Mammal transport

BLOOD VESSELS
The mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation consisting of a heart, blood
vessels and blood

Artery structure

Relatively narrow lumen

Tunica intima (endothelium) consists of single cell layer of squamous epithelium
Tunica media consists of elastic fibres, collagen fibres and smooth muscle
Tunica externa consists of collagen fibres and some elastic fibres

Vein structure

Relatively large lumen

Tunica intima (endothelium) consists of single cell layer of squamous epithelium
Tunica media is very thin and consists of elastic fibres and some smooth muscle
Tunica externa consists of collagen fibres

Capillary structure

Red blood cell lumen width

Walls one cell thick

Artery structure and function

Carry pulsing high pressure blood away from heart

Smooth endothelium reduces friction, increasing rate of blood flow
Thick elastic walls stretch as blood pulses to prevent bursting
Collagen withstands pressure, preventing overstretching and bursting
Branch into smaller arteriole vessels, reducing blood pressure
Arterioles contain smooth muscle that can contract and make lumen smaller,
controlling blood flow

Vein structure and function

Carry low pressure blood back to heart

Smooth endothelium reduces friction, increasing rate of blood flow
Relatively large lumen reduces friction, increasing rate of blood flow
Contains valves to prevent backflow
Moves by squeezing effect of nearby muscle contraction

Capillary structure and function

Red blood cell lumen width and one cell thick walls minimise diffusion distance,
increasing rate of diffusion
Gaps in walls allow plasma to leak out

BLOOD
Red blood cells
Biconcave disc shape with no nucleus or mitochondria, haemoglobin causes red pigment

Phagocytes
Larger than red blood cells, monocytes are largest with kidney shaped nucleus, neutrophils
have a lobed nucleus and granular cytoplasm

Lymphocytes

Smaller than phagocytes with a large nucleus and small amount of cytoplasm, nucleus takes
up most of cell

Blood, tissue fluid and lymph

Plasma leaks through capillary wall gaps to fill body cell spaces with tissue fluid
Tissue fluid contains less large molecules or plasma proteins as they cannot easily
enter through gaps
Oxygen, glucose or urea can move between blood plasma and cells by diffusing though
tissue fluid
Lymph is when tissue fluid enters lymphatic vessels and contains higher numbers of
white blood cells
Lymph vessel valves are wide enough to allow large protein molecules to pass through
as they cannot pass through capillary walls so lymph contains large protein molecules

HAEMOGLOBIN
Carrying oxygen

Each molecule of haemoglobin can combine with 4 oxygen molecules to form

oxyhaemoglobin in lungs
Successive binding of oxygen molecules changes haemoglobin shape and increases
affinity
Oxygen remains bound until blood is in an area of low oxygen

Carbonic anhydrase and haemoglobinic acid

Red blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase enzymes which catalyse CO 2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid dissociates to form hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions, H 2CO3
H+ + HCO3Carbonic anhydrase catalyses very fast
Carbon dioxide as hydrogen carbonate ions diffuses out of red blood cell into plasma
85% of carbon dioxide is transported this way
This maintains a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse into plasma from
tissues

Carrying carbon dioxide as carbaminohaemoglobin

Carbon dioxide diffuses down concentration gradient from cell membranes of respiring
cells through tissue fluid and capillary wall pores to plasma and into red blood cells
Carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin at a terminal amine haemoglobin group to
form carbaminohaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide also combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide remains bound until blood is in an area of low carbon dioxide

5% of carbon dioxide dissolves and is transported in blood plasma

BOHR EFFECT
In areas of high carbon dioxide concentration haemoglobin is less saturated with oxygen than
if there was no carbon dioxide present

Hydrogen ions from carbonic acid combine with haemoglobin to form haemoglobinic
acid
Carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
This stimulates haemoglobin to release more oxygen

Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide than oxygen

Bohr effect importance

Carbon dioxide influences percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen

Tissues with high rate of aerobic respiration have a high demand for oxygen
Haemoglobin releases more oxygen than it would in absence of carbon dioxide at the
same partial pressure of oxygen

HIGH ALTITUDE

Partial pressure of oxygen at high altitudes is lower than at sea level so haemoglobin is
less well saturated
More red blood cells are produced to compensate for smaller volume of oxygen
absorbed per red blood cell so that tissues can receive sufficient oxygen

HEART STRUCTURE
Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary vein and pumps it through bicuspid
atrioventricular valves into left ventricle which pumps it through semilunar valves into aorta
and rest of body
Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from superior and inferior vena cava and pumps it
through tricuspid atrioventricular valves into right ventricle which pumps it through semilunar
valves into pulmonary artery and lungs
Heart consists of cardiac muscle, septum divides heart and coronary arteries supply blood to
cardiac muscles

Thickness of walls

Ventricle walls thicker than atria as cardiac muscle produces more pressure
Left ventricle wall thicker as more resistance and distance through capillaries of body
organs and kidneys require high pressure blood for filtration, cardiac muscle produces
more pressure
Right ventricle is thinner as less resistance and distance through capillaries of lungs
and it cant damage lungs, cardiac muscle produces less pressure

CARDIAC CYCLE

Atrial systole occurs, muscles in atrial walls contract and increase blood pressure,
forcing it down through atrioventricular valves into ventricles, semilunar valves in veins
prevent backflow
Ventricular systole occurs, muscles in ventricular walls contract and increase blood
pressure
Ventricular pressure greater than atrial pressure, pushing atrioventricular valves shut to
prevent backflow
Blood is forced up through semilunar valves into aorta and pulmonary artery
Diastole occurs, heart muscles relax and blood from veins flow into atria
Ventricular pressure less than aorta and pulmonary artery pressure, pushing semilunar
valves shut to prevent backflow

HEART BEAT CONTROL

SAN sends out wave of excitation which spreads across atria, causing atria to contract

Insulating tissue prevents waves from reaching ventricles

AVN sends on wave of excitation to ventricles, creating 0.1 second time delay to allow
atria to empty
Purkyne tissue conducts excitation to base of ventricles, this spreads upwards in
ventricles causing them to simultaneously contract from base upwards
There is a short delay where heart muscles relax before repeating process