Chapter 7: Stress and Well-being at Work

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STRESS AND WELL-BEING AT WORK

CHAPTER SCAN
Stress can be beneficial or harmful. While some harmful stress is inevitable, the techniques and
approaches available for dealing with that stress are increasing. Some individuals and some
circumstances are more at risk for high stress than are others. This chapter also reviews the
benefits of controlling stress in the workplace.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Define stress, distress, strain, and eustress.

Compare four different approaches to stress.
Explain the psychophysiology of the stress response.
Identify work and nonwork causes of stress.
Describe the benefits of eustress and the costs of distress.
Discuss four moderators of the stress-strain relationship.
Distinguish the primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of preventive stress management.
Discuss organizational and individual methods of preventive stress management.

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KEY TERMS
Chapter 7 introduces the following key terms:
stress
stressor
distress
strain
homeostasis
ego-ideal
self-image
eustress
participation problem
performance decrement
compensation award
Type A behavior pattern
personality hardiness
transformational coping
self-reliance
counterdependence
overdependence
preventive stress management
primary prevention
secondary prevention
tertiary prevention

THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED

I.
II.

LOOKING AHEAD: Risk Factors and Coronary Heart Disease

WHAT IS STRESS?
Stress is the unconscious preparation to fight or flee that a person experiences when faced
with any demand. Stress does not necessarily have to be destructive. A stressor is the
person or the event that triggers the stress response. Distress refers to the adverse
psychological, physical, behavioral, and organizational consequences that may arise as a
result of stressful events.

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A.

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Four Approaches to Stress

1.

The Homeostatic/Medical Approach

Walter Cannon was the physiologist who discovered the stress response, and he
initially named it "the emergency response, or "the militaristic response." A
steady state balance, or equilibrium, is homeostasis, which is upset when a person
faces an external demand. The body has natural processes to keep it in
homeostasis.
2.

The Cognitive Appraisal Approach

Richard Lazarus made contributions related to the psychology of stress. What is

stressful for one person may not be stressful for another. Stress is a result of the
person-environment interaction. The person's cognitive appraisal of a situation as
stressful is a key part of the stress process.
3.

The PersonEnvironment Fit Approach

Robert Kahn determined that there is a person-environment fit when skills and
abilities match role expectations. Stress occurs when expectations are conflicting
or confusing, or when a person's resources are unable to meet the expectations.
4.

The Psychoanalytic Approach

This approach is based on Freudian psychoanalytic theory. Harry Levinson

believes that two elements taken together cause stress. The ego-ideal is the
embodiment of a person's perfect self. In contrast, the self-image is how a person
actually sees himself or herself. Stress results when there is a discrepancy between
the two.
B.

The Stress Response

The stress response produces a predictable sequence of mind and body events that
prepares the mind and body for fight-or-flight. It can be quite functional in some
situations.
III.

SOURCES OF STRESS AT WORK

Sources of stress for people at work include task demands, role demands, interpersonal demands,
and physical demands.

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A.

Task Demands

Uncertainty and lack of control are two of the most stressful demands people face at
work. Laid-off employees have referred to the day after being laid off as the day they
regained control of their lives. Sometimes the dread of being selected in a layoff is worse
than actually being laid off. Similarly, one study found that heart attacks are more
common when individuals have little control and heavy work demands. Other task
demands include career progress, work overload, and new technologies.
B.

Role Demands

Stress related to role demands arises from role conflict, ethical violations, and role
ambiguity. Role conflict can result from conflicting demands between two different roles
(interrole) or within a single role (intrarole). Individuals who experience confusion
regarding the expectations of others experience role ambiguity.
C.

Interpersonal Demands

Individuals typically experience stress in situations where they must work with abrasive
personalities. Sexual harassment and leadership style can also create stressful
environments.
D.

Physical Demands

The environment in which an individual works can be a very stressful situation based on
physical demands. Most people can list extreme conditions; yet, uncomfortably cool or
warm environments can provoke irritability among employees, leading to mistakes. Even
working with computer equipment can be physically demanding if it is not designed
ergonomically.
E.

Nonwork Demands

Most individuals have stressors that affect their energy and attention level on their job.
The most obvious ones are related to family demands, yet these are not the only ones that
people experience. As the society ages, more working individuals will have responsibility
for taking care of their aging parents, many of whom will be living with them.
IV.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

The benefits of stress are captured with the term eustress, which stands for healthy, normal stress.
Eustress is positive for organizations and individuals.

