SITE INSPECTION

1. From constructors POV

- Investigation of sub-strata
- Broader site characteristics
2. Broader Site Considerations
-

Surface Conditions
Access
Services Available
Personnel
Communications
Neighbours
Environmental Considerations

BULK EARTH WORKS

1. Basic Techniques
Excavation
-Large cut and fill
- roads and canals
- selection of equipment depends on site condition, quantity of soil and
distance to move
- large dovers up to 100m
- push loaded scraper 100 1500m
- trucks 1500+ m
-Shallow cut and fill
-1.5m deep typical road and airfield construction
- scraper or dozer
-Deep excavation
- medium pit 1.5-4.5m deep
- deep pit 4.5+ m deep
- excavate to 300-600mm of final depth
- complete with second cut
- wet weather limits depth of dig
- ground support depends on; soil, water, time to excavate
- unshored excavation ample work space
- shored excavation retaining wall, sheet piling, control of water
-Hand excavation
- little room for mechanical support

2. Equipment Used
Earth-Moving Plant

-Excavating plant
-Transporting plant
-Compacting plant
-Availability of plants and costs
Types
- Bulldozers (transporting)
Production

min + manuevre time(min )

push time ( min ) +return time
60 min bladeload
production ( lcy per hour ) =

bladeload=0.0139 HWL ( lcy ) , blade load=0.375 HWL(lcm)

H - height of the pile at the inside edge of each track (ft, m)
W - width of the pile at the inside edge of each track (ft, m)
L - the greatest length of the pile (ft, m)
Push time = travel distance / speed
Return time = return distance/ speed
Manoeuvre time = 0.05min
- Scrapers (transporting)
- haul distance 100m 1.5k
- capacity 6m3 50m3
- load, haul, dump, turn, return, turn
- Excavators (excavating)
- quarries for loading blasted short rocks
- front shovel and hoe type
- trenches and pits
- Dragline (excavating)
- underwater use, digging and dumping
- 0.5m3 20m3
- inefficient at truck loading
- Backhoe (excavating)
- trenches and pits
- Front end loaders and trucks (excavating)
- clean, level, smooth area
- excavates @ or above wheel level
- truck hauls over 1.5k
- tipping capability, high travel speed, low haul cost
- Explosives, rock breakers(excavating)
- Effectiveness predicated on:
-Ensure that the plant outputs are matched so that no unit is waiting
-Access between sites
-Supervision / survey control
-Controlled by slowest element in cycle
Compaction
- Objectives
-Reduce or prevent settlement

-Increase strength
-Improve bearing capacity
-Control volume changes
-Lower permeability
-Types
-Impact (silt, clay)
-Pressure (silt, clay)
-Vibration (sand, gravel)
-Kneading (silt, clay, sand, gravel)
- Equipment
-Sheepsfoot rollers (pressure)
-Tamping rollers (pressure, kneading)
-Smooth-drum vibratory soil compactors (impact, pressure, vibration)
-Pad-drum vibratory soil compactors (impact, vibration)
-Pneumatic tyred rollers (pressure, kneading)
Dewatering
Ground water control processes
- Exclusion of ground water
-Sheet pilling all soils except boulder beds
-diaphragm walls all soils, deep basements
- contiguous bored pile walls deep basement
- four main cut off ditches, low walls, embankments pump from sumps
and ditch pre-drain soil use deep wells and wellpoints cut off wall using pile
wall
Water lowering
-sump pumping
- economical
- cleans gravel and coarse sands
-bored shallow wells with suction pump deep excavation
-wellpoint systems with suction pumps open excavation
Total dynamic head
TDH=hd + hv + hs + f1 + f2
Hv= v^2/2g , hs= suction head, hd=static discharge head, f1=friction heads in
the suction columns of fittings, f2= friction heads in the discharge manifold
1.85

608704451 Q l /min
h m =
(
)
f(
C
d 4.8655
100 m )
mm

C is rougness of pipe, 150 for pvc, 140 for new steel pipe
Pump systems
-displacement pumps uniform pumping rate, reliable, heave, large, set above
water surface
- reciprocating pumps single acting or double acting
- diaphragm pumps large, slow, reliable, limited suction heads
- centrifugal pumps small, high speed, sensitive, set above water
- submersible pumps
- air lift pumps
- venturi pumps small, noisy

Detailed Earthworks
-deep excavation
-excavation OTR deep basement exc
- engineering issues uncertainty of soil
- causes of failure unshored and shored excavation
- support of exc soil type, sive, ground water, surroundings
- Methods
- unshored exc 45 angle sides \_/
- shored exc internal or external support
- dumpling method supports at edges and under construction
- cut off walling methods steel sheet piling, concrete walls (contiguous
bored piles walls or diaphragm walls)
- supports
- timber planking and strutting
- piling sheet and contiguous
- diaphragm
- soldier and panel
- CBP
1 position of bored pile
2 installation of casing
3 augering of bore hole
4 installation of steel cage
5 concreting of borehole
6 extracting of casing
- diaphragm
1 construction of guide wall
2 excavation of panel
3 installation of rebar cage
4 concreting of panel
- Uses of soil anchoring
- Transmit the tensile forces to soil
-Anchoring of support structures for excavations
- transfer external forces to ground
Foundations
-functions
-support imposed loads/structures
-prevent settlement
-movement due to shrinkage/ swelling of slabs
- resist uplift or overturning forces
-resists lateral forces
-types
- shallow strip, pad, raft, strapped (pad and raft)footings
- deep piled footings bored cast insitu, driven cast insitu, driven precast
concrete, driven steel
-Cast in place piles bulb piles, bored piers, grouted piles
- driven piles force applied to top, guided by frame, problem predicting length

-underwater construction techniques

- heavy foundation large diameter, steel tube driven and sealed into rock
- issues- caisson floating and floating
- testing
- sonic integrity non destructive, quick, quality control, detects cracks
voids and variations
- dynamic load testing hitting pile with hammer seeing accel and strains,
quick
- static load testing measures displacement with load
Road Construction
-techniques
- control line concept
- cross sections
- cut/fill concept
-plant selection
- what, where, how much, how long, availability
- excavating, loading, hauling, placing, ripping, compacting, grading
- tracks good traction, less ground pressure, good on steep grades,
drawbar pull
- wheels good mobility, speedy, good on pavers
- dozers digs and pushes, small op. distances, clear and grub, wide range
- scrapers self-loading, long distance, affected by terrain, good for large
fill, avail. Issues
- dump trucks no limit to dist. Affected by terrain, good for large fill,
limited moving fill long dist.
- pavements
- flexible pav containing unbound granular &/or stabilised materials &/or
asphalt
- rigid pav concrete with joints &/or steel reinforcement, high str - lean
mix conc, cement stabiliser crushed rock, unbounded granular materials
- construction sequence
- clear & grub, cut/fill, drainage, pavement, surface treatments, lines and
signs
- control surface/water, maintain moisture, cut and fill, good layout,
minimize handling, opt haul length, cycle time, good selection of equip, alt wheel
paths, experienced personnel
- road overpass
- geometric des, structural des, hydraulic/stormwater investigation, QR
req, utilities, pavement des, st lamp des, traffic sig des, environment, urban des,
pedestrians/cyclists
- constructability, staging to minimise impacts, cost estimate, time
estimates, RSS wall vs embankment fill
Bridge Construction
-types
- simply supported span, deck, pier, 3 common variations
- cantilever
- arch uses cantilever or anchors for construction

- suspension
- cable stayed
- temporary works
- establishment compound and buildings
- access across water temporary bridge, personnel access
- falsework support equip, formwork, lifting devices
- Foundations
- constructed in water impede access
- heavy foundations = heavy equip.
- affected by tide
- Cofferdams
-in water work period install temp piles for temp bridge, sheet pile for
dam, scour protection
- back fill, concrete footings, build towers up
- scour protection maintain water quality, control turbidity
-substructures
- piers aesthetics, difficult formwork, vulnerable to damage during
construction
- headstocks aesthetics, difficult formwork, second stage bearing plinths
- superstructures
- difficult to build cant be supported from ground, heavy weights at
height, long spans
- materials steel, reinforced conc, prestressed conc, composite steel/conc
or fibre conc
- launching girders, gantry movement
-issues
- surveying lack of fixed points, winds and tidal flow, heating of structure
- river characteristics river traffic, flooding, pollution, tide, authorities
- climate- wind, gust (30% above wind), heat causes distortions
- establishment and access moving equip/ materials, personnel access,
security
Steel Construction
-ordering
- affected by quality and price
- framed panels to be proof assembled
- patterns for holding down bolts be exchanged
- fabrication
- storage, inspections, standards, economic
- painting to protect steel
- erection
- stresses due to lifting, centre of gravity calcs
- special sling depending on design
- balance load in sling
- tasks crane info, laydown area, size of crane, temporary restraints,
painting area
Concrete and prestressed concrete

-formwork importance - preventing grout loss, surface imperfections, stripping,

deflections
- placing concrete - directly from truck, crane and bucket, pumping, conveyor,
chutes, sprayed
- high str stockpile all aggregates, meetings, manual of procedure, field
technician, extra truck with lowered capacity
- hot pour at first light, cover over pour, spray aggregates and use cold
water, additional labour to finish, apply curing
- cold warm water, provide heaters, cover concrete, delay stripping,
- compaction water cement ratio, not too much vibration
- curing concrete
-water curing
- plastic/ encapsulation plastic sheets and sealed, small pours
- membrane spray of brush on film
- steam heat and moisture, accelerates str, steel forms
- destressing of psc
- cut away concrete at tendon, heat and remove tendon