil behind the revetment. Where overtopping is expected to
occur, a splash apron should be incorporated. The width of this will be dependent
on the severity of the expected overtopping. A minimum apron of 2 to 3 m should
be adopted (FHWA, 2008).
Wave overtopping of revetments and seawalls occurs when runup exceeds the top
or crest of the structure. Building seawalls high enough to completely prevent
overtopping is often unacceptable because of aesthetics and costs. Two aspects of
overtopping of interest to the design engineer are the time-averaged volumetric
rate of overtopping (which can be used to size appropriate drainage or
management of overtopping flows) and the intensity or force of a single wave
overtopping event. Accurately estimating volumetric overtopping rates can be
vital to design of seawall crest elevations if inland flooding is caused.
Unfortunately, accurately estimating overtopping rates can be very difficult for
many situations and input to the design team from a trained coastal engineer is
likely appropriate (FHWA, 2008).
Safety should also be considered for overtopping. The amount of overtopping can
cause potential safety risks for pedestrians and/or cars on the landward side.
7-9
7.2.10
Filter Material
7.2.11
The underlayer should have a median weight no smaller than one-tenth of the
armor layer stones (USACE, 1984).
Toe Protection
A conservative assumption is to adopt the same armor unit size for the toe
protection as for the revetment slope. However, the energy acting at the toe is less
than that on the slope of the revetment, and therefore it can be more economical
to reduce the armor unit size.
CIRIA (2007) presents a methodology for sizing of rock for depth limited scenarios
(refer to Section 7.2.4.1) and for sloped breakwaters (refer to Table 7-5). This
allows for the sizing of rock for toe protection, relative to:
Larger rock will be required at the toe for vertical revetments. Refer to PPA (2009).
Different options for toe protection are provided in Table 7.5.
Table 7-5
7-10
Hs/D50
0.5
3.3
0.6
4.5
0.7
5.4
0.8
6.5
Figure 7-6
7.2.12
There are a number of ways to protect against scour. An overview of some of these
is provided below (after CIRIA, 2007):
Reduce the forces from reflections. This can be done by designing or making
the revetment slope less steep and/ or by using an energy dissipating
revetment facing (e.g. angular stones instead of smooth). This is the preferred
approach to scour protection.
Methods for extending the toe protection to protect scour are similar to those
identified in Section 5.5. Examples of some options for scour protection are
provided in Figure 7-7 and Figure 7-8.
7-11
Figure 7-7
7.2.13
7.2.14
Structural Stability
Aesthetic Considerations
7-12
Figure 7-9
7.3
Alternatives
There are numerous alternatives to revetments and sea walls for shoreline
protection. These include:
7-13
Figure 7-11
7.4
References
CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007). The Rock Manual. The Use of Rock in Hydraulic
Engineering (2nd edition). C683, CIRIA, London.
Philippine Port Authority [PPA] (2009). Engineering Standards for Port and
Harbor Structures, March.
US Army Corp of Engineers [USACE] (1984). Shore Protection Manual, 4th Edition,
US Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
7-14
Water Supply
8.1
Overview
Water supply design within the Philippines is commonly undertaken by a number
of different agencies, such as the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System
for the Metro Manila Area and the Local Water Utilities Administration for the
water districts outside Metro Manila.
For the situation where DPWH is involved in water supply, it is recommended that
the procedures outlined in the Rural Water Supply Design Manual (WPP, 2012).
This document is provided in three volumes:
8.2
This document covers the key elements of water supply that will normally involve
DPWH. The following provides an overview of some of the key considerations for
water supply.
Rainfall within the Philippines varies significantly both in time and location.
Increased rainfall volumes also leads to an increase in surface water due to runoff,
and an increase in groundwater recharge through infiltration.
There are four broad rainfall categories for the Philippines, shown in Figure 8-1,
namely:
Type I: Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during
the rest of the year. These areas are shielded by mountain ranges but are open
to rains brought in by southwest monsoons (Habagat) and tropical cyclones.
Type II: Characterized by the absence of a dry season but with a very
pronounced maximum rain period from November to January. Regions with
this climate are located along or very near the eastern coast.
Type III: Seasons are not very pronounced but are relatively dry from
November to April and wet during the rest of the year. These areas are partly
sheltered from the trade winds but are open to Habagat and are frequented by
tropical cyclones.
Type IV: Characterized by a more or less even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year.
8-1
Figure 8-1
8.3
Water Sources
8.3.1
Rainwater
8-2
8.3.2
Surface Water
Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and includes water bodies such as
lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, reservoirs, seas and oceans.
Surface water occurs either through the runoff from rains or the surcharge of
ground water systems. The primary determinate of the amount of surface water
available is the amount of rainfall experienced by the region, and is also affected
by the climate, vegetation, geographical and topological characteristics of the
catchment area.
Surface water has the potential to pick up contaminants as if flows over surfaces.
