Construction

Dr.
Riad Al Wardany
Surveying
Measurement
CIVE 310
1. ..
2.
Lecture 1
Surveying Fundamentals
Riad Al Wardany, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
R. Al W ardany, Ph.D.
Measurement = process of estimating or

determining the magnitude of a quantity,
such as length or mass, relative to a unit of
measurement, such as a meter or a
kilogram.
The term measurement can also be used
to refer to a specific result obtained from
the measurement process.
The word measurement is derived from
the Greek word "metron," which means a
limited proportion.
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What is Surveying?
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2.
What is Surveying?
Surveying (also called

geomatics) = science, art
and technology of
determining the relative
positions of points 1)
above, on, or beneath the
earths surface, or 2) of
establishing such points
(geometry).
The word geometry is
derived from the Greek
meaning earth
measurements.
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2.
The distances may be horizontal or vertical in

direction.
Similarly, the angles may be measured in a
horizontal or vertical plane.
Usually distances are measured on a

slope, but they must eventually be
converted to a corresponding horizontal
distance.
Vertical distances are also called elevations.
Horizontal angles are used to express the
directions of land boundaries and other lines.
Surveying involves the measurement of

distances and angles.
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What is Surveying?
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2.
Why Surveying is Needed?
There are two fundamental purposes for

measuring distances and angles:
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2.
The first is to determine the relative positions of

existing points or objects on or near the
surface of the earth.
The second is to lay out or mark the desired
positions of new points or objects that are to be
placed or constructed on or near the earths
surface.
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CIVE310, 2011
Surveying has led to:

Map of the earth above and below sea level (e.g. Google
maps, Google earth).
Navigation charts.
Property boundaries of lands.
Data banks of land-use and natural resources.
Important role in construction: building, bridges, tunnels,

canals, highways, railroads, sewage systems, drinking water
distribution systems, pipelines, etc.
Only very small errors can be tolerated in surveying need
to understand the different sources of errors and how to
reduce these errors.
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Basis of Surveying
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2.
Types of Surveys
Basis of surveying:
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2.
Surveying is based on the use of precise

measuring instruments in the field and on
systematic computational procedures in the
office.
The computations (primarily of position,
direction, area, and volume) involve
applications of geometry, trigonometry, and
basic algebra.
Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and

vertical monuments that serve as a reference framework for
initiating other surveys.
Topographic surveys determine locations and elevations of
existing natural and artificial features used in map making.
Land, boundary and cadastral surveys establish property
lines and property corner markers.
Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes,
streams, oceans, reservoirs. Sea surveying is associated
with port and offshore industries.
Alignment surveys used to align construction of highways,
railroads, pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction surveys provide line, grade, elevations,
horizontal positions, dimensions, data for computing
quantities.
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Types of Surveys
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2.
Surveying Instruments
As-built surveys document the precise final locations and

layouts of engineering works and record any design
changes (important for underground buried facilities).
Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to
guide tunneling and mining operations.
Ground surveys utilise measurements made with groundbased equipment such as automatic levels and total station
instruments.
Aerial surveys are accomplished using either
photogrammetry or remote sensing.
Satellite surveys determine ground locations from
measurements made using GPS receivers, or sattelite
images.
1. ..
2.
Measuring tape: measures horizontal and

slope distances.
Steel tape
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1. ..
2.
Theodolite:
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2.
Total station:
Measures angles in the

horizontal and vertical
planes and establishes
straight lines.
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CIVE310, 2011
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
1. ..
2.
Total station: measures angles and

distances from the instrument to other
points actual position/coordinates.
Can measure distances up to about
1000 m.
Stores and processes data.
1. ..
2.
Electronic Distance Measuring Device

(EDM): same as total station but it
measures distances only.
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1. ..
2.
Level and rod: measures the difference in

elevations between points.
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2.
GPS (Global Positioning System): gives

point position.
GPS
receiver
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Remote Sensing
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2.
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2.
Global
Positioning
System (GPS)
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CIVE310, 2011
= measurement of distances and elevations using

devices located above the earth.
Most commonly remote sensing method =
photogrammetry.
Photogrammetry = science of obtaining accurate
and reliable information through measurements
and interpretation of photographs (taken from
airplane).
Fast and economical for large projects but
expensive for small ones.
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Remote Sensing
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2.
Geographic Information System
Vertical aerial photographs = photographs

taken from an airplane with the camera
axis at a near vertical position.
1. ..
2.
Geographic
Information
Systems
(GIS) =
computer
system that
capture,
store,
visualize,
analyze and
manage
data linked
to the earth
(layers of
information
Schematic illustration of mapping layers used in

