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MWITALEMI SAMSON S
4624/T.2012
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
JUNE,
2016
A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of BSc. in
Environmental Engineering.
DECLARATION
I, Mwitalemi, Samson S hereby declare that this dissertation entitled as Suitability of Beach
Sand for Recreational Purposes is a result of my own work and findings, and to the best of my
knowledge it has never been presented or submitted for the award of Diploma or Degree or any
other professional award in any higher learning institution.
MWITALEMI, SAMSON S
Date:.
Date:..........
SUPERVISOR
SUPERVISOR
.
Date:
Dr. FREDRICK SALUKELE
Ph.D. (Wageningen University, Netherlands)
MSc. Eng. (UDSM)
BSc. Eng. (UDSM)
HEAD OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
ii
DEDICATION
With pleasure and gratitude, I dedicate this dissertation to my beloved father and mother and the
whole family for their tireless encouragement and prayers. May God bless you always.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In a special way I am thankful to God the Almighty for keeping me healthy, leading me through
the ups and downs , sad and happy moments and bestow upon me a clear mind to grasp
everything I considered useful during my time at the University. I really glorify his name.
In accomplishment of this dissertation work, personal diligence facilitated by assistance from
good Samaritans was inevitably needed. For that matter Im indebted to the High Education
Students Loan Board (HESLB) for dissertation allowance loan that covered my research
expenses together with school fees and accommodation expenses.
Special gratitude also goes to my supervisors, Prof. Chaggu E. O. and Dr. Mkumbo S. for heart
ready-to-help. Throughout my dissertation period, they have been willing to offer precious
supervision and guidance in an educators and parents view point. Furthermore, Mr. Ndimbo
and Mr. Ramadhani the Environmental Engineering Department laboratory technicians are very
much appreciated for their willingness support in carrying out laboratory analysis.
I am grateful for a big support and cooperation obtain from my fellow students, Reuben
Christina, Mwamlima Petro, Ngoloke Asajile, Seffu Seffu, Prosperous Frank, Magelan William
and my entire friends who participated in this study. In connection to this, I also thank my fellow
students and friends whom we shared the excitement of school life together. May God bless them
and pave their way towards a successful life.
Lastly, I will be biased if I fail to recognize my beloved family for material support by providing
academic incentives during the whole period of my stay at the University. I am very thankful and
May God blesses them all (Mother, Father, Brother and Young brothers).
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ABSTRACT
This research works is aimed at studying the suitability of beach sand for recreational purposes
and the case studies were Coco Beach and Kawe Beach, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The study was
carried out to determine and assess if the beach sand is safe and suitable in terms of microbial
quality and heavy metals concentrations for beachgoers also the study was comparing the
microbial quality and heavy metals concentrations of beach sand and ocean water. The social
cultural activities that happening at beach were also identified in order to know how the
beachgoers use beach sand and water during beach visit and the existing situation of beaches in
terms of cleanliness, sanitation and solid waste management were also assessed.
Sampling were done at each beach according to the zones, favourite place for beachgoers,
presence of investment (bar, restaurant) and presence of any condition or situation that could
lead to unsuitability of beach sand. Samples were taken thrice during morning of Wednesdays of
May, 2016. The laboratory analysis for physical characteristics, microbiological quality and
heavy metal concentration of beach sand and ocean water were executed at Ardhi University
laboratory. The analyzed parameters were pH, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Salinity,
Conductivity, Microorganism (Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli) and heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Cr,
Cd, Zn). Also questionnaire analysis was conducted to assess the existing situation and social
cultural activities that are happening at beaches during recreation.
The beaches are highly populated during holidays and weekends but there small number of
people during weekdays, and the activities which occurs at beach are swimming, walking,
burying bodies in the sand, sitting/sleeping and games (football, volleyball, boxing). Also
questionnaire analysis showed that the cleanliness of beaches and ocean is poor (100% of
respondents at Kawe beach said cleanliness of beach and ocean is poor and 54% and 78% at
Coco Beach said poor for beach and ocean respectively. Sanitation facilities in both beaches is a
challenges there is one public toilet at Coco Beach and no public toilet at Kawe, which result to
open defecation in shrub, grasses, ocean or on sand. Solid waste management in both beaches
was found to be poor due to lack of primary solid waste storage containers, collection,
transportation and disposal.
All sampling locations (sand and seawater) exhibited variation content of Salmonella, Shigella
and E.coli. However the variation depends on the levels of high pollution and low pollution but
this suggest that there is accumulation of these indicators in the beach sand. Also sampling
location shows the presence of heavy metals in both ocean water and beach sand but seawater
has higher concentration of heavy metals comparing to the beach sand samples.
Considering the questionnaire analysis and laboratory analysis beaches (Coco and Kawe Beach)
are found have different colonies of bacteria and heavy metals concentrations which may pose
threat to the health of the beachgoers therefore special attention should be given to beaches by
authorities and beach users.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF PLATES ....................................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiv
ABBREVIATION......................................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ...................................................................................................... 2
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 3
1.5.1 Main Objective ............................................................................................................... 3
1.5.2 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 3
1.6 SCOPE .................................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1 COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A BEACH ......................................................... 4
2.1.1 Beaches zones ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 Types of beaches ............................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2.1 High Energy Beaches ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.2.1.1 Reflective beaches ................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2.1.2 Dissipative beaches ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.2.1.3 Transitional beaches ............................................................................................. 6
2.1.2.2 Low Energy Beaches ................................................................................................ 6
2.1.2.2.1 Flat beaches .......................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2.2.2 Segmented beaches ............................................................................................... 7
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2.8 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATIVE SEA LEVEL RISE
................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.8.1 Beach width loss ........................................................................................................... 16
2.8.2 Increased rate of littoral drift ........................................................................................ 17
2.8.3 Changes in storminess due to climate change .............................................................. 17
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 18
MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................................. 18
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 18
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDY AREAS ..................................................................... 19
3.2.1 COCO BEACH............................................................................................................. 19
3.2.1.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach.................................................................. 19
3.2.1.2 Climate ................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1.3 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 21
3.2.1.4 Population .............................................................................................................. 21
3.2.2 KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................ 21
3.2.2.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach.................................................................. 21
3.2.2.2 Climate ................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2.3 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2.4 Population .............................................................................................................. 23
3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION ............................................................................................. 23
3.4 BEACH SAND SAMPLE COLLECTION......................................................................... 23
3.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 26
3.5.1 Physical parameter measurement of beach sand and water .......................................... 26
3.5.2 Bacteriological Analysis of beach sand and water ....................................................... 28
3.5.3 Heavy metal Extraction from beach sand (Zinc, Copper, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium,
Mercury) ................................................................................................................................ 29
3.6 QUESTIONAIRE ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 32
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................. 32
4.1 COCO BEACH ................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.1 Frequency of visiting Coco Beach................................................................................ 32
viii
4.1.1 pH ................................................................................................................................. 48
4.1.2 Salinity .......................................................................................................................... 48
4.1.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) ........................................................................................ 48
4.1.4 Conductivity ................................................................................................................. 49
4.5 BACTERIOLOGICAL COUNTS OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO BEACH
AND KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................... 49
4.5.1 COCO BEACH............................................................................................................. 49
4.5.2 KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................ 52
4.6 HEAVY METALS CONCETRATION OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO
BEACH AND KAWE BEACH ................................................................................................ 56
4.7 IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS ................................................................................................ 57
4.8 PROPOSED ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS ..................................................................... 59
4.8.1 Designs for public toilet, septic tank system and solid waste management system ..... 59
4.8.2 Design of Septic tank system........................................................................................ 59
4.8.2.1 Design criteria of septic tank system ..................................................................... 59
4.8.2.2 Design of septic tank .............................................................................................. 59
4.8.2.3 Summary of septic tank design ............................................................................... 62
4.8.3 Design of solid waste management system .................................................................. 63
4.8.3.1 Design of primary storage containers (Dustbin) ................................................... 63
4.8.3.2 Design of collection point ...................................................................................... 63
4.8.3.3 Transportation of solid waste ................................................................................ 63
4.8.3.4 Disposal of wastes.................................................................................................. 64
4.8.3.5 Summary of solid waste management design......................................................... 64
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 65
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................... 65
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 65
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 66
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 67
APPENDECES.......................................................................................................................... 68
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Zones at the interface between beach sand and water ................................... 4
Figure 2.2: Reflective beach............................................................................................. 5
Figure 2.3: Dissipative beach ........................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.4: Flat beach ....................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.5: Segmented beach ........................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.6: Rounded beach............................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.7: Ocean wave motion (After Hepner, 2007) .................................................... 9
Figure 2.8: Schematic of longshore current (After Hepner, 2007) ................................ 10
Figure 3.1: Map of Coco Beach ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.2: Map of Kawe beach ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.3: Map of sampling point at Coco Beach ........................................................ 24
Figure 3.4: Map of sampling points at Kawe Beach ...................................................... 25
Figure 4.1: Frequency of visiting Coco beach ............................................................... 32
Figure 4.2: Activities that occurs at Coco beach ............................................................ 33
Figure 4.3: Cleanliness of Coco Beach .......................................................................... 34
Figure 4.4: Cleanliness of ocean around Coco Beach .................................................... 35
Figure 4.5: Cleanliness of Coco Beach Investments ...................................................... 36
Figure 4.6: Presence of toilet or shower at Coco Beach ................................................ 36
Figure 4.8: Solid waste management at Coco Beach ..................................................... 38
Figure 4.9: Illness after Coco beach visit ....................................................................... 39
Figure 4.10: Frequency of visiting Kawe Beach. ........................................................... 40
Figure 4.11: Activities that occurs at Kawe Beach ........................................................ 40
Figure 4.12: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach ....................................................................... 41
Figure 4.13: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Ocean ............................................................ 42
Figure 4.14: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Club .............................................................. 43
Figure 4.15: Presence of Toilet/Shower ......................................................................... 43
Figure 4.16: Place to Urinate or Defecate ...................................................................... 44
Figure 4.17: Storage and collection of solid waste ........................................................ 44
Figure 4.18: Illness after Kawe beach visit .................................................................... 45
Figure 4.19: Physical Parameter of beach sand and ocean water from Coco beach and
Kawe beach .................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.20: Salmonella results for Coco beach sand .................................................... 50
Figure 4.21: Shigella results for Coco beach sand ......................................................... 50
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1: Sampling of (a) beach sand (b) ocean water and (c) collected beach sand
and ocean water samples ............................................................................................ 26
Plate 3.2: (a) pH meter and (b) Electrode meter ......................................................... 27
Plate 3.3: Measurement of physical parameters ......................................................... 27
Plate 3.4: (a) SS agar and (b) Prepared petri dishes ................................................... 28
Plate 3.5: (a) Culturing and (b) Cultured petri dishes................................................. 29
Plate 3.6: (a) Drying of sand and (b) Grinding dried sample ..................................... 30
Plate 3.7: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) ................................................... 30
Plate 3.8: Questionnaire analysis ................................................................................ 31
Plate 4.1: Beachgoers at Coco beach during Easter of 10 April, 2016 ....................... 33
Plate 4.2: (a) Children sitting and playing on sand (b) Children burying body in the
sand ............................................................................................................................. 34
Plate 4.3: People swimming in water that contain waterweed at Coco Beach ........... 35
Plate 4.4: Toilet at Coco beach ................................................................................... 37
Plate 4.5: Solid waste at Coco beach .......................................................................... 38
Plate 4.6: (a) Solid waste accumulation and (b) Solid waste on the beach sand at Coco
Beach .......................................................................................................................... 39
Plate 4.7: Solid waste on beach sand at Kawe Beach ................................................. 41
Plate 4.8: (a) Channel of wastewater from Kawe and (b) Water weeds at Kawe Beach
.................................................................................................................................... 42
Plate 4.9: (a)Solid waste at channel from Mikocheni (b) Scattered solid waste at
Kawe beach................................................................................................................. 45
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Objectives and information needed for this study22
Table 4.1: Summary of identified problems and suggested solution.....68
xiv
ABBREVIATION
FIB Feacal Indicator Bacteria
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
WHO World Health Organization
xv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Beaches represent the unconsolidated sediment that lies at the junction between water (oceans,
lakes and rivers) and land and are usually composed of sand, mud or pebbles. From a
recreational viewpoint, sand beaches are sought after especially in higher latitudes, a significant
percentage of time is spent on the beach itself rather than in the water (WHO, 2003).
Different activities are taking place when people visiting the beaches, such as swimming,
walking, picnics, surfing, burying body, game and sports (i.e. football, boxing). Those activities
could be the source of making beach unsafe for recreational purposes.
Microorganisms are a significant component of beach sand. Bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses
have all been isolated from beach sand. A number of genera and species that may be encountered
through contact with sand are potential pathogens. Factors promoting the survival and dispersion
of pathogens include the nature of the beach, tidal phenomena, presence of sewage outlets, the
season, the presence of animals and the number of swimmers. Transmission may occur through
direct person-to-person contact or by other means, although no route of transmission has been
positively demonstrated. Accordingly, concern has been expressed that beach sand or similar
materials may act as reservoirs or vectors of infection (Nestor et al., 1984; Codinachs et al.,
1988).
The sources of high levels of fecal microbial pollution in beach sand are not clear. Some studies
attributed the source of fecal pollution to municipal sewage treatment plant discharges in close
proximity to beaches. However, other studies attributed the source of fecal pollution to non-point
sources, such as urban runoff and/or warm-blooded domestic and wild animals. Numerous
studies found that the conditions in foreshore, near shore, and backshore sand can favor the
persistence, survival, and regrowth of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus, suggesting that
elevated levels of these fecal indicator bacteria in beach sand may represent autochthonous
populations rather than impacts from sewage sources of contamination. Conditions that favor the
persistence, survival, and possible regrowth of autochthonous fecal indicator bacteria in sand
include increased protection from sunlight, buffered temperatures, more nutrient availability,
reduced osmotic stress, cover from predation by other microorganisms, a large surface area for
biofilm development, and higher moisture and organic content from wave swash (Christopher,
2008).
Concern has been expressed that beach sand or similar materials may act as reservoirs or vectors
of infection. However, the capacity of microorganisms that have been isolated from beach sand
to infect bathers and beach users remains undemonstrated, and the real extent of their threat to
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A BEACH
2.1.1 Beaches zones
A sandy beach ecosystem is composed of three important zones:
The surf zone the nearshore area where waves break, characterised by foamy water.
The intertidal sandy beach the sandy area alternatively covered and uncovered by tides.
The sand dunes (or if there are no dunes, the area of continual dry sand) above the drift
line, landward of the beach.
Figure 2.1: Zones at the interface between beach sand and water
(After Solo-Gabriele et al., 2015)
2.1.2 Types of beaches
Beaches are not homogenous piles of sand but exist in a range of types. The different beach
morpho dynamic types are determined by three factors: sand grain size, wave action and tidal
regimes. Therefore beaches are classified into two groups, namely;
and the subtidal area may be vegetated, the latter with sea grasses (Coastal planning and
management manual, 2003). As shown on figure 2.4.
2.2.3.1 Waves
Waves are a repeated movement in a body of water seen as an alternate rise and fall of the
surface. Ocean waves may erode or deposit sediment on the beach. A ten-foot high wave is not
uncommon during a major tropical storm or hurricane, and a few hours of big waves crashing on
the coast can erode a lot of the beach back to the dunes or even farther. If the eroded sand is
carried into deep water, the sediment is not available for the smaller waves to carry back to
reconstruct the beach after the storm has passed. Unless additional sand is available, the poststorm shoreline will be established many feet inland of its former position before the storm
(Hepner, 2007). Consider the figure 2.7.
Swimming, Sunbathing
Picnics (To be with family and friends)
Walking on the jetty or boat
Going to restaurants and cafes
Walking the dog or horses
To bond with nature
For solitude, Relaxing, Sitting, Sightseeing, People watching, Reading, Unwind
For sport and Competition (beach football, volleyball, boxing)
Beach games (Concert)
Walking, jogging on the beach (To keep fit)
Fishing
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attributed to human activity. Its occurrence has been found to correlate with the number of
swimmers on the beach, and the counts of S. aureus were found to correlate with the presence of
yeasts of human origin in sand samples. Higher counts of S. aureus were recovered from the
sand and water in summer, when there was a higher density of swimmers on the beach, than in
winter. Also, higher counts of S. aureus were recovered from sand than from water samples.
Investigations carried out along the Tyrrhenian coast (Italy) showed higher densities of
Staphylococcus spp. in sand of areas characterized by breakwaters than in sands found in open
areas. S. epidermidis was the predominant species (WHO, 2003).
2.5.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
In a study in Israel, both seawater and sand on a number of beaches were found to contain
various levels of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The isolation of P. aeruginosa and of other
Pseudomonas spp. was proportionally higher in sand than in seawater samples. P. aeruginosa
was isolated from sandy beaches in Portugal under various tidal conditions, all beaches
containing similar counts (WHO, 2003).
2.5.4 Vibrio spp.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates have been found in marine or brackish water and sand
specimens collected from sand banks in Africa. Vibrio Harvey has been isolated from seashore
water and sand samples collected on coarse sand or pebble beaches (WHO, 2003).
2.5.5 Enteric bacteria
Species of bacteria that can cause gastroenteritis have been isolated from sand samples.
However, their presence constitutes no apparent health threat to sunbathers. Sand beaches in
Portugal contained similar counts of Clostridium perfringens under various tidal conditions.
Suggestion has been made that C. perfringens could be a good index of faecal contamination in
sand sediment. Low levels of Campylobacter jejuni were recorded in both coastal waters and
sand on a number of Israeli beaches, with the beach sand containing higher counts than adjacent
shore waters. In the United Kingdom, intertidal zone sediments appeared to serve as a substantial
reservoir for thermophilic campylobacters, which could contribute significantly to bacterial
numbers in surface waters, especially in rough weather (WHO, 2003).
2.5.6 Fungi
Fungi that are often found in the environment as saprophytes may act as opportunistic pathogens,
especially in immunocompromised patients. Studies by In the Portuguese central coastal area
showed dermatophytes in 42% of the sand beaches analysed. The most common were
Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and Microsporum nanum, all isolated from sandy, nonflooded areas with organic residues. These species are all associated with skin infections, with T.
mentagrophytes being the most common agent of dermatomycosis in Europe and T. rubrum the
most common agent worldwide. Saprophytic fungi (Aspergillus candidus, A. ochraceus and A.
14
fumigatus) were isolated in the flooded and intermediate areas in high tidal conditions (WHO,
2003).
2.6 DISPERSION AND FATE OF MICROORGANISMS IN BEACH SAND
The growth of microorganisms in beach sand is limited by nutrient input. Laboratory studies
have shown that nutrients pass through the bacterial community into the protozoan and metazoan
community. Further studies have shown that microbial contamination is higher in sand than in
adjacent waters, as the sand behaves as a passive harbor for cumulative pollution. Higher levels
of coliforms, E. coli and enterococci in sand from Hanauma Bay (Hawaii) were thought to
originate from run off from the cliffs surrounding the bay. Faeces from pigeons and mongoose
were also thought to be a source of beach sand contamination. This study concluded that the
contaminated sand could be the major source of the periodically high levels of bacteria in the
water. Sand contamination is highly variable over short distances, making interpretation of
results difficult. The survival of enteric bacteria on the surface of dry sand may essentially be of
short duration, the bacteria being destroyed mostly by environmental pressure. Wet sand, the
area where young children typically spend most of their time on the beach, is the most relevant.
Wet sand, enriched with organic substances, provides a favourable environment for enteric
bacteria, which enables them to survive longer than in seawater (WHO, 2003).
Various factors have been proposed as encouraging the survival and dispersion of faecal index
microorganisms and pathogens on beach sand. These include the nature of the beach, tidal
phenomena, sewage outlets, the season, the presence of animals and the number of bathers.
Water movement, for example, causes erosion, transportation and deposition of beach sediment
and redistribution of associated microorganisms. Analysis of sediment samples in the United
Kingdom for thermophilic campylobacters and faecal index microorganisms before and after
tidal cover over a 12-month period. 53% of the samples were positive for campylobacters before
tidal cover; this figure was significantly lower than the 64% recovered after tidal disposition.
However, there was no significant difference in index organism numbers with respect to samples
taken before or after tidal cover. In the same study, a seasonal variation was observed in
campylobacters, with the highest isolation rate in winter (100%), followed by secondary peaks in
spring (3367%) and autumn (6778%). The lowest counts were found in summer, which
correlated with the incidence of campylobacters in surface waters. In contrast, studies show the
influence of tides on counts of faecal index microorganisms and pathogens in sand without
finding any clear differences. It was also found that the incidence of some pathogens depended
on the season, with no viruses present in seawater and sand of beaches outside the holiday
season. Studies show that there is higher bacterial counts and longer survival time in beaches
close to sewage outlets. As outlined in the previous section, fungi are often encountered in sand,
and their survival is longer than that of enteric bacteria due to their capacity to form resistant
spores. It has been suggested that the presence and the level of fungi is related to direct or
indirect contamination originating from the residues/detritus from beach users and/or tidal
influence (Mendes et al., 1998). In an in vitro study, it was found that four pathogenic fungi
15
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CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The site selection, data collection and laboratory analysis were based on the studying the
suitability of beach sand for recreational purposes. Different useful materials were used in this
study from data collection to the laboratory analysis, and different methods were used to analyze
the microbial quality of beach water and beach sand, and determination of the presence of heavy
metal (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Zn, Cd, Hg) in the beach water, beach sand and sea weeds. Also
questionnaire analysis was conducted to assess the uses of beach and the management of beach.
Consider the table 3.1 which summarizes the objectives, information needed and the method
which is going to be used to obtain the information.
Table 3.1: Objectives and information needed for this study
Objectives
Data and
information neede
Questionnaire
Observation
Literature review
Mathematical
computation
18
19
20
3.2.1.2 Climate
The climatic condition of Coco Beach is as other part of Dar es Salaam is characterized as hot
and humid coastal tropical climate with high day and night temperatures with an annual mean
maximum of 30.5 0C and annual average of 210C.
Also, it is further characterized by high humidity range in between 60 73% and heavy rainfall
of above 1000mm per year. There are two rain seasons, the long rainy season spines from March
to May, and short season of November to December.
3.2.1.3 Vegetation
Despite the presence of attractive sand and rocks Coco Beach is also comprises of Pioneers
(grasses), shrub and trees. There are many shrubs around Coco Beach and they consist of
grasses, Prosopis (Karuvai) and Cacti (Kalli) and some trees. Trees that are found in Coco beach
are Borosus (Toddy Palm/ Pana maram), Tamarindus indica (Tamarind tree and coconut trees.
3.2.1.4 Population
The population at Coco Beach is not fixed. It is highly populated during holidays and weekends.
Also in Coco Beach number of people starts to be high around noon to the evening but number
of people is very small during weekdays and in the morning.
3.2.2 KAWE BEACH
3.2.2.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach
Kawe beach is local beach in which many people who came there are living near the beach (Kaw
end Mikocheni). Kawe beach has an approximately area of 5 hectares and is found beside Mwai
Kibaki Road. Kawe Beach is bordered with Mbezi beach in the Northern part, Indian Ocean in
Eastern part, Kawe (Tanganyika packers) in Western part and Mikocheni in the Southern part.
Consider figure 3.2 map of Kawe beach.
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22
3.2.2.2 Climate
The climatic condition of Kawe Beach is characterized as hot and humid coastal tropical climate
with high day and night temperatures with an annual mean maximum of 30.5 0C and annual
average of 210C.
It is further characterized by high humidity range in between 60 73% and heavy rainfall of
above 1000mm per year. There are two rain seasons, the long rainy season spines from March to
May, and short season of November to December.
3.2.2.3 Vegetation
Kawe beach is composed of with the grasses, trees and small shrubs. The main trees that are
found at Kawe beach is Neem tree (Azadirachta indica), and grasses found in this beach is
Poaceae or Gramineae, small shrubs which consists of grasses and small growing trees.
3.2.2.4 Population
The population at Kawe Beach is not fixed. It is highly populated during holidays and weekends.
Also in Kawe Beach number of people starts to be high around noon to the evening but number
of people is very small during weekdays and in the morning.
3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION
Different locations were selected in order to collect sample (water and sand) from the beach.
Global Position System (GPS) were used to locate the points (coordinates) where the samples
were taken. The sample sites were selected based on the zones of the beaches, a favorite place
for children, a populated area during beach visit, presence of channel entering the ocean and
presence of restaurant/bar. Also the water samples were taken in order to compare its quality to
the beach sand. Consider appendix 5 describing the reason for selecting sample locations in both
case studies.
3.4 BEACH SAND SAMPLE COLLECTION
Samples were collected from different zones (nearshore, foreshore, subtidal zone and intertidal
zone) at the beach (figure 2.1). Different factors were considered in developing a sand sampling
strategy (e.g., distance from the waterline, depth, and timing of sample collection).
The samples of sand were taken in a depth of a least 10cm. A sterilized foil and spatula were
used to collect sand samples from beach and sterilized bottle were used to take water samples.
Samples were taken in three consecutive Wednesdays morning of May, 2016. Consider appendix
6 and 7 and figure 3.3 and 3.4 showing coordinates of sampling location and sampling points in
Coco Beach and Kawe Beach respectively, and plate 3.1 sampling collection.
23
24
25
(a)
(b)
(c)
Plate 3.1: Sampling of (a) beach sand (b) ocean water and (c) collected beach sand and ocea
water samples
3.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS
3.5.1 Physical parameter measurement of beach sand and water
The physical parameters involves pH, salinity, conductivity and total dissolved solid (TDS). The
device which is used to measure physical parameters (salinity, conductivity and total dissolved
solid (TDS)) is known as electrode meter and pH were measured by pH meter.
In case of beach sand, sample were dried in the oven of 105 oC for 24 hours, then 20g of dried
sample was measured by using beam balance and kept in the beaker and 20ml of distilled water
were added and mixed for at least 1minute. The mixture was left for 20minutes before starting
the measurement of pH, conductivity and salinity.
Sample of water were poured into the beaker and directly measuring the pH, salinity,
conductivity and total dissolved solid (TDS). Consider plate 3.2 and plate 3.3
26
(a)
(b)
27
(a)
(b)
28
(a)
(b)
29
(a)
(b)
Plate 3.6: (a) Drying of sand and (b) Grinding dried sample
30
31
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 COCO BEACH
4.1.1 Frequency of visiting Coco Beach
According to the questionnaire analysis, the frequency in which people visit Coco Beach is as
26% visit twice a month, 50 % thrice a month and 50 % visit Coco Beach more than three times
a month. Consider figure 4.1 of frequency of visiting Coco Beach and plate 4.1. This shows that
many people have the tendency of visiting Coco beach repeatedly but number of people going to
beach is very high during holidays and weekends.
Twice
26%
> Thrice
24%
Thrice
50%
32
1%
32%
19%
Swimming
Sitting/Sleeping
16%
32%
Burying
Walking
Other
33
(a)
(b)
Plate 4.2: (a) Children sitting and playing on sand (b) Children burying body in the sand
4.1.3 Cleanliness of Coco Beach
According to the questionnaire analysis the cleanliness of beach is as 54% respondent said that
the cleanliness of beach is poor, 46% of respondent said the cleanliness of Coco beach is good
but no one said that the beach is very clean. This is due to the scatter of solid waste on the beach
sand, water weeds and other unwanted materials. Poor cleanliness of beach may lead to the
existence microorganisms into the beach sand and make sand to be unsuitable for recreation,
consider the figure 4.3.
Poor
54%
Good
46%
34
22%
Very Good
78%
Good
Poor
Plate 4.3: People swimming in water that contain waterweed at Coco Beach
35
Good
66%
Very Good
34%
Yes
24%
No
76%
36
To the toilet
13%
6%
16%
27%
In the
Shrub/Grass
es
In th Water
38%
On the
Beach Sand
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.7: (a) Place to urinate or defecate and (b) Plate 4.4: Toilet at Coco beach
4.1.7 Solid waste management at Coco Beach
4.1.7.1 Source of solid waste at Coco Beach
Solid wastes at Coco Beach is the result of services provided, waste left by beachgoers, water
weeds, solid materials from the ocean and solid matters from runoff or wind blowing.
4.1.7.2 Type of solid waste
The main type of solid waste that available at Coco Beach are plastic bottles, glass bottle,
coconut shells, medicine bottles, pesticides can, nylons, water weeds and tree/grass limbs.
Consider plate 4.5 showing solid waste of different types.
37
24%
76%
Dustibin
On the
Sand/Shrub/Grasses
Other
38
(a)
(b)
Plate 4.6: (a) Solid waste accumulation and (b) Solid waste on the beach sand at Coco
Beach
4.1.8 Illness after Coco beach visit
Respondents were asked about being of any illness after visiting Coco beach and 70% said no
while 30% said yes (figure 4.9). The diseases that occur normally after beach visit are vomiting
and diarrhea.
Yes
35%
No
65%
39
> Thrice
34%
Twice
42%
Thrice
24%
24%
41%
Swimming
Sitting/Sleeping
Burying
5%
30%
Walking
Other
40
100%
Very Good
Good
Poor
41
Poor
100%
(a)
(b)
Plate 4.8: (a) Channel of wastewater from Kawe and (b) Water weeds at Kawe Beach
42
Good
37%
Poor
63%
No
100%
the water, 23% in the grasses or shrubs, 8% is other places like urinating on the plastic bottles
and 6% is in the toilet, consider figure 4.16.
8%
6%
23%
37%
26%
To the toilet
In the Shrub/Grasses
In th Water
On the Beach Sand
Other
0%
83%
Dustibin
17%
On the
Sand
Other
(a)
(b)
44
(a)
(b)
Plate 4.9: (a)Solid waste at channel from Mikocheni (b) Scattered solid waste at Kawe
beach
4.2.7 Illness after Kawe beach visit
Respondents were asked about being of any illness after visiting Kawe beach and 65% said no
while 35% said yes (figure 4.18). The diseases that occur normally after beach visit are vomiting
and diarrhea.
Yes
35%
No
65%
45
Both Kawe and Coco beach have high number of visitors during holidays and weekends
but Coco beach is larger and famous than Kawe beach, which make it more populated
during holidays and weekends compared to the Kawe beach.
From questionnaire analysis, it was observed that Coco Beach frequency of visitation is
as 26% visit twice a month, 50 % thrice a month and 50 % visit more than three times a
month while at Kawe Beach the frequency of visitors is as 42% visit twice a month,
24% thrice a month and 34% visit more than three times a month
According to questionnaire analysis activities that are occurring at Coco beach are as
19% of people swim, 16% of people bury their body on the sand and 1% of people do
other activities such as playing football, boxing etc.
According to the questionnaire, 41% of participants are walking, 30% of participants are
sitting/Sleeping, 24% of participant are swimming and 5% of participants are burying
bodies are activities that are happening at Coco beach.
The common activities that are happening at both beach are swimming, walking, sitting,
sleeping, burying body in the sand, playing football, boxing
According to the questionnaire analysis at Kawe beach, the cleanliness of y=Kawe beach
were observed to be poor since all respondents they both beach and ocean around Kawe
beach is not clean (poor).
Therefore, Coco beach is seemed to be clean compared to Kawe beach, but they are both
not clean since there is no respondent who said that Coco beach is very good in
cleanliness.
46
4.3.4 Sanitation
According to the questionnaire analysis at Coco beach 76% said there is no toilet or
shower and 24% said that there is toilet or shower. But according to the questionnaire
analysis at Kawe beach there is no toilet or shower in this beach.
In both there is no toilet or shower at investments (bar, hall, restaurant, etc) but in order
to use those services beachgoers must use their services.
Therefore, due to lack of public toilets visitors have the tendency to urinate or defecate in
the shrubs, grasses, on the beach sand, in the water and in the plastic bottles and throw
them around the beach.
The sources of solid wastes at Coco Beach and Kawe beach are services provided, waste
left by beachgoers, water weeds, solid materials from the ocean and solid matters from
runoff or wind blowing.
The main type of solid waste that available at Coco Beach and Kawe beach are plastic
bottles, glass bottle, coconut shells, medicine bottles, pesticides can, nylons, water weeds
and tree/grass limbs.
According to questionnaire analysis conducted at Coco beach 76% throw their solid
waste in the shrub, grasses or on the sand while at Kawe beach 83% throw their solid
waste on the beach sand and 17% store and collect their solid waste in the dustbins.
PH
50
40
Salinity, ppt
30
20
Total Dissolved
Solid (TDS), g/L
10
0
CCS1 CCS2 CCW KS1 KS2 KW KC1 KC2
Conductivity,
Ms/cm
Figure 4.19: Physical Parameter of beach sand and ocean water from Coco beach and
Kawe beach
47
4.1.1 pH
pH is the numeric scale which is used to specify the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 where by 7 is neutral, below seven is acidic and above 7 is alkaline.
Sand; In case of the soil, pH of 6.8 to 7.2 is near neutral range. Therefore the values of
pH of sand at Coco beach are 9.4 nearshore and 8.94 foreshore, and at Kawe beach are
9.4 nearshore and 9.2 foreshore as shown in appendix 1, which are both alkaline. These
imply that beach sand contain large amount of calcium (lime).
Seawater; pH of seawater is typically limited to range between 7.5 to 8.4. However there
is no accepted value of pH of seawater. Therefore, from appendix 1 the values of pH of
Coco beach are 8.6 which higher than accepted level of PH value and it suggest that Coco
beach seawater is alkaline. Also seawater around Kawe Beach has pH of 8.2 which is
ranging between the accepted levels of seawater pH value.
Channels; pH of two channels from Kawe (KC2) and Mikocheni (KC1) that entering
Kawe beach was measured and their values were 7.95 each. These channels increase the
concentration of alkaline substance into the marine system.
4.1.2 Salinity
Salinity is a measure of the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater also is the total amount
of salts in one kilogram of seawater. Consider appendix 1 of salinity results of beach sand and
ocean from both Coco beach and Kawe beach.
Sand; There is no a known standard of the value or range of salinity for a beach sand but
according to the measurement the salinity of beach at Coco beach were observed to be
7.5ppt at nearshore and 2.4ppt at foreshore. Also the results of salinity for Kawe beach
were 5ppt at nearshore and 2.7ppt at foreshore.
Seawater; The standard value of salinity of sea water is 35 ppt but normal range of ocean
salinity ranges between 33-37ppt. Then the obtained values of salinity of both beaches
(Coco and Kawe) are within the specified range which is 36.3ppt and 33.3ppt
respectively.
Channels; The channels KC1 and KC2 have salinity of 2.6ppt and 13.7ppt respectively.
These channels they also increase the salinity of seawater due to their discharge in the
ocean.
35,000mg/L (>35,000mg/L). The obtained value of TDS of both Coco and Kawe beach are
34.9g/L and 32g/L respectively, which are within the accepted level.
Also the TDS of channels KC1 andKC2 are 2.59g/L and 13.22g/L respectively.
4.1.4 Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of waters capability to pass electrical flow. It is directly related to the
concentration of ions in the water, where by the ions come from dissolved salts and inorganic
materials.
Sand; Again there is no standard value of conductivity of beach sand but according to the
measurements taken the values of conductivity of beach sand at Coco beach is 4.54
Ms/cm at near shore and 13.09 Ms/cm at fore shore. While at Kawe beach is 8.98 Ms/cm
in nearshore and 5.11 Ms/cm in foreshore.
Seawater; The standard value of seawater conductivity is 50 mS/cm. Therefore the 54.8
mS/cm for Coco beach and 50.8 mS/cm for Kawe beach are above standard value of
conductivity. This shows that the water from both beaches contain large amount of ions
of compound which imply the existence alkalinity and high concentration anions and
cations.
Channels; The existing channels at Kawe beach also have the conductivity of 4.89
mS/cm and 22.8mS/cm which also add the concentration of ions into the sea.
Sand
The microbial quality analysis at Coco beach suggest that there is large numbers of colonies at
location CC1, CC3, C4 and CC5 (Consider appendix 2A). Since location CC1 is high populated
by people during beach visit also its located near Coco beach investment sanitation facilities and
49
Counts/ml (x10)
temporary solid waste storage area. In case of location CC3 its place where runoff from Coco
beach investments and also there is an abandoned shower near, and CC4 and CC5 are another
favorite places where they are always populated during beach visit especially holidays and
weekends as shown on figure 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 of Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli results of
beach sand of Coco beach respectively.
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Analyisis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
6
5
Analyisis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
2
1
0
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
8
Counts/ml (x10)
7
6
5
Analyisis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
2
1
0
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
Seawater
Counts/ml (x10)
USEPA suggested that E.Coli or Enterococci organisms to be used instead of feacal coliform as
indicators of contamination, a geometric mean of five samples should not exceed 126 E.Coli per
100ml or 33 Enterococci per 100ml. A single sample should not exceed 235 E.Coli or 61
Enterococci per 100ml. Therefore, according to microbial analysis it is clear that seawater
around Coco beach is highly polluted (CC1 = 267 E.Coli per 100ml and CC2 = 200 E.Coli per
100ml) as shown on figure 4.23.
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CW1
CW2
Standard
Analysis 1
4
2
2.35
Analysis 2
2
2
2.35
Analysis 3
2
3
2.35
Counts/ml (x10)
over the world that ocean water are contaminated due to discharge of wastewater from treatment
plants, sewer outfall ad unauthorized discharge of wastewater.
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CC1
CC2
Analysis 1
2
1
Analysis 2
2
1
Analysis 3
1
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CC1
CC2
Analysis 1
3
6
Analysis 2
3
2
Analysis 3
3
5
Sand
The microbial quality analysis at Kawe beach suggest that there is large numbers of colonies at
location K1, K2, K3, K4 and K5 (Consider appendix 3A). Since location K1 and K4 are highly
populated by people during beach visit also K1 is located near Channel from Kawe and K3 is
near Kawe beach club. In case of location K2 and K5 are found at the channels from Kawe and
Mikocheni respectively while K4 and K6 are another favorite places where visitors seat, children
play during beach visit. Also consider figure 4.26, 4.27 and 4.28 illustrating the results of
Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli results for beach sand at Kawe beach.
52
14
Counts/ml (x10)
12
10
8
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
2
0
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
Counts/ml (x10^4)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
53
14
Counts/ml (x10)
12
10
8
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
4
2
0
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
Seawater
Again USEPA suggested that E.Coli or Enterococci organisms to be used instead of feacal
coliform as indicators of contamination, a geometric mean of five samples should not exceed 126
E.Coli per 100ml or 33 Enterococci per 100ml. A single sample should not exceed 235 E.Coli or
61 Enterococci per 100ml. Therefore, According to analysis it is clear that seawater around
Kawe beach is highly polluted (KW1 = 200 E.Coli per 100ml and KW2 = 233 E.Coli per 100ml)
as shown in figure 4.29.
12
Counts/ml (x10)
10
8
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
Standard
2
0
KW1
KW2
KC1
KC2
14
Counts/ml (x10)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
KW1
3
1
3
KW2
3
1
1
KC1
8
9
6
KC2
10
12
7
Channels
Counts/ml (x10^4)
These are channels KC1 and KC2 that enters Kawe beach from Kawe and Mikocheni
respectively. In laboratory analysis both water and sand from these channels seems to have very
large number of bacterial colonies which means they are highly polluted (consider appendix 2B),
and in one way or another these are source pollution to both beach sand and seawater.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
KW1
KW2
KC1
KC2
Figure 4.31: Shigella results for Ocean water at Kawe Beach and Channels at Kawe Beach
55
Concetration (mg/l) (x 10
Concentration of heavy metal from beach sand obtained as shown on figure 4.32. The sample sof
sand from beach (Kawe and Kawe) has very small concentration of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Cr,
Pb). Also heavy metals of seawater around Coco beach, Kawe beach and Channels that are
discharge water in the Kawe beach were measured and results are as shown in appendix 4 and
figure 4.33.. In the figure 4.30bseawater has high concentration of chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb)
in the Coco and Kawe beach and very small concentration of Zinc (Zn) and Cadmium (Cd). The
sources of heavy metals in ocean and beach sand are industrial wastewater discharge, treatment
plant effluents, and runoff (garages and roads).
5
4
3
2
1
0
Copper (Cu)
Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn)
Lead (Pb)
CC1
0.4
3
0.1
1
CC2
0.2
5
0.3
1.1
CC3
0.3
2
0.4
0.3
K1
0.1
3.5
0.2
0.2
K2
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.3
K3
0.2
1
0.2
0.1
Figure 4.32: Heavy metals concentration of beach sand of Coco beach and Kawe beach
56
Concentration, mg/l
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Copper (Cu)
Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
CC1
0.273
1.2
0.119
0.025
1.351
CC2
0.248
1.537
0.06
0.038
1.361
KW1
KW2
0.64
0.097
0.7
0.08
1.584
1.59
KC1
0.09
0.273
0.008
0
1.026
KC2
0.053
0.208
0.053
0.025
0.987
Figure 4.33: Heavy metals concentration of water of Coco beach and Kawe beach
4.7 IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS
Table 4.1: Summary of identified problems and suggested solution
IDENTIFIED PROBLEM
EXISTING
SUGGESTED MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
i) SANITATION PROBLEMS
- One Pit latrine and
Design of public shower and
other toilets at beach
toilet.
establishments.
Design of septic tank system.
Application
of
proper
hygienic
conditions
i.e.
proper cleanliness of toilets,
availability of clean water
_
Introduction of department
that will monitor and protect
beach.
Proper beach supervision and
protection.
Provision of education and
awareness to beach users on
protecting beach and public
57
health.
Poor
cleanliness
of -Mass campaign of
Regular cleanliness of beach.
beach (Refer figure 4.3, beach cleanliness of
4.4, 4.12, 4.13 and plate beach.
4.3, 4.7, 4.8).
ii) SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT PROBLEMS
Lack of supervision in
handling solid waste.
Introduction of department
that will monitor and protect
beach.
Proper beach supervision,
protection and handling of
solid waste.
Design of solid waste storage
containers.
iii)
Uncontrolled drainage
discharge into the
ocean (Consider plate
4.8(a) and 4.9 (a)).
Unauthorized
Monitoring
channels.
of
drainage
58
discharge
wastewater
ocean.
into
of
the
Uncontrolled
sewer
outfall and treatment
plant discharge.
standard of wastewater
from treatment plants and
industries.
Monitoring and proper
environmental protection
by responsible authority.
Compliance to the effluent
standard of wastewater
from treatment plants and
industries.
Monitoring and proper
environmental protection
by responsible authority.
KAWE BEACH
Data;
Data;
Tsed = 2 days
Tsed = 2 days
Q = 20 l/cap/day
Q = 20/cap/day
Then,
Then,
Vsed = 40000m3
Vsed = 12000m3
Since the volume is too large but not all people will go to the toilet, therefore
Assume; Provide a septic tank of sedimentation volume of 8.33m3
2) V sludge acc= (Tst x N x C)m3
Where
Vsludge = Volume of sludge accumulation
Tst = Design Period (1-5 Years)
C = Sludge accumulation rate (0.04 - 0.09)
N = Number of visitors
60
COCO BEACH
KAWE BEACH
Data;
Data;
Tst = 5 Years)
Tst = 5 Years)
C = 0.065
C = 0.065
N = 1000people
N = 300people
Then,
Then,
Since the volume is too large design but not all people will go to the toilet, therefore
Provide a septic tank of sludge accumulation volume of 2 m3
Therefore, total volume of septic tank, V = 10.33m3
b) Depth of a septic Tank
Depth d = d + d
Where
d= Liquid depth (1.2-3m)
d= Free board (20-30cm)
Therefore; d = 2.075m and d = 25cm
c) Surface Area A =
2W2 = 4.9
Width, W = 1.56m 1.64m
Length, L = 3.1m 3m
Therefore, Actual dimension of septic tank are
Width, W = 1.64m
Length, L = 3m
Depth, D1 = 2.1m and D2 = 1.85m
Surface area, A = 4.92m2
Volume = 10.33m3
e) Soakage Pit
Since, Soakage pit are commonly 2-5 m deep with a diameter of 1.0-2.5 m. The capacity should
be not less than that of the septic tank.
= /
Aeff = Dheff
Where
A = Effective area of Infiltration/percolation
eff
Width, W = 1.64m
Length, L = 3m
62
Soakage pit;
Diameter, D = 2.5m
Depth = 1.5m.
Volume, V = 29.45m3
ii) During weekends (Friday, Saturday, Sunday) also there high solid waste.
iii) Generation of solid waste is small.
Therefore, solid waste will transported twice in a week but during holiday solid waste must be
transported to the disposal site to avoid accumulation.
4.8.3.4 Disposal of wastes
Solid waste after being collected at collection point will be taken to disposal site (Dump site) or
other disposal site.
4.8.3.5 Summary of solid waste management design
64
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Beaches are among of attractive recreational area that exists in the world. Different
activities are done at the beaches such as walking, sitting, sleeping, burying body on the
sand and other activities are swimming, surfing, sports and game. Also beaches can be
used for picnic, concert and camping. But due to this study beach sand has been found to
be unsuitable for recreation purposes due to poor cleanliness of beach and ocean, poor
sanitation facilities and systems at the beaches and poor solid waste management system.
The cleanliness of both beach, ocean and investment were assessed and the result shows
that cleanness of the both beaches (Kawe and Coco beach) do not satisfy beachgoers
since 54% said cleanliness of Coco beach is poor and 100% of respondent said the
cleanliness of Kawe beach is poor and, 78% of respondent at Coco beach said cleanliness
of ocean is poor while all respondent in Kawe said the ocean is poor.
Also in Kawe beach there is no public toilet while in Coco beach there is one public toilet
which is very poor. This makes visitors to urinate or defecate in the shrubs (38% Coco
Beach and 23% Kawe Beach), grasses, ocean (27% Coco Beach and 26% Kawe Beach),
and beach sand (13% Coco Beach and 37% Kawe Beach) or urinate in the plastic bottles
and left them on the beach. Therefore, lack of proper sanitation facilities and cleanliness
of beach lead to the pollution of beach and pose health risk to the people who use the
beach.
Paucity of good and efficient solid waste management (76% throw on the shrub, grasses
or sand at Coco beach and 83% throw on sand at Kawe beach). This leads to scatter of
solid wastes in the beach and accumulation of collected solid may cause formation of
leachate and diffuse into the sand or in the ocean.
Microorganism is significant component of beach sand. According to the research
bacterial such as Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli have been isolated from different
location in both Coco beach and Kawe beach. The bacteriological density of colonies of
bacterial have been identified and differ in one position to another depending on the
activities, zones in the beach and existing situation in a particular beach. The
bacteriological densities in sand differ due to the exposure to the pollution.
Different heavy metals concertation has been extracted from beach sand samples and in
ocean water. But ocean water has higher concentration of heavy metals compared to the
heavy metal concentration in the beach sand. The sources of heavy metals into both
beach sand and ocean water are runoff, industrial wastewater discharge, municipal
wastewater and dissolving heavy metals concentration into the ocean.
Engineering solutions were provided in order to improve sanitation conditions and solid
waste management at the beaches. Such that a public toilet with a septic tank system were
65
designed (Consider appendix 8 and 9) and solid waste primary storage container
(Dustbin) of 0.06m3 capacity were provided in order to collect solid around the beach and
two collection points of 6m3 each were designed to collect solid waste before transported
to the disposal site.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The proposed engineering public toilet and septic tank system should be implemented by
municipal and local government so that the hygienic conditions at the beach will be
improved and remove the problem of open defecation.
The proposed solid waste management system should be applied in order to control the
scattering of solid waste materials around the beach and accumulation of collected solid
waste and transportation to the disposal area.
Department or agency that will be responsible for beach management, monitoring and
protection of beach should be initiated. This department or agency will be responsible for
monitoring seawater and beach sand quality (physical, bacteriological, biological and
chemical), management (solid waste and sanitation facilities) and protecting beaches
from pollution.
There should be use of simple method of cleaning the beaches such as sweeping or
aeration, but if possible high technological equipments or methods should be used to
clean beach sand such as beach sand nourishment, beach sand grooming.
Proper supervision should be provided to the people who visited the beach in order to
avoid pollution of beach ad proper use beach.
Sewer outfall and discharges from wastewater treatment facilities and industries should
be properly monitored in order to avoid or minimize amount pollution into the ocean and
beach sand.
Further studies should be done on assessing and identifying other microorganisms such as
vibrio spp. and fungi on beach sand.
Another researcher or student should study the concentration of heavy metals into the
water weeds and other plants found around the beaches.
Further study on the quantification of solid waste generation rate in commercial areas
(recreational areas i.e. beach) in Tanzania.
66
REFERENCES
1) Anl G. H., Yuksel Y and Cevik E. O., (2011). Determination of Longshore Sediment
Transport and Modelling of Shoreline Change, Sediment Transport, In Tech.
2) Bascom, W. N., (1951). Shoreline and Beach Characteristics: Manual of Amphibious
Oceanography, Office of Naval Research.
3) Christopher D. H., (2008). Contact with beach sand and risk of illness, Chapel Hill.
4) Coastal Management Branch, (2005). Adelaides Living Beaches. A Strategy for 2005
2025, Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
5) Coastal Engineering Solutions, (2004). Coastal Processes Study of Adelaide Beaches,
prepared for the Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
6) Coastal planning and management manual, (2003). Coastal Planning and Management
Manual. A community guide for protecting and conserving the Western Australian coast.
Albert Facey House, 469 Wellington Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000.
7) Conseil Suprieur dHygine Publique de France., (1990). Qualit microbiologique des
sables: essai dun nouveau prcd de dsinfection. (Microbiological quality of sea sand: a
trial of a new disinfection protocol.), Paris.
8) Hepner T., (2007). 10th Grade Young Geoscientists Guidebook for Geoscience Field Trip to
Mustang Island, Texas
9) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2001). Third Assessment Report Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC, Geneva.
10) McInnes K. L, Suppiah R, Whetton P. H, Hennessy K. J and Jones R. N., (2003). Climate
Change in South Australia: Assessment of Climate Change, Impacts and Possible
Adaptation Strategies Relevant to South Australia, Climate Impact Group, CSIRO
Atmospheric Research, report to the Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
11) Mendes B., Urbano P., Alves C., Morais J., Lapa N., Oliveira J. S., (1998). Fungi as
environmental microbiological indicators. Water Science and Technology.
12) Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)., (2014). Sources of Beach Water Pollution,
Testing the Waters; 24th edition
13) Nestor I., Costin L. L., Sovrea D., Ionescu N., (1984). Detection of enteroviruses in sea
water and beach sand. Zentralblatt fr Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene Abteilung.
14) Roses Codinachs M., Vins I. A., Escobar F. M., Fernandez P. F., (1988). Microbiological
contamination of the sand from the Barcelona city beaches. Revista de Sanidad e Higiene
Publica.
15) Solo-Gabriele H. M., Harwood V. J., Kay D., Fujioka R. S., Sadowsky M., Whitman R. l.
and Andrew W., (2015). Beach sand and the potential for infectious disease transmission:
observations and recommendations.