This is particularly true for flow over developed catchment that may pick up
pollutants from urban and agricultural land uses. The Rural Water Supply Design
Manual - Volume 1(WPP, 2012) recommends that all surface water sources should
be assumed to be contaminated and require treatment before domestic use.
8.3.3
Groundwater
Groundwater is water that has filtered through the soil layer from rainfall or
surface water to create underground water reservoirs. The upper surface of the
groundwater storage is termed the water table.
Groundwater is typically of a good quality due to the filtering effects of the soil
having removed microorganisms, sediments and organic matter. However, it may
contain dissolved natural salts and substances, some of which may be harmful, so
testing is still recommended before use. It may also be affected by contaminated
land, and this should be considered if it is identified a potential geohazard in the
Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment (Volume 2A: GeoHazards).
Groundwater may be extracted using:
Springs a point at which ground water naturally flows onto the surface, which
occurs when the water table is higher than the terrain. Springs may be
intermittent or continuous, and can be developed to improve their ability to
service a population.
Wells a hole dug down through the soil to reach the water table, so that the
bottom of the well fills with water. Water may be extracted from the base of
the well through buckets (raised by hand or via mechanical means) or through
pumping.
Details on the siting, construction and use of these systems is provided in Rural
Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1(WPP, 2012)
8-3
8.3.4
The primary concern when selecting a water source for a water supply system
should be adequacy and reliability. Adequacy requires that the water source be
able to supply enough water to meet demand, and reliability requires that the
extraction and distribution system implemented is robust and able to consistently
deliver the demand volume. Other concerns include water quality, cost and
legality.
With regards to adequacy and reliability, the most desirable supplies are (WPP,
2012):
1. An inexhaustible supply which flows by gravity through the distribution
system
8.4
Water Quality
The required water quality will depend on the usage requirements. Potable water
for domestic consumption will require a very high water quality. Lower quality
may be acceptable for toilet water, irrigation or agricultural uses.
8.4.1
8.4.1.1
Physical
Physical quality parameters relate to the physical experience of using the water.
Although negative physical aspects may not pose a health risk, they may reduce
peoples willingness to utilize the water source. Physical parameters to be assessed
include:
8.4.1.2
Turbidity
Color
Odor
Taste
Chemical
8-4
Hardness
8.4.1.3
Toxic substances
Microbial
8.4.2
Protazoa
Helminths
Bacteria
Water Treatment
Water sources with poor quality may undergo a treatment process to ensure they
are suitable for their end use. Treatment processes are expensive, both in their set
up and ongoing operation, and ideally water treatment should be avoided by
selecting appropriate water sources with good quality water.
Where suitable, clean water supplies are not available, water treatment may be
appropriate. Treatment options are varied, and will depend on the quality issues
that need to be rectified. Common treatment options include:
Sedimentation
Filtration
Aeration
Disinfection
8-5
8.5
8.5.1
Demand
8.5.2
The Rural Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1 (WPP, 2012) provides a
methodology on predicting system demand.
Service Levels
Water service levels in the Philippines are classified into three types, depending
on how the water is provided to consumers:
8.5.3
Sustainability
8.6
Distribution Network
The distribution network is used to deliver water from the source to the end user.
Typically the distribution system will be piped, but may also include open
channels. Open systems should be avoided where possible in order to minimize
the risk of contamination.
If channels are required, they should be designed in accordance with Section 6.3.
Piped systems should be designed using the hydraulic grade line (HGL)
methodology, as discussed in Section 4.6.
The distribution network may be classified into two general systems; dead end
(also termed branched) or looped. These systems are shown in Figure 8-2.
In a dead end system, the size of the distribution line decreases as the distance
from the source increases, as typically more remote pipes have to carry less water.
Design is relatively simple as the direction and rate of flow in each pipe can be
easily determined.
The dead end system is generally cheaper than a looped system. However, a break
in a pipe will affect all downstream connections, and velocities and head losses
may cause problems during high demand periods.
A looped system has increased connectivity between pipes and fewer dead ends.
This results in lower pipe velocities and the ability to isolate breaks without
impacting other sections of the network. The system however requires additional
pipe length, and typically larger pipe sizes throughout the network.
A methodology for piped network design is provided in Rural Water Supply Design
Manual - Volume 1 (WPP, 2012).
8-7
Figure 8-2
8-8
8.7
Reservoirs
Reservoirs are included in distribution systems in order to:
8.8
The Rural Water Supply Design Manual - Volume 1 (WPP, 2012) contains a
methodology for sizing and designing reservoirs for water supply systems.
Pumping
8.9
Pump systems should be designed in accordance with Section 6.10 and the
relevant manufacturers specifications.
References
WPP (Water Partnership Program), 2012, Rural Water Supply Volume 1, Design
Manual, The World Bank Office, Manila, Philippines.
8-9
Climate Change
9.1
- Extreme temperature
- Number of dry days
- Extreme rainfall
All areas of the Philippines will get warmer, more so in the relatively warmer
summer months.
Annual mean temperatures (average of maximum and minimum
temperatures) in all areas in the country are expected to rise by 0.9 C to 1.1 C
in 2020 and by 1.8 C to 2.2 C in 2050.
In terms of seasonal rainfall change it was found that there was a substantial
spatial difference in the projected changes in rainfall in 2020 and 2050 in most
parts of the Philippines, with reduction in rainfall in most provinces during the
summer season making the usually dry season drier, while rainfall increases
are likely in most areas of Luzon and Visayas during the southwest monsoon
and the SON seasons, making these seasons still wetter, and thus with
likelihood of both droughts and floods in areas where these are projected.
The northeast monsoon season rainfall is projected to increase, particularly for
areas characterized by Type II climate with potential for flooding enhanced.
During the southwest monsoon season, larger increases in rainfall are expected
in provinces in Luzon (0.9% to 63%) and Visayas (2% to 22%) but generally
decreasing trends in most of the provinces in Mindanao in 2050.
However, projections for extreme events in 2020 and 2050 show that hot
temperatures (indicated by the number of days with maximum temperature
exceeding 35 C) will continue to become more frequent, number of dry days
(days with less than 2.5 mm of rain) will increase in all parts of the country and
heavy daily rainfall (exceeding 300 mm) events will also continue to increase
in number in Luzon and Visayas.
9-1
The PAGASA (2011) study, like most climate based assessments that has been
undertaken, has focused on daily rainfall events. In particular, it has estimated:
Seasonal rainfall is useful for impacts to water supplies, but only provides an
indication on extreme rainfall events. Similarly, while the number of days with
rainfall in excess of 300mm suggests that severe storms will be more frequent, the
exact frequency and size of these rainfall events is not reported. This makes it
difficult to directly correlate, for example, changes in the frequency of present day
100 year rainfall.
At the time of this report, there were no known detailed studies of sea level rise
within the Philippines. The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 2013) provides estimates of likely global sea level rise relative to 1986 to
2005. These estimates are provided Table 9-1. The mean values are the range in
mean values from the different climate scenarios, while the ranges are the ranges
in values between the different models.
It is important to note that sea level rise will not be uniform across the world.
However, IPCC (2013) notes that it is very likely that sea levels will rise in more
than about 95% of the ocean area. Furthermore, around 70% of the coastlines
around the world are projected to experience sea level rise within 20% of the
global mean sea level change.
Table 9-1
9.1.1
2081 - 2100
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
0.24 0.30 m
0.17 to 0.38 m
0.40 0.6 m
0.26 0.82 m
Table 9-2 provides an overview of some of the potential impacts of climate change.
9-2
Table 9-2
Changes in Temperature
Changes evaporation from lakes and water bodies, reducing storage over time;
Changes in evapotranspiration, and hence changes infiltration losses during
rainfall events. This may result in a changes in runoff during certain events
Changes in long term rainfall affect water supply systems such as water
reservoirs and dams and groundwater supplies;
Affect the baseflow of rivers, with subsequent environmental and human
impacts
Affects flood estimation. Where extreme rainfall events increase, the flood
protection of current structures will be reduced. For example, a 100 year flood
dike might be reduced to a 50 year flood dike under a future climate change
scenario.
Increases in sea level rise will reduce the protection provided by coastal
structures such as sea walls and revetments;
Increases in saline intrusion into groundwater systems, which may affect water
supplies and environmental reliance on these systems;
Changes in wetland and low lying river systems, with greater saline intrusion.
This will have a resulting impact on environment and livelihoods that revolve
around these areas.
Changes in Typhoon
Frequency
9.1.2
9.2
The potential increase in typhoon frequency will impact extreme rainfall (as
noted above);
Frequency of extreme winds and impacts on structures
Storm surge, which will be affected both due to the typhoon and further
exacerbated by sea level rise.
Uncertainty
Furthermore, unless current emission trends change, climate change will continue
moving into the future. Therefore, for example, a 100 year storm surge level now
might be equivalent to a 50 year storm surge level at 2050 and a 20 year storm
surge level by 2010.
9-3
9.2.1
9.2.2
Design Life
Implementation Timeframe
Related to the design life is the implementation timeframe for the structure. The
further into the future the works are planned for, the greater the potential impact
that climate change will have on the function of that structure.
9.2.3
This is particularly important for the master planning phase of projects, where the
implementation of works may be a number of years in the future.
In the design of structures, there are two key ways that climate change can be
incorporated. This is discussed below:
The choice of method to be adopted in the design should be based on cost estimates
and economic cost benefit analysis. For example, the cost to incorporate an
additional 0.5 m on a dike may not represent a significant cost and therefore a
planned upgrade may not be appropriate. However, in other cases the social
impacts of raising a dike may be too great at present, and therefore a planned
upgrade may be the best approach.
The advantage of the planned upgrade approach is that the accuracy of the climate
predictions is uncertain (refer to Section 9.1.2). Therefore, an estimate of the
future climate in 2050 may either be better or worse. A planned upgrade approach
allows for a trigger based design to be undertaken. For example, rather than
identifying that a sea wall should be raised in 2030, it is identified that the sea wall
should be raised when 0.2 m of sea level rise has occurred, for example. This will
prevent unnecessary upgrades from occurring in the future, but does require
monitoring of these trigger levels.
The recommended allowance is identified in Section 9.2.4.
9-4
9.2.4
Climate change is an area of evolving scientific study, and further information and
guidance should be sought as a part of the design process. As noted in Section
9.2.3, there are different methods for incorporating Climate Change in a design.
The following provides some suggested allowances for climate change that can be
considered for design. This is based on the current available information and
provides a best estimate. Two approaches are recommended for seal level rise and
changes in rainfall:
9.2.4.1
General Approach this is the default approach that can be adopted for all
projects.
Alternative Approach where the general approach may result in a significant
cost to the infrastructure, then the alternative approach may be adopted.
Increases in extreme rainfall events will alter the frequency of existing flood
events. For example, a current 100 year flood may be equivalent to a 50 year flood
in 2100. However, the key challenge is estimating this change in frequency. The
current estimates from PAGASA (2011) suggest that some areas will see increases
in extreme daily events, but there is no information how different magnitude
events may change. It is quite possible, for example, that more extreme events
(such as a 100 year rainfall event) will change by a different proportion to more
frequent rainfall events (such as a 5 year rainfall event).
Approach
9-5
Recommendation
General Approach
Alternative Approach
9.2.4.2
Table 9-1 provides an overview of different sea level rise estimates based on IPCC
(2013). In the absence of more up to date information, a sea level rise of 0.3 m
might be appropriate for 2050, which would cover a typical design life in the order
of 50 years. For design and planning out to 2100, then a potential sea level rise of
0.5 m might be appropriate, given the uncertainty.
The suggested approaches are provided in Table 9-4.
Table 9-4
Approach
9.3
Recommendation
General Approach
Alternative Approach
Determine the likely impacts of a 0.3 m sea level rise. Refer to potential
for Planned Upgrade as discussed in Section 9.2.3.
References
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013). Working Group 1 Contribution
to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis, Final Draft, September.
9-6
Annex A
Estimating Scour
Contents
A.
A.1
A.1.1
A.1.2
A.1.3
A.2
A.2.1
A.2.2
A.2.3
A.3
A.3.1
A.3.2
A.3.3
A.3.4
A.4
A.5
A.5.1
A.5.2
A.6
A.7
A.8
Table A1-2
Table A1-4
Increase in Equilibrium Pier Scour Depths, K3, for Bed Condition ................................................................7
Table A1-3
Table A1-5
Figure A1-1
Figure A1-2
Figure A1-4
Determination of Length of Embankment (L') Blocking Live Flow for Abutment Scour Estimation
Figure A1-3
Figure A1-5
Figure A1-6
................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
A-i
A.
A.1
Estimating Scour
Reasonable and prudent hydraulic analysis of a bridge design or flood control
project like a revetment requires that an assessment be made of the proposed
structures vulnerability to undermining due to potential scour. Because of the
extreme hazard and economic hardships posed by a rapid bridge collapse or other
structure collapse, special considerations must be given to selecting appropriate
flood magnitudes for use in the analysis. The following discussions provide a
description of stream stability and scouring mechanism.
Scour Analysis
Scour is the result of the erosive action of flowing water excavating and carrying
away material from the bed and banks of streams. Potential scour can be a
significant factor in the analysis of a stream crossing system. The design of a
crossing system involves an acceptable balance between a waterway opening that
will not create undue damage by backwater or suffer undue damage from scour
and a crossing profile sufficiently high to provide the required traffic service.
The rates of scour in different materials and under different flow conditions
depend on erosive power of the flow, erosion resistance of the material, and a
balance between sediment transported into and out of a section.
With erosion-resistant materials, final, worst case, or equilibrium scour may not
be reached in any one flood but may develop over a long series of events. The
methods currently available do not specifically accommodate cohesive bed
materials or time-dependency. Therefore, consider the results of any scour
calculations only as an indication of the maximum potential scour. Use judgment
to decide whether or not calculated depths are likely for the given site conditions
and life expectancy of the bridge.
Present applicable technology dictates that bridge scour should be evaluated as
interrelated components:
movement) changes.
Local scour.
Long-term profile changes can result from stream bed profile changes that occur
from aggradation and / or degradation:
Aggradation is the deposition of bedload due to a decrease in stream sediment
A-1
Forms of degradation and aggradation impose a permanent future change for the
stream bed elevation at a bridge site where they can be identified.
A.1.2
No reasonable, definitive methods are apparent for accurately estimating longterm natural scour. However, consider the potential for long-term natural scour.
Generally, projections based an evaluation of the history of the site or ones similar
to the site may suffice.
Contraction
Channel contraction scour results from a constriction of the channel that may, in
part, be caused by bridge piers in the waterway. Deposition results from an
expansion of the channel or the bridge site being positioned immediately
downstream of a steeper reach of stream. Highways, bridges and natural channel
contractions are the most commonly encountered cause of contraction scour.
Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage decreases
either by a natural contraction or by a bridge. From continuity, a decrease in flow
area results in an increase in average velocity and bed shear stress through the
contraction, thus increasing erosive forces and removing more bed material from
the contracted reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in transport
of bed material from the reach lowers the natural bed elevation. As the bed
elevation decreases, the flow area increases, and the velocity and shear stress
decrease until relative equilibrium is reached, i.e., until the quantity of bed material
that is transported into the reach is equal to that removed from the reach.
Depending on the stream flow, contraction scour can be either live-bed or clearwater. Live-bed scour occurs when the bed material upstream of the constriction
is in motion. The scour that results at the constriction reflects equilibrium between
the sediment transported into the section and that transported away from the
section. Under live-bed conditions, scour holes created during the rising stage of a
flood often refill during the recession stage.
Clear-water scour occurs when the bed material is not in motion. The sediment
transported into the contracted section is essentially zero. Clear-water scour
occurs when the shear stress induced by the water flow exceeds the critical shear
stress of the bed material. Generally, with clear-water scour, no refilling occurs
during the recession of the flood due to the lack of sediment supply. During the
initial stages of a flood, clear-water scour could occur followed by live-bed scour
at higher flood stages.
A-2
A.1.3
Local Scour
Local scour involves the removal of material around piers, abutments, spurs, and
embankments.
Local scour is a function of the geometry of these features as they relate to the flow
geometry. However, the importance of these geometric variables will vary.
Increasing the pier or cofferdam width either through design or debris
accumulation will increase the amount of local scour, but only up to a point in
subcritical flow streams. After reaching this point, pier scour should not be
expected to measurably increase with increased stream velocity or depth.
A.2
A.2.1
If armoring of the stream bed occurs, there may be a tendency for the stream to
widen its banks to maintain a continuity of sediment transport. This could result
in a more unstable, braided regime. Such instabilities may pose serious problems
for bridges and flood control structures because they encourage further, difficultto-assess plan-form changes. Also, the effect of bank widening is to spread the
approach flow distribution that, in turn, results in a more severe bridge opening
contraction.
A-3
clear-water scour. The critical velocity is calculated using the equation by Laursen
(1963):
Equation A1-1
where:
Vc
D50
y1
A.2.2
0.33
= 6.1910.166 50
The average live bed contraction scour depth uses the modified version of
Laursens live-bed scour equation (based on HEC18):
Equation A1-2
2 0.857 1 1
2 = 1 ( )
( )
1
2
where:
= 2 0
ys
y1
y2
yo
Q1
Q2
Wl
K1
W2
V*
A-4
S1
Table A1-1
V*/
K1
<0.50
0.59
0.50 to 2.0
0.64
>2.0
0.69
Figure A1-1
Source: HEC18
A.2.3
]
2
3 2
3/7
ys
y2
where:
yo
A-5
2 = [
0.025 2
D50
Dm
A.3
A.3.1
During a flood, bridges over streams with coarse bed material are often subjected
to clear-water scour at low discharges, live-bed scour at the higher discharges, and
then clear-water scour on the falling stages. Clear-water scour reaches its
maximum over a longer period of time than live-bed scour because clear-water
scour occurs mainly in coarse bed material streams. In fact, local clear-water scour
may not reach a maximum until after several floods. Maximum local clear-water
pier scour is about 10% greater than the equilibrium local live-bed pier scour.
Local Scour
where:
ys
K1
y1
K2
K3
Fr1
v1
g
K4
A-6
Table A1-2
K1
Square nose
1.1
Round nose
1.0
Circular cylinder
1.0
Group of cylinders
1.0
Sharp nose
0.9
Table A1-3
Angle
L/a=4
L/a=8
L/a=12
1.0
1.0
1.0
15
1.5
2.0
2.5
30
2.0
2.75
3.5
45
2.3
3.3
4.3
90
2.5
3.9
5.0
Table A1-4
Bed Condition
Dune Height m
K3
Clear-Water Scour
N/A
1.1
N/A
1.1
3> H 0.6
1.1
9> H 3
1.2 to 1.1
H9
1.3
Small dunes
Medium dunes
Large dunes
The correction factor K4 decreases scour depths for armoring of the scour hole for
bed materials that have a D50 equal to or larger than 2.0 mm and D95 equal to or
larger than 20 mm. The correction factor then is as follows:
If D50 < 2 mm or D95 < 20 mm, then k4 = 1
VicDx
And
VicDx
VcDx
A-7
critical velocity (m/s) for incipient motion for grain size Dx (m)
VcDX
y1
depth of flow just upstream of the pier, excluding local scour, (m)
where:
V1
Dx
A.3.2
A.3.3
For complex pier foundations such pile groups, pile groups and pile caps, pile
groups, pile caps and solid piers exposed to flow, detailed scour estimation is
referred to in Evaluating Scour at Bridges (HEC18, 2001).