A.

Performance and Health Benefits of Stress

The Yerkes-Dodson law tracks the benefits of stress that lead to improved performance up
to an optimum point, after which benefits decrease and stress eventually becomes
detrimental. McGrath mentions that performance falls as the difficulty of the task
increases beyond a certain point.

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B.

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Individual Distress

Individual distress can be seen in psychological symptoms such as depression, burnout,

and psychosomatic disorders. The word burnout is probably overused, particularly in
regard to individuals who are simply malingering to rationalize failure or boredom. Stress
is directly related to medical symptoms, particularly heart disease and strokes, backaches,
peptic ulcers, and headaches. Behavioral problems are another form of distress that are
manifested in violence, substance abuse, and accidents.
C.

Organizational Distress

Organizational distress can be evident in participation problems, performance decrements,

and compensation awards. Participation problems include absenteeism, tardiness,
strikes and work stoppages, and turnover. Performance decrements result from
reductions in quality or quantity of production, grievances, and unscheduled machine
downtime and repair. Compensation awards are the costs resulting from court awards
for job distress.
V.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

Predictors of harmful stress for one individual may have beneficial effects for another. The
Achilles heel phenomenon suggests that people break down at their weakest point.
A.

Gender Effects

Women and men have different life span expectations, with women typically living seven
years longer than do men. Furthermore, it appears that different stressors affect men and
women, and that important differences exist in the vulnerabilities of women and men to
stress.
B.

Type A Behavior Pattern

One of the ways to determine the likelihood of stress and coping ability is to examine the
Type A behavior pattern. Type A behavior pattern is a complex of personality and
behavioral characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity,
aggression, hostility, and a quest for achievements. Type A behavior pattern is also
referred to as coronary-prone behavior.
C.

Personality Hardiness

Personality hardiness describes an individual who resists distress and is characterized by

challenge, commitment, and control. Hardy individuals appear to engage in
transformational coping. Transformational coping is actively changing an event into
something less subjectively stressful by viewing it in a broader life perspective. It is useful
to point out to students that this is not the same as exhibiting an "I don't care" attitude.
D. Self-Reliance

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Self-reliance is a healthy, secure, interdependent pattern of behavior related to how
people form and maintain supportive attachments with others. One opposite extreme,
counterdependence, is an unhealthy, insecure pattern of behavior that leads to separation
in relationships with other people. Similarly, overdependent individuals also exhibit
unhealthy and insecure patterns of behavior that result from an obsession with achieving
security through relationships.

VI.

PREVENTIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT

The growing awareness of the affects of stress on organizational performance has led to increased
concern with preventing stress. A preventive stress management approach involves individuals
and organizations taking joint responsibility for promoting health and preventing distress and
strain. A critical factor in this approach is the stage in which the stress is managed. The three
levels of prevention are the primary prevention stage, (designed to reduce or eliminate the
stressor), the secondary prevention stage (designed to modify the response to stress), or the
tertiary prevention stage (designed to heal symptoms of distress).
A.

Organizational Stress Prevention

1.

Job Redesign

High job demands and restricted decision latitude are characteristics of high strain
jobs. Job redesign is a core characteristic of the job strain model for motivation.
The goal is to enhance worker control.
2.

Goal Setting

Goal setting increases task motivation by reducing role conflict and ambiguity
while focusing attention on the task.
3.

Role Negotiation

Role negotiation reduces stress by allowing individuals to modify their work

roles.
4.
Social Support Systems
Studies have determined that the support of coworkers and supervisors may be
one of the most important factors in managing stress in the workplace.
B.

Individual Prevention
1.

Learned Optimism

Learned optimism begins with identifying pessimistic thoughts and then distracting
oneself from these thoughts or disputing them with evidence.
2.

Time Management

There are numerous approaches to time management. One of these approaches

involves prioritizing demands based on relative importance and urgency.

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3.

127

Leisure Time Activities

Leisure is more than just not being on the job. Many people simply work at other
things during their leisure time. Effective use of leisure time centers on enjoyment.
4.

Physical Exercise

Aerobic exercise and flexibility training are important to stress prevention.

5.

Relaxation Training

The use of prayer and meditation can help prevent stress.

6.

Diet

A healthy diet is important to overall health because it reduces vulnerability to

distress.
7.

Opening Up

Opening up at work implies that an individual trusts colleagues with selfdisclosure. Sensitivity training approaches from the 1960s were intended to
increase self-disclosure.

8.

Professional Help

Increasingly, organizations are encouraging their employees to seek professional

help if it is warranted by providing compensation benefits, release time for
appointments, and employee assistance programs.
C.

Comprehensive Health Promotion

Comprehensive health promotion involves creating strong, health-conscious people in

general, rather than just at work, by building on individual prevention and lifestyle
changes.
VII.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: STRESS WITHOUT DISTRESS

VIII.

LOOKING BACK: The AHA at Work

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Stress is the unconscious preparation to fight or flee when faced with any demand. Distress is
the adverse consequence of stress.
Four approaches to understanding stress are the homeostatic/medical approach, the cognitive
appraisal approach, the personenvironment fit approach, and the psychoanalytic approach.

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The stress response is a natural mindbody response characterized by four basic mindbody
changes.
Employees face task, role, interpersonal, and physical demands at work, along with nonwork
(extraorganizational) demands. Globalization, international competition, and advanced
technologies create new stresses at work.
Nonwork stressors, such as family problems and workhome conflicts, can affect an
individual's work life and home life.
Stress has health benefits, including enhanced performance.
Distress is costly to both individuals and organizations.
Individual diversity requires attention to gender, Type A behavior, personality hardiness, and
self-reliance in determining the links between stress and strain.
Preventive stress management aims to enhance health and reduce distress or strain. Primary
prevention focuses on the stressor, secondary prevention focuses on the response to the
stressor, and tertiary prevention focuses on symptoms of distress.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. Define stress, distress, strain, and eustress.
Stress is the unconscious preparation to fight or flee that a person experiences when faced with
any demand. Distress is the adverse psychological, physical, behavioral, and organizational
consequences that may arise as a result of stressful events. Strain is the same as distress.
Eustress refers to the benefits aspects of stress.
2. Describe four approaches to understanding stress. How does each add something new to our
understanding of stress?
(1) The homeostatic/medical model explains the fight-or-flight response that we use to define
stress. (2) The cognitive appraisal approach describes how we classify events as stressful or not.
(3) The person-environment fit approach argues that stress results when the role expectations are
confusing and/or conflicting. (4) The psychoanalytic approach is based on Freudian theory and
involves the ego-ideal and the self-image, and the comparison between the two.
3. What are the four changes associated with the stress response?
The physical changes are: (1) the redirection of the blood to the brain, (2) increased alertness by
way of improved vision, hearing, and other sensory processes, (3) the release of glucose and fatty
acids into the bloodstream to sustain the body during the stressful event, and (4) depression of the
immune system, as well as emergent processes.
4. List three demands of each type: task, role, interpersonal, and physical.
Task demands related to stress are lack of control, uncertainty, career progress, overload, and new
technologies. Role demands include interrole expectations, intrarole expectations, and
personrole expectations. Interpersonal demands are abrasive personalities, sexual harassment,
and leadership styles. Physical demands include extreme environments, strenuous activities, and
hazardous substances.
5. What is a nonwork demand? How does it affect an individual?

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Nonwork demands are personal life stressors that carry into the workplace. Marital expectations,
childcare and elder care are all demands that may take individuals away from their focus at work,
either physically or mentally.
6. Describe the relationship between stress and performance.
Moderate stress has been found to have a positive effect on performance. The Yerkes-Dodson
law indicates that there is an optimum point of positive effect from stress. After this point is
reached, the curve turns downward and has negative ramifications on performance. The optimum
point will vary from individual to individual.
7. What are the major medical consequences of distress? The behavioral consequences? The
psychological consequences?
The most significant medical illnesses of stress are heart disease and strokes, backaches, peptic
ulcers, and headaches. Behavioral problems include violence, substance abuse of various kinds,
and accidents. Psychological consequences include depression, burnout, and psychosomatic
disorders.
8. Why should organizations be concerned about stress at work? What are the costs of distress
to organizations?
There are a variety of direct and indirect costs to organizations because of distress. Reduced
attentiveness may result in accidents for persons distracted by stress. Stress can also increase
absenteeism and turnover. Participation problems, performance decrements, and compensation
awards all involve costs to organizations.
9. How do gender, the Type A behavior pattern, personality hardiness, and self-reliance
moderate the relationship between stress and strain?
These are individual factors that affect the connection between the stressors and strains. Type A
personality individuals are prone to difficulties because their personalities make them more
susceptible to stress. Personality hardiness enhances one's ability to cope with stress. Selfreliance helps individuals manage stress through healthy relationships with others.
10. What is primary prevention? Secondary prevention? Tertiary prevention? Describe major
organizational stress prevention methods.
All three of these preventions are steps in which organizations attempt interventions to reduce
stress. Primary prevention is focused reduction of stress by reducing, modifying, or eliminating
the cause(s) of stress. Secondary prevention attempts to alter or modify the stress response.
Tertiary prevention is reactive, and is designed to heal individuals after the stress has had an
impact on the individual. Job redesign is effective because it increases workers control over their
situation. Goal setting increases task motivation, and reduces role conflict and ambiguity. Role
negotiation allows individuals to modify their work expectations. Social support systems build a
community and socioemotional approach to help support individuals.
11. Describe eight individual stress management methods.

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Individuals can practice learned optimism, which is a positive way of perceiving actions and
events. Time management is a technique to control schedules that cause stress. Leisure activities
help one maintain a balanced lifestyle. Secondary prevention methods for individuals include
physical exercise, relaxation training, and diet. Opening up to individuals through self-disclosure
can reduce the burden of stressful situations. Professional help may be warranted if the stress
exceeds an individuals ability to cope.
12. What is involved in comprehensive health promotion programs?
The emphasis of the programs is to build "strong and resistant hosts" by aiding individual
prevention and lifestyle change. Some programs include risk assessments, education, diet and
exercise assistance, and smoking cessation.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Why should organizations help individuals manage stress? Isnt stress basically the
individuals responsibility?
On a practical side, it is in their best interest to do so. Benefit coverage for individuals with
controllable illnesses is exorbitant. A more altruistic reason is that individuals who are in control
of their stress are better performers on the job, making individual health a worthy pursuit. While
individuals do share responsibility for managing their stress, many lack appropriate knowledge
and/or resources to do so.
2. Is there more stress today than in past generations? What evidence is available concerning
this question?
Students will vary on this question. It is interesting to challenge them to compare their lives with
frontier America, the medieval era, or even the first portion of the 20th century.
3. Discuss the following statement: Employers should be expected to provide stress-free work
environments.
To some degree, this is legally true. Employers need to eliminate dysfunctional situations from
the work environment. If employers can assist individuals with their stress control, they should do
so. The only truly stress-free environment is a coffin.
4. If an individual claims to have job-related anxiety or depression, should the company be
liable?
The courts have been tossing this issue around more frequently. Supervisors should make
reasonable inquiries and provide reasonable assistance. Have students debate this question in
opposing teams.
5. Do you use any stress prevention methods that are not discussed in the chapter? If so, what
are they?
These are often very interesting lists. Students are often surprised that instructors have stress and
that we practice stress reduction techniques.

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6. Write a memo describing the most challenging demands and/or stressors at your workplace
(or university). Be specific in fully describing the details of these demands and/or stressors.
How might you go about changing these demands and/or stressors?
This memo could be assigned prior to the class period(s) in which stress is discussed. Then,
during the class students can be encouraged to consider what categories of demands and/or
stressors they are experiencing and whether or not they have chosen the most effective means for
managing those demands and/or stressors.
7. Interview a medical doctor, a psychologist, or another health care professional about the most
common forms of health problems and distress seen in their work. Summarize your interview
and compare the results to the categories of distress discussed in the chapter.
This is a great exercise to give students a broader perspective of stress than they get from the
textbook. Encourage students to share in class the responses they obtained from the medical
professionals and to discuss the similarities and differences among the responses.
8. Do research on social support and diaries as ways to manage stressful and/or traumatic
events. Develop an oral presentation for class that explains the benefits of each of these
approaches for preventive stress management. Include guidelines on how to practice each.
If students have also completed Question 6 above, they could consider how social support and/or
diaries could help them deal with the specific stressors and/or demands they are experiencing.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Suppose a company knows that health risks are associated with the very high stress levels in
one operation and decides it is willing to pay for employee health problems rather than lower
the stress levels. Is this ethical on the company's part? Should employees be informed of the
risks?
The regulation of workplace risks seeks to determine an objective level of acceptable risk. The
key factor is that individuals need the information related to the risk to determine whether the risk
is acceptable to them. Employers have the responsibility to inform, and the employee has the
right to refuse hazardous job assignments. The deciding factor involves the issue of acceptable,
known levels of risk.
2. Suppose a company prescribes certain healthy behaviors, such as regular exercise and the
practice of relaxation, for all employees. Is it ethical for a company to influence these employee
behaviors, or does this infringe on their individual rights?
A company cannot prescribe healthy behaviors, but it can certainly encourage employees to
participate. If the organization values this in employees, it may choose to grant release time, or
sponsor individuals in marathons, for example. However, it is an infringement of rights to demand
participation, or to withhold rewards based on lack of participation.
3. Assume that personality hardiness, Type B behavior, and self-reliance are positive personal
attributes, and assume further that individuals with these attributes will cope better with stress.
Is it appropriate for organizations to use these attributes as hiring criteria? That is, can
organizations hire only hardy, self-reliant, Type B people?

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This is not vastly different from hiring only non-smokers or non-drinkers. Honesty tests are on
the increase, but physical fitness is not a criterion for most positions, unless it is a bona fide
occupational qualification (BFOQ). This issue is similar to the battles fought by the airline
industry over prescribing physical attributes for airline attendants.
4. Assume that a company finds that many employees have lower back problems associated with
bending over work benches. In looking into the problem, the company finds that it can either
raise the benches so that employees bend less or send all the employees to a lower back care
class. Should the company choose the more cost-efficient approach? What else should the
company consider?
The employees welfare should be paramount in the decision.
CHALLENGES
7.1

THE FRAZZLE FACTOR

A good follow-up to this challenge is to have students develop an action plan for overcoming their
stress and/or anger. The action plan should focus on specific, concrete steps the students can take
to improve in each of these areas.
7.2

ARE YOU SELF-RELIANT?

The Self-Reliance Inventory consists of 15 statements. The respondent completes the instrument
by evaluating each statement according to a 5 point scale, ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree). Then the respondent records responses on the scoring sheet resulting in two
scores, one in the overdependence dimension and another in the counterdependence dimension.
Healthy life adjustment is linked primarily to the presence of two factors, self-reliance and a
secure support network. People who are self-reliant and yet are able to depend on others when
appropriate are better equipped to manage the challenges they meet than are those without selfreliance and support. An absence of self-reliance may be expressed as either overdependence or
counterdependence. The overdependent person strives for too much togetherness in relationships,
clinging to others out of fear of being incomplete. The counterdependent person strives for too
much separateness, avoiding relationships with others and denying the necessity or importance of
such relationships.
On the other hand, the person who has not experienced or has overcome the effects of repeated
separation anxiety has a strong chance of becoming self-reliant. The attribute of self-reliance
means accepting responsibility for ones own well-being and, at the same time, knowing that
someone will be available and willing to help in times of need. Self-reliant individuals have
resolved the conflict between their separateness in the world and their need for union with others;
they can work comfortably and naturally either with others or alone, depending on which is more
appropriate to the circumstances at hand. They are able to discern when their limitations have
been reached in terms of time, energy, knowledge, or abilities; by turning to others in these
circumstances, they overcome their own limitations, thus enhancing their effectiveness and wellbeing.

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Self-Reliance/Counterdependence Norms:
Student/Managers: Mean = 16.81 (n = 310)
Military (Officers/Enlisted): Mean = 20.79 (n = 163)
Self-Reliance/Overdependence Norms:
Student/Managers: Mean = 15.43 (n = 310)
Military (Officers/Enlisted): Mean = 14.95 (n = 163)
* Adapted from J. C. Quick, D. L. Nelson, and J. D. Quick, The Self-Reliance Inventory, in J.
W. Pfeiffer (ed.), The 1991 Annual: Developing Human Resources (San Diego: Pfeiffer & Co.,
1991), pp. 149-161.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
7.1 GENDER ROLE STRESSORS
This exercise allows students to examine the differences in the stressors based on gender roles and
expectations. If time allows, you might want to have two groups, one all males and another all
females, exchange their lists after Step 3. Instead of a full class discussion, have students reverse
roles and have the males discuss the female pressures, and then the females discuss the male
pressures.
7.2 WORKPLACE STRESS DIAGNOSIS
This activity encourages students to consider the impact of different work environments on the
type and degree of stressors experienced. Push students to consider why certain work
environments are more or less stressful. The optional Step 5 is an excellent opportunity for
students to apply the material covered in the chapter. Particularly useful in this step is the
development of measures of effectiveness for stress management strategies. Students often do not
consider the need to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies, or they do not know how to evaluate
strategies effectiveness.