16) World Health Organization (WHO)., (2003). Guidelines for safe recreational water
environments, volume 1: coastal and fresh waters.
67
APPENDECES
68
PH
Salinity, ppt
CCS1
CCS2
CCW
KS1
KS2
KW
KC1
KC2
9.4
8.94
8.6
9.4
9.2
8.2
7.95
7.95
7.5
2.4
36.3
5
2.7
33.3
2.6
13.7
Total Dissolved
Solid (TDS), g/L
34.9
32
2.59
13.22
Conductivity,
Ms/cm
4.54
13.09
54.8
5.11
8.98
50.8
4.89
22.8
69
Dilution
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
104
104
104
104
104
104
0.01
0
0.02
0
0
0
4
3
2
2
5
1
0.03
0.01
0.07
0
0
0
0.03
0
0.01
0.01
0
0
6
1
7
1
3
2
0.02
0
0.02
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0
0
5
2
4
6
2
1
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0
0
Total
number of
Colonies
(Counts
SD)
15.111.0
6.031.6
13.172.5
9.112.6
10.011.5
4.010.6
B: Table 2: Water samples bacteriological count on Salmonella-Shigella Agar for Coco Beach.
Sample
Dilution
Total
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
number of
Colonies
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
(Counts
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
SD)
4
CC1
10
0.02 3 0.04 0.02 3
0.02 0.01 3 0.02 9.13 0.02
4
CC2
10
0.01 6 0.02 0.01 2 0.02 0.01 5 0.03 13.12.1
Where B is Colonies of black colour at the center, C is Colonies of colorless and P is Colonies of
Pink colour, also B stands for Salmonella Colonies, C stands for Shigella and P stands for E.coli.
70
Dilution
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
104
104
104
104
104
104
0.01
0.01
0
0
0.09
0
3
6
2
1
8
3
0.02
0.12
0.06
0.01
0.04
0
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.13
0
1
9
4
2
8
1
0.02
0.09
0.02
0.02
0.11
0
0.01
0.03
0.02
0
0.10
0
3
5
1
1
6
2
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.12
0
Total
number
of
Colonies
(Counts
SD)
7.11.2
20.32.1
7.122.0
4.050.6
22.71.2
6.0 1
Total
Bacterial
Density
(Counts)/
ml
2 x 106
7 x 106
2 x 106
1 x 106
7 x 106
2 x 106
B: Table 2: Water samples bacteriological count on Salmonella-Shigella Agar for Kawe beach.
Sample
Dilution
Total
Total
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
number of Bacterial
Colonies
Density
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
(Counts (Counts)/
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
SD)
ml
4
KW1
10
0.03 2 0.02 0.01 4 0.02 0.03 2 0.02 8.131.1
3 x 106
KW2
104
0.03 1 0.03 0.01 5 0.02 0.01 3 0.02 9.12 2.0 3 x 106
KC1
104
0.08 8 0.05 0.09 6 0.07 0.06 6 0.09 20.441.1 7 x 106
Where B is Colonies of black colour at the center, C is Colonies of colorless and P is Colonies of
Pink colour, also B stands for Salmonella Colonies, C stands for Shigella and P stands for E.coli.
71
CC1
CC2
KW1
KW2
KC1
KC2
0.09
0.053
Lead (Pb)
1.351
1.361
1.584
1.590
1.026
0.987
Table 2: Heavy metal concentration of sand samples from Coco Beach and Kawe Beach
Sample
CC1
CC2
CC3
K1
K2
K3
Chromium (Cr)
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.035
0.012
0.010
Zinc (Zn)
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.002
0.004
0.002
Lead (Pb)
0.01
0.011
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.001
72
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
Table 2: Reasons for selecting the beach sand sampling locations at Kawe Beach.
Sample location
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
73
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
Prominent mark
Favorite place 1
At Coco Beach Bar
At shower and runoff
Favorite place 2
Favorite place 3
At the shrub
GPS location
N
9252743
9252653
9252574
9252443
9252264
9251451
0531153
0531130
0531092
0531082
0531073
0531201
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
Prominent mark
Football ground
At channel from Kawe
At Kawe Club
Favorite place 1
At channel from Mikocheni
At backshore
GPS location
N
9255744
9255754
9255650
9255524
9255421
9255332
0526397
0526367
0526403
0526431
0526429
0526483
74
APPENDIX 7: QUESTIONAIRES
a) Individual Questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO BEACH AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Date
1) How often are you visiting beach per month?
a) Twice
b) Thrice
c) Above thrice
2) How do you see the cleanliness of beach sand?
1. Very good
2. Good
3. Poor
3) How do you see the cleanliness of bar/restaurant adjacent to beach?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
4) How do you see the cleanliness of ocean?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
5) Are there any showers or toilets in this beach?
a) Yes
b) No
6) Where do you dispose solid waste in this beach?
a) Dustbins
75
b) On the sand
c) Other specify..
7) Where do you urinate or defecate while you are in this beach?
a) To the toilet
b) In the shrub/grasses
c) In the water
d) On the beach sand
e) Other specify.
8) What activities are you doing on the beach sand?
a) Sitting/sleeping
b) Burying body in the sand
c) Walking
d) Other specify
9) Is there any illness that you get after contact with beach sand?
Yes or No, if YES what illnesss
a) ..
b)
10) How important would you say the beach is to you?
..
11) Are you proud of this beach in terms of cleanliness and health?
Yes or No, if YES why?
12) Do you encourage friends / family from other area to visit this beach?
Yes or No, if YES why?
.
76
b) Authority questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
BEACH MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Designation
Date
a) GENERAL
1) Is there any plan for managing and monitoring this beach?
a) Yes
b) No
2) Do you control pedestrian movement, animal (dog, horse) walking or vehicles use?
a) Yes
b) No
3) How do you see the cleanliness of beach sand?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
4) How do you see the cleanliness of bar/restaurant adjacent to beach?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
77
.
.
.
3) In the case of off-site sanitation is there any sewer system for conveying sewage to the
waste stabilization ponds or treatment plants?
a) Yes
b) No
4) If YES, How much do you pay for the service of discharging waste water to the sewer?
5) In case of on-site sanitation, what type of on-site sanitary facility do you use?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
..
..
..
..........................................................................................
3. How do you manage storm water from other catchment area and runoff to the beach sand and
ocean? ..
4. If YES, what is the type of drainage system used?
a) Open channel
b) Close channel
5. Condition of the storm water drainage channels (Line/ Unlined)..
6. Is there a common place for storm water collection?
a) Yes
b) No
.
..
80
c) Establishments Questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
ESTABLISHMENT AROUND BEACH (BAR) QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Designation..
Date
a) SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1) Common solid waste produced
a) Food remains
b) Plastics and nylons
c) Paper materials
d) Metals (empty cans)
e) Bottles
2) What is the generation rate per day?
........................................................................................
3) How do you store your solid wastes before disposal?
a) Sacks
b) Bucket/dustbins
c) Boxes
d) Others (specify).
4) What is the capacity of your storage facility?
a) Less than 20L
81
b) >20 50L
c) More than 50L
5) For how long does it get full?
a) Once a day
b) Twice a week
c) Thrice a week
d) Others (specify)..
6) How do you dispose your solid wastes?
a) Burning
b) Burying
c) Transported by trucks to the municipal waste disposal
7) What challenges are facing you in solid waste management?
.
.
.
..
..
b) No
.
83