Scour at Abutments
As a check on the potential depth of scour to aid in the design of the foundation and
placement of rock riprap and / or guide banks, Froehlich's (1989) live-bed scour
equation or the HIRE equation in FHA (2001[2]) can be used.
where:
= 2.27 1 2 ( )
0.43
0.61 + 1
ys
scour depth, m
K2
K1
K2
>90
<90
L
Ae
Ve
Fr
Qe
ya
L
Table A1-5
Description
K1
Vertical-wall abutment
1.00
0.82
Spill-through abutment
0.55
Figure A1-2
Abutment Shape
Figure A1-3
A-9
Figure A1-4
A.3.4
The HIRE equation, is applicable when the ratio of projected abutment length (L)
to the flow depth (y1) is greater than 25. This equation can be used to estimate
which the equation was derived:
Equation A1-6
where:
ys
Fr1
y1
K1
K2
A.4
= 41 ( 10.55) 2 10.33
scour depth, m
A-10
A simplified version of Equation A1-6 can be adopted to estimate the scour at the
nose of these transverse structures. Equation A1-7 may be adopted where the
projecting embankment or abutment length is large in relation to the flow depth
(a/y1>25). Where this is not the case, Equation A1-8 may be adopted.
Equation A1-7
where:
ys
y1
Fr
A.5
A.5.1
= 41 0.33
=
=
0.4
= 1.11 ( ) 0.33
1
Scour occurs at longitudinal structures when the flow is parallel to a wall due to
the change in friction presented by the wall.
where:
ys
Fr
y1
A-11
= 1 (0.73 + 0.142 )
=
A.5.2
When flow arrives at an angle to the vertical wall, there is additional scour that can
occur. HEC23 (2009) provides an estimation of the scour depth for this scenario
and this is shown in Equation A1-10.
Equation A1-10
Where the parameters are the same as those for Equation A1-7 and:
A.6
= angle between the impinging flow direction and the vertical wall
Scour at Bends
Flow behaviour around a bend will result in higher scour on the outside of the bend
than that of the inside of the bend. In the design of revetments and dikes, it is
important to understand the maximum depth of scour that is expected at the
outside of the bend.
HEC23 (2009) provides a method for estimating the expected depth on the outer
part of the bend. This is the long term expected depth based on the bend
characteristics. It can be used to subsequently determine the maximum scour that
is expected.
Equation A1-11
where:
Rc
Dmxb
Dmnc
A-12
Figure A1-5
A.7
Ht
dm
Ku
A-13
= ( 0.225 0.54 )
=
=
=
The subscripts u and d refer to upstream and downstream of the channel drop
respectively.
Note that the estimated depth of scour is independent of the grain size of the bed
material in the above equation. It is assumed that the bed will scour regardless, but
that the rate of scour will vary depending on the bed material.
The check dam must be designed structurally to withstand the forces of water and
soil assuming that the scour hole is as deep as estimated from the above equation,
in order to ensure successful operation over the design life of the groundsill.
Figure A1-6
A.8
References
Federal Highway Administration, 2001. Evaluating Scour At Bridges Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. 18, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington.
A-14
Annex B
B.1
Overview
A brief introduction to key sediment transport concepts is provided as the topic is
complex and there are many different approaches to analysis. This section is
largely based on FHA (2012).
Sediment transport involves complex processes that interact to produce the
existing channel form and future channel adjustments. The amount of material
transported or deposited in a stream under a given set of conditions is the result
of the interaction of two groups of variables that influence:
Quantity and Quality of Sediment - The variables depend on the geology and
topography of watershed; magnitude, intensity, duration, distribution, and
season of rainfall; soil moisture conditions; vegetal cover; cultivation and
grazing; surface erosion and bank cutting
These variables are not all independent and, in some cases, their effect is not
definitely known. The variables which control the amount of sediment brought
down to the stream are subject to wide variation, not only between streams but at
a given point of a single stream. The quantitative analysis of any particular case is
extremely difficult.
It is practicable to measure the sediment discharge over a long period of time and
record the results, and from these records to determine a soil loss from the area.
The variables that deal with the capacity of the stream to transport solids are
subject to mathematical analysis as these variables are closely related to the
hydraulic variables which control the capacity of the stream to carry water.
As channels respond and adjust to changes in flow and sediment supply, changing
watershed conditions often result in changes in channel geometry. Channel
geometry, bed material, and vegetation determine hydraulic variables (such as
velocity and depth), which in turn control sediment transport capacity. Therefore,
sediment transport and channel stability depend not only on the specific physical
processes, but also the history of natural and human-induced factors in the
watershed.
B-1
B.2
Sediment Continuity
Sediment transport capacity is primarily a function of sediment size and the
hydraulic properties of the channel. When the transport capacity of the flow equals
sediment supply from upstream, a state of equilibrium exists.
When the sediment supply is less than the transport capacity, erosion
(degradation) will occur in the reach so that the transport capacity at the outlet is
satisfied, unless controls exist that limit erosion. Conversely, when the sediment
supply is greater than the transport capacity, deposition (aggradation) will occur
in the reach.
Controls that limit erosion may either be human induced or natural. Humaninduced controls included bank protection works, grade control structures, and
stabilized bridge or culvert crossings. Natural controls can be geologic, such as
outcrops, or the presence of significant coarse sediment material in the channel.
The presence of coarse material can result in the formation of a surface armour
layer of larger sediments.
B-2
B.3
Sediment Properties
Knowledge of the properties of sediment particles is important, as they indicate
the behaviour of the particles in their interaction with the flow. Important
sediment properties are discussed below.
Particle Size
Of the various sediment properties, physical size has by far the greatest
significance and other parameters such as fall velocity tend to be related to
physical size. In general, sediments have been classified into boulders, cobbles,
gravels, sands, silts, and clays on the basis of their nominal or sieve diameters.
Particle Shape
The prime indicator of the interaction of sediments in suspension within the flow
is the fall velocity of sediment particles. The fall velocity of a particle is defined as
the velocity of that particle falling alone in quiescent, distilled water of infinite
extent.
Sediment Size Distribution
Specific weight is weight per unit volume and is expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter.
Porosity
The porosity of granular materials is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
total volume of an undisturbed sample.
Angle of Repose
The angle of repose is the maximum slope angle upon which non-cohesive material
will reside without moving. It is a measure of the inter-granular friction of the
material and is different for dry versus submerged conditions.
B-3
B.4
B.4.1
Initiation of Motion
The initiation or ceasing of motion of sediment particles is involved in many
geomorphic and hydraulic problems including stream stability and scour at
highway bridges, sediment transport, erosion, slope stability, stable channel
design, and design of riprap. These problems can only be addressed when the
threshold of sediment motion is fully understood.
Beginning of motion can be related to when the shear stress exceeds the critical
shear stress of the grains of sediment.
Shear stress on the bed of the channel can be estimated as:
Equation B4-1
0=yS0
where:
0
S0
bed slope
c=ks Ds (s-)
where:
c
Ds
ks
Shields parameter
The Shields parameter ranges from 0.03 to 0.10 for natural sediments and depends
on particle shape, angularity, gradation and imbrication. The use of 0.047 is
common for sand sizes. When the shear stress of the flow exceeds the critical shear
stress of the particle, the channel bed begins to mobilize and bed material is
transported downstream. Particle motion begins as sliding and rolling of
individual particles along the bed. It is important to recognize that the Shields
equation is not a sediment transport equation because it does not provide any
estimate of the amount of sediment in motion. It is also important to note that only
the shear stress acting on the particles, or grain friction, should be used in applying
this relationship.
B-4
B.4.2
The suspended bed material load depends on the interaction between gravity and
turbulence. Because gravity is causing particles to settle, they are concentrated
near the bed. Turbulence mixes the particles in the water column and, depending
B-5
on the size and specific weight of the particles, relatively few particles may reach
the surface.
B.4.3
Larger particles have greater fall velocities and therefore for a given level of
turbulence large particles will remain close to the bed. Finer particles are mixed
higher into the flow and have higher concentrations. Extremely fine particles have
nearly uniform concentrations, primarily silts and clays, and have very small fall
velocities. They are defined as wash load, which are derived primarily from upland
erosion and bank erosion of floodplain materials. Wash load material is not found
in appreciable quantities in the channel bed. In summary, bed material is
transported in contact with the bed (bed load) and in suspension (suspended bed
material load). The total sediment load transported by the channel also includes
wash load, which is supplied to the channel rather than derived from the bed. In
coarse bed channels, such as cobble-bed and boulder-bed streams, sand may act
as wash load because it is not found in appreciable quantities in the bed and
because the supply is far less than the channel capacity to transport this size.
In sand-bed streams, sand material is easily eroded and is continually being moved
and shaped by the flow. The interaction between the flow of the water-sediment
mixture and the sand-bed creates different bed configurations which change the
resistance to flow, velocity, water surface elevation, and sediment transport. At
high flows, most sand-bed stream channels shift from a dune bed to a transition or
a plane bed configuration. The resistance to flow is then decreased by one-half to
one-third of that preceding the shift in bed form. The increase in velocity and
corresponding decrease in depth may increase scour around bridge piers,
abutments, spurs or guide banks and may increase the required size of riprap.