GIS technology.
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Geographic Information System
Geodetic and Plane Surveys
1. ..
2.
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2.
In geodetic survey the curved surface of

the earth is considered by performing the
computations on an ellipsoid (i.e. precise).
Used to determine locations of widely
spaced monuments. These monuments
serve as the basis for referencing other
subordinate surveys.
Nowadays, GPS can provide the needed
positions with a great accuracy, speed and
economy.
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1. ..
2.
In plane survey, except for leveling, the reference

base for fieldwork and computation is assumed to
be a flat horizontal surface :
1. ..
2.
The direction of a plumb line is considered to be parallel

throughout the survey region.
All observed angles are assumed to be plane angles.
On a curved surface,
the sum of the angles
in a triangle is more
than 180.
On a line of 8 km, the ellipsoidal arc and chord

length differ by 6 mm the earths surface can
be approximated as a plane to simplify
computations (except in surveys covering
extensive areas such as national boundaries
determination).
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Units of Measurement
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2.
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2.
We measure lengths, areas, volumes and angles

Metric system = international system (SI).
English system: 1ft = 0.3048 m; 1 in = 2.54 cm.
Geodetic survey
Plane survey
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1. ..
2.
Distance:
1 m = 1/10,000,000 of the length of the earths meridian through

Paris from the equator to the pole (French definition, 1790).
1 m = the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299,792,458 sec (General Conference on Weights and
Measures, 1983).
Metric Prefixes
1. ..
2.
Angles: an angle is simply a figure formed by the intersection of

two lines.
Degrees (1 = 1/360 circle = 60; 1 = 60), Minutes, and Seconds

Grads (1/400 circle)
Radians (2 rad = circle = 360 )
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)

1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meter
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meter
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 meter
1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm
Area
Volume
Conversion to SI Metric
The designation A-BC or A-CB shows which of the two

angles at point A is being measured or referred to.
Clockwise rotation is generally assumed. To simply
write angle A is usually not sufficient.
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Significant Figures
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2.
Significant Figures
Significant figures = number of digits recorded = indication of

accuracy.
For example: a distance measured with a tape whose smallest

graduations are 0.01 m and recorded = 50.23 m is said to have
four (4) significant figures; in this case the first three (3) digits are
certain, and the last is rounded off and is therefore questionable,
but still significant.
Two significant figures: 24, 2.4, 0.24, 0.0024, 0.020
Three significant figures: 364, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240

Four significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621, 24.00
1. ..
2.
What about the number 2400 (for example)?

2400 or 2.400 x (10) 3 4 significant figures.
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CIVE310, 2011
In computation operations (+, -, x and ) the number of significant

figures given in the answer must be consistent with the number of
significant figures in the data.
In + and operations: the rightmost significant digit in the answer
should be in the same column of the (leftmost [rightmost significant
digit]) in the data:
46.7418
+ 1.03
+375.0
422.7718
Answer 422.8

378
2.1
375.9
Answer 376
-
In x and : the number of significant figure in the answer should

be equal to the least number of significant figures in any of the
data: 362.56 x 2.13 = 772.2428, Answer 772
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Rounding off Numbers

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2.
Field Notes
When the digit to be dropped is < 5, the number is written without

the digit:
1. ..
2.
If we need to round of f 78.374 to 4 f igures 78.37

Survey Crew:
Group leader: responsible about the whole work.
When the digit to be dropped is > 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by 1:
Field notes can be hand written or elecronically collected.
Instrument operator: operation and care of the instrument.

Survey assistance: perform taping and carry the rods and prisms.
Field Books
When the digit to be dropped is = 5, the nearest even number is

used for the preceding digit
Bound books
If we need to round 78.375 to 4 f igures 78.38

If we need to round 78.365 to 4 f igures 78.36
Loose leaf
books
Important: round should only be done on the final answer, not in

the intermediate computations.
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Field Notes
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2.
Field Notes
Include name and address in the first page.
Right pages are kept for the sketches.

Pages should be numbered.
Should show project name, number, weather, date, used

instruments at the first page of the project (lab).
Field Notes should be:

CAN = Complete, Accurate and Neat
1. ..
2.
Data collectors:
More information
in pages 35 and
36 of your
textbook
Filled in the field.

Copied pages should be marked Copy
Sketches should be used whenever necessary.
Always check arithmetic calculations.

Dont erase mistakes, line them out.
Sketches shouldnt be freehand (it should be to scale).
Various data collectors that are used in the field.
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Errors in Measurements
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2.
Mistakes
No measurement can be perfect or exact because

of the physical limitations of the measuring
instruments as well as limits in human perception.
Error (E) = observed value for a quantity which
can be distance, level or angle (X) - its true value
(X).
The true value is never known the exact error
is always unknown.
1. ..
2.
Blunders:
A blunder is a significant mistake caused by human error.
It may also be called a gross error.
Caused by misunderstanding the problem, carelessness,
fatigue, missed communication or poor judgment.
Example: recording 73.96 instead of the correct value
73.69.
Reading an angle clockwise and recording it as
anticlockwise.
The word error discussed in this lecture does not

include blunders; those should be detected by
careful and systematic checking of the work
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CIVE310, 2011
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Sources of Errors
1. ..
2.
Types of Errors
Nature: variations in wind, temperature (e.g.