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ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE

SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORK ANALYSIS
Instructor's Notes:
Self-reliant individuals are masters at developing good social support networks. They prefer
interdependence, and they are also good providers of support to others. This exercise, designed
for use in class, will help students develop an understanding of the types and sources of social
support needed to develop an effective network.
1. Students complete the analysis by filling in the blanks with the names of people from whom
they receive social support. Next to each name, they are to write the type of support they receive:
E = emotional caring and nurturance
I = informational support
A = appraisal and evaluative feedback
M = role modeling and guidance
S = instrumental support, providing resources or acting on behalf of
a person
2. Students gather in groups of five or six to discuss the questions provided on their worksheets.
* Adapted from J. C. Quick, D. L. Nelson, and J. D. Quick, The Self-Reliance Inventory, in J.
W. Pfeiffer (ed.), The 1991 Annual: Developing Human Resources (San Diego: University
Associates, 1991: 149-161.

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SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORK ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Self-reliant individuals are masters at developing good social support networks. They prefer
interdependence, and they are also good providers of support to others. This exercise, designed
for use in class, will help you develop an understanding of the types and sources of social support
needed to develop an effective network.
1. Individually complete the following work-related and nonwork-related network analyses by
filling in the blanks with the names of people from whom you receive social support. In the
parentheses following each blank, write the type of support received: E=emotional caring and
nurturance; I=informational support; A=appraisal and evaluative feedback; M=role modeling and
guidance; and S=instrumental support providing resources or acting on behalf of a person.
2. In groups of five or six, discuss the following questions:
Where were the blank spaces in your work and non-work networks?
Are there any types of support (emotional, informational, appraisal, role modeling, or
instrumental) that you do not receive from anyone?
What can you do to develop your network?
How has social support been important to you in managing your stress? Give specific
examples.
Work Related Network (formal organizational relationships)
Manager
Co-workers
Employees
Others

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(
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Nonwork Related Network

Family members

Friends

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MBTI EXERCISE
Exercise Learning Objectives:
a. Students should understand that time management is viewed differently by people.
b. Students should understand that stress means different things to various people. Stress to one
person may be another person's energizer.
Exercise Overview:
1. Students should have taken the MBTI or short version in Chapter 3.
2. Students will form "J" and "P" preference groups.
3. Students will work in small groups (4-6 students).
4. Students will first do individual work; then group work.
5. The instructor should review the concepts of stress and time and how the J and P dynamic of
MBTI relates to time and stress.
Exercise Description:
1. Ask students to individually define both TIME and STRESS.
2. Place students in "J" and "P" groups of 4-6 students each.
3. Ask the groups to develop a group definition of time.
4. Post each group's definition on the wall so the entire class can see it.
5. Report out. Compare each group.
6. Ask the groups to develop a group definition of stress.
7. Post each group's definition on the wall so the entire class can see it.
8. Report out. Compare each group.
9. Time permitting, have students describe the relationship between time and stress. Have each
group report out.
What the instructor should expect:
a. J groups generally believe that time is to be scheduled and controlled. Traditional time
management--specific periods of time (to the minute) to specific task and the task completion
needs to be done within the time allocated.
b. P groups generally believe that time can be adapted and added to. Nontraditional time
management--time is relative to the task and time allocation would be expanded without stress to
accomplish the task.
c. J groups get stressed and give stress when they lack closure and/or control. Leaving issues
open for further discussion can be disconcerting especially if nothing is completed. Additionally,
reopening "closed" issues is stressful.
d. P groups get stressed and give stress when the number of options gets smaller or the nature
of the task becomes too routine for too long. Closing the issue too quickly can be disconcerting

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because not all of the data has been collected yet. Additionally, keeping an issue "closed" when
new data becomes available is stressful.
Instructor's Summary:
In our country, most everything is "run by the clock." We schedule our activities around the
clock. For some people, it is very important that things stay on schedule as scheduled.
Additionally, it is very important to these people that something be accomplished within the time
allotted.
For other people, time is much more relative. These people are not as concerned about
deadlines and schedules as they are about making sure the issues are fully explored. It is
important to these people that the issue be discussed and that time allocated can be expanded.
We have a similar issue in the area of stress. It is as bipolar as the time management issues
we've just discussed. Some people are stressed when issues are not settled, when things are not
orderly, and when things are not where they are supposed to be. Whereas, other people are
stressed when things are settled too quickly, when things are too structured, and when things
are too organized.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:
Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and
Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.
Assessing Your Level of Stress. p. 65-74. Time: 20 minutes or more.
Purpose: To assess the stress level in your life.
Strategies for Managing Stress. p. 75-82. Time: 50 minutes.
Purpose: To develop personal strategies for stress management.

CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

WORKPLACE TRAINING PROGRAMS OF THE AMERICAN RED CROSS
1. Why would an organization like the American Red Cross be interested in providing
businesses with training programs that deal with stress-related issues?
The American Red Cross has a long history of providing aid to the victims of disasters and
wars, of helping to ensure an adequate supply of blood for medical purposes, and of
transmitting communications between United States military personnel and their family
members. A fairly common perception of the Red Cross is that it focuses on providing aid in

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various types of emergency situations. While this is true, these activities are also sources of
strength and expertise that, in turn, provide the foundation for reaching out to the business
community in a variety of ways. Drawing on its experience with and knowledge of handling
emergency situations, the Red Cross has been able to provide a number of training courses
that are relevant to dealing with workplace emergencies many of which are stress-related. In
this regard, we should take particular note of the ARC training programs that focus on
preparedness for dealing with heart attacks and violence in the workplace.
Heart attacks frequently occur as a result of excessive stress. When heart attacks occur in the
workplace, the chances of the victims survival are increased significantly when emergency
assistance is immediately available. Workers who are appropriately trained in CPR and the use
of AED can provide such emergency assistance.
The experience of stress from either work or nonwork sources can result in violence in the
workplace. While most people do not resort to workplace violence as a response to stress, it
occurs sufficiently frequently to be a genuine are of concern. Consequently, having workers
who are able to recognize signs of impending workplace violence provides an important and
useful preventive mechanism for businesses. Also, having workers who know how to calmly
and effectively handle workplace violence, if and when it occurs, is an essential component of
business preparedness for this type of emergency.

2. What can the American Red Cross training programs accomplish in terms of equipping
organizations to better deal with workplace stress or its consequences?
Three American Red Cross training programs are especially relevant to the experience of
stress in the workplace. These training programs focus on rapid response to workplace heart
attacks, preparedness for workplace violence, and stress management/reduction. The first two
programs focus on training organizational members for dealing with emergency
situations heart attacks or violence that may arise in the workplace. These programs equip
workers with the knowledge and hands-on skills that are essential for effectively handling the
relevant emergency situations in order to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes and
decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes. The third program stress management and
reduction is intended to equip workers with the knowledge that is necessary for recognizing
the causes of stress and the skills that are helpful in effectively coping with stress when it
becomes excessive.
3. How could you personally benefit from the American Red Cross training programs that are
related to the issue of workplace stress?
Students should draw on the discussion relative to question (2) in answering this question. In
particular, the students should focus on the knowledge and skills that each program initiative
provides, whether they have such knowledge and skills, whether they would like to have such
knowledge and skills, and the reasons for desiring (not desiring) to have such knowledge and
skills.
VIDEO COHESION CASE -- PART II
PROCTER & GAMBLE (B)

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1. What implications do you think P&Gs eight guiding principles have for the work attitudes
and work behaviors of the employees?
Procter & Gambles eight guiding principles are:
We show respect for all individuals.
The interests of the company and the individual are inseparable.
We are strategically focused in our work.
Innovation is the cornerstone of our success.
We are externally focused.
We value personal mastery.
We seek to be the best.
Mutual interdependency is a way of life.
These principles are likely to be manifested in work attitudes that reflect a high level of
commitment and loyalty to other employees and to the company, express an appreciation for
and commitment to high performance standards, value new ideas, and demonstrate a high
level of satisfaction. In terms of work behavior, the employees would likely strive to develop
and grow in their jobs, seek to achieve excellence in performing their jobs, and engage in
actions that enable them to achieve their own goals while working toward realizing the
companys goals.
2. Procter & Gamble says it has a culture that values diversity. Do you think P&G values
diversity as much as it says it does? Explain your answer.
Several features suggest that Procter & Gamble does, indeed, value diversity. First, the
guiding principle of showing respect for all individuals indicates a strong commitment to
diversity. Second, P&G perceives diversity to be a rich source of competitive advantage and
an asset that provides a broader, richer, more fertile environment for creative thinking and
innovation. Third, P&G indicates that it tries to attract and fully develop an increasingly
diverse talent pool to supply its future leadership. Fourth, the Advancement of Women Task
Force has helped Procter & Gamble focus on and take corrective action regarding various
diversity problems. Fifth, the proportion of women and minorities in positions at and above
the Director level has tripled since 1997. In addition, four women and several minorities
currently sit on the companys executive committee.
3.

How might the stretch, innovation, and speed objectives of the Organization 2005 initiative
affect or be affected by the challenges of globalization, diversity, technology, and ethics?
Explain your answer.
The three objectivesstretch, innovation, and speedcan be described as follows:

The stretch objective involves trying for the highest possible performance on
all of the companys opportunities.
The innovation objective refers to identifying the toughest product
performance standards in the world and then meeting or exceeding those
standards throughout the world.
The speed objective involves getting P&Gs products into the global
marketplace faster than any competitor anywhere.

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All three objectives both affect and are affected by globalization. Collectively, the three
objectives are aimed at improving P&Gs position in every consumer products market in
which it competes throughout the world. Other companies will challenge P&G, both
domestically and overseas. P&G also must respond to the different needs and preferences of
local markets if it is to be successful in meeting these competitive challenges.
The stretch, innovation, and speed objectives impose a single set of expectations and
standards throughout the world. These standards are not altered to accommodate diversity in
any way. In other words, these objectives provide a consistent set of standards and
expectations that can help bind P&Gs diverse workforce together.
Technology will be crucial for achieving all three objectives. Indeed, without technology,
Procter & Gambles capacity to achieve these objectives would be limited. Likewise, these
three objectives provide an added stimulus for technological development within the company.
Taken separately, the three objectives could lead to some ethical compromises. For example,
P&G could get products to the global marketplace faster than competitors if it compromised
on its performance standards. Doing so, however, would be less than ethical because the
interests of customers would be compromised, and ultimately so would the stakeholder
interests of shareholders and employees. When taken together, the three objectives provide
mutual reinforcement for ethical behavior. The opportunity for and likelihood of ethical
compromise is lessened by P&G simultaneously seeking the highest possible performance,
setting the toughest product standards, and seeking to get products to the global marketplace
faster than competitors.

4. Given its corporate values, emphasis on diversity, and commitment to excellence, would
you like to work for Procter & Gamble? Why or why not?
In discussing this question, the students should consider the following elements in making an
evaluation of whether they would like to work for Procter and Gamble:

P&Gs core values of leadership, ownership, integrity, a passion for winning,

and trust;
P&Gs eight guiding principles;
P&Gs stated beliefs and overt actions regarding diversity; and
P&Gs stretch, innovation, and speed objectives.

P&Gs core values describe the fundamental nature of the companys culture. P&Gs eight
guiding principles further amplify the nature of the companys culture. The students should
consider the implications of each of these core values and guiding principles for their own
work behavior, if they were P&G employees. Would they be comfortable working in that type
of environment?
Procter & Gamble says that it embraces and values diversity but until recently women have
not made significant inroads into the managerial ranks. However, those inroads have been
substantial in recent years. From 1997 to 2001, for instance, the number of minorities and
women at the Director level and above tripled. While men still dominate the upper echelon of
management, women and minorities are becoming more prevalent among these ranks as well.
The students should consider how their own views on gender and minority equity (or equality)
might fit with the reality of Procter & Gambles workplace.

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Finally, the students should examine the implications of the stretch, innovation, and speed
objectives for P&Gs employees. How would the students react to working in an environment
where these three objectives drive all organizational activities?
Role Plays
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.