B.4.4
Another effect of bed forms on highway crossings is that with dunes on the bed,
there is a fluctuating pattern of scour on the bed. Methods for computing bed-form
geometry can be found in Julien and Klaassen (1995) and Karim (1999). With a
dune bed, the Manning n could be more than twice as large as a plane bed. A change
from a dune bed to a plane bed, or the reverse, can have an appreciable effect on
depth and velocity. In the design of a bridge or a stream stability or scour
countermeasure, it is good engineering practice to assume a dune bed (large n
value) when establishing the water surface elevations, and a plane bed (low n
value) for calculations involving velocity.
Equations for predicting bed material sediment transport differ depending on the
mode of sediment transport. ASCE (2008) includes 16 bed load equations. The
Meyer-Peter and Mller (1948) equation is considered to be a classic bed load
equation (Refer FHWA 2001). The HDS 6 manual (FHWA 2001) includes 20
sediment transport equations and discusses their applicability to various grain
sizes. The HEC-RAS Reference Manual (USACE 2010) and the SAM reference
manual (USACE 2002) include information on the range of data (particle size,
specific gravity, velocity, depth, slope, channel width and temperature) used to
B-6
develop many of the sediment transport equations used for sand and gravel sizes.
Any equation that is considered for use should be evaluated for applicability to the
specific conditions.
B.4.4.1
A simplified version of the Meyer-Peter & Muller equation is widely used. This
equation was based on experiments with sand particles of uniform sizes, sand
particles of mixed sizes and density, and natural gravel, lignite and barite. Care
should be taken when applying this equation to other conditions.
qb = K(
where:
3/2
3/2
1
K= [
]
1/3
2/3
()
( )
12.9
Qb 3/2
= ( ) ( )
Q
qB
= ( )
metric-tons/day/meter (Tons/day/foot)
Qb
D90, Dm
| p| DS|
100
B-7
where:
p|
Where fb, the Darcy-Weisbach bed friction bed friction factor for the grain
roughness, fb is determined from the Nikuradse pipe friction data with pipe
diameter equal to four times the hydraulic radius and K6 = D90. If the boundary is
hydraulically rough, (VxD90/100), Kr is given by:
=
26
901/6
1+
2y
1+ ( Wo ) ( nw )
1
2yo (1+H25 )
W
1/2
( nw )
b
3/2
The term Nb is the Mannings roughness coefficient for the bed of rectangular
channels:
2/3
2yo
nw 3/2
Nb =n {1+
(1- ( ) )}
w
n
And for trapezoidal channels
where:
2/3
nw 3/2
[1- ( ) ]}
n
n, nb, nw =
bottom width
H5
B-8
1/2
2yo (1+H52 )
nb =n {1+
w
=
=
B.4.4.2
Einstein Method
The Einstein suspended load equation is described in detail in FHWA (2001). The
complex method is best suited to computer models and calculations. It is a solution
to the general suspended load equation:
Equation B4-4
yo
where:
q6
s
C
B.4.4.3
qs = s vcdy
Colby Method
Colbys method is a graphical method for estimating total load, and provides a
reasonable method for hand calculations, and in particular, is useful to cross check
other methods.
Colby developed four graphical relationships which are shown in the following
figures to determine the bed sediment discharge. The curves were derived based
on a large amount of streams and flume data, and were guided by the Einstein bedload function. However, a significant amount of the curves were extrapolated, as
indicated by the dashed lines in the following graphs.
Please note that all figures are in English Units, and will require conversion to
metric units.
B-9
Figure B- 2
B-10
Relation Of Discharge of Sands to Mean Velocity for Six Median Sizes of Bed
Sands, Four Depths of Flow, and a Water Temperature of 60F
Figure B- 3
1. Uncorrected sediment discharge qn for the given V, yo, and D50 can be found
from Figure B-2 by first reading qn knowing V and D50 for two depths that
bracket the desired depth and then interpolating on a logarithmic graph of
depth versus qn to get the bed sediment discharge per unit width.
2. Two correction factors k1 and k2 shown in Figure B-2 account for the effect of
water temperature and fine suspended sediment on the bed sediment
discharge. If the bed sediment size falls outside the 0.20 mm to 0.30 mm range,
the factor k3 from Figure B-2 is applied to correct for the effect of sediment
size.
3. Unit bed sediment discharge qT corrected for the effect of water temperature,
presence of fine suspended sediment and sediment size is given by the
equation:
Equation B4- 5
B-11
B.5
References
American Society of Civil Engineers [ASCE] (2008). Sedimentation Engineering
Processes, Measurements, Modeling, and Practice, M.H. Garcia (ed.), ASCE Manuals
and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 110.
Julien, P.Y. (2010).
University Press.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2002). SAM Hydraulic Design Package for Channels,
Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highways Division [FHWA] (2001).
River Engineering for Highway Encroachments Highways in the River
Environment, Hydraulic Design Series No. 6.
US Department of Transportation Federal Highways Division [FHWA] (2012).
Stream Stability at Highway Structures, 4th Edition, Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No. 20, April.
Yang, C.T. (2003). Sediment Transport: Theory and Practice, Krieger Publishing
Company.
B-12