length of a steel tape varies with temperature),
humidity, atmospheric refraction, gravity, and
magnetic declination.
Instrument: imperfection in the instrument,
movement of individual parts, calibration.
Person: limitation of human senses and sight.
1. ..
2.
Two types:
Systematic errors (biases, or cumulative errors):
Result from all the elements of the measuring system such as
the environment, instrument and observer.
A correction can be computed (by calibration) and applied to
the observed values (e.g. change of steel tape length due to
change in temperature can be simply corrected).
Random (accidental) errors: are those that remain in measured
values after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated.
There is no way to compute or eliminate them.
But, they can compensate themselves(+,-), and this is why we
call them compensating errors.
If surveyor is skilled and careful, random error will not be
significant.
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Precision and Accuracy

1. ..
2.
Discrepancy = difference between 2 observed values of the

same quantity.
Precision = degree of refinement with which the
measurement is made; evaluated on the bases of
discrepancy size degree of perfection used in the survey
Accuracy = relation between measured value and true value
Degree of perfection used in the results.
(a)
(b)
Results are
precise but not
accurate
Results are
neither precise
nor accurate
1. ..
2.
Examples in surveying:
If refined/precise methods are used and readings are taken
carefully, but there are instrumental errors in the measuring
device, and corrections are not made for them the survey
(results) will not be accurate (precision in taking the
measurements but no accuracy in results).
Sometimes rough observations (no precision) may lead to
results that appear to be accurate. For example, the angles
of a triangle may be read to only the nearest degree (low
precision) and yet produce a sum of 180 or a zero
misclosure error!.
(c)
Results are
precise and
accurate
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1. ..
2.
Eliminating Mistakes and Errors
Error of closure = difference between the measured value

and the theoretically correct value. Theoretically correct
value can be determined from repeated measurement
and/or mathematical analysis. This error is due to random
error.
Accuracy ratio = ratio of error of closure to the measured
distance. Accuracy ratio error
True value
Example: measured distance = 250.56
actual = 250.50
Accuracy ratio
0.06
1
1
250.50 4175 4200
1. ..
2.
Use standardized repetitive field procedure to minimize the

possibility to make mistakes.
Identify possible mistakes (detect to correct) by:
Comparing several observations of the same quantity.
Using commonsense.
Example: observations of a distance were: 567.91, 576.95, 567.90,
567,88 and 567.93.
Repeat the observation when mistake is detected, or

discard the mistaken value if you have sufficient number of
observations.
Calculate systematic errors and apply corrections to
observations.
Expressed an 1/ a, number rounded to closest 100

Typical ratio: 1/5000, 1/3000, 1/10,000, 1/20,000
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Most Probable Value
Residuals
Residuals (can be calculated) are theoretically identical to

errors (cannot be calculated because true values are never
known).
residuals rather than errors are used in the analysis and
adjustment of survey data.
s
n
o
i
t
a
v
r
e
s
b
o
f
o
r
e
b
m
u
n
l
a
t
o
t
n
Residual = most probable value observed value:
1. ..
2.
s
t
n
e
m
e
r
u
s
a
e
m
l
a
u
d
i
v
i
M
d
ni
n
M
For a quantity that was observed a number of times using

the same equipment and procedure, the most probable
value in this case is the arithmetic mean:
1. ..
2.
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Occurrence of Random Errors

1. ..
2.
Consider data in Table 3.1 = 100 repetitions of an angle

observation.
Assume theses observations free from mistakes and
systematic errors.
Data in the table are rearranged in increasing order.
Column 1 = observation; Column 2 = number of occurrence;
Column 3 = computed residual using the most probable value.
To be able to visually analysing these data, histogram (= a bar
graph showing sizes of observations or their residuals versus
their frequency of occurrence) need to be prepared.
Choose a constant class interval to group residuals within it in
function with the frequency of their occurrence.
Plot the histogram.
Bell shape normally distributed group of errors.
1. ..
2.
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1. ..
2.
1. ..
2.
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CIVE310, 2011
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany

1. ..
2.
Measures of Precision
The area between

ordinates constructed
at any 2 abscissas of a
normal distribution
curve = % probability
that an error of that
size exists.
Total area beneath a
normal distribution
curve = 1.
1. ..
2.
Sharper crest =
more precise
measurements
Less precise
measurements
Precision quality
can be estimated
from the shape of
the normal
distribution curve.
Abscissa width =
dispersion.
Dispersion
precisions .
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Measures of Precision
50, 90 and 95 % Errors
9
9
5
9
.
1
The 3 error represents limits within which the observations

should fall 99.7% of the time. It is used as a criterion to reject
individual observations, because any observation with a
residual > 3 is considered to be a mistake.
precision
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Error Propagation
Error propagates.
Error of a sum:
If a computed quantity z is such as:
1. ..
2.
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CIVE310, 2011
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Error Propagation
1. ..
2.
Called probable error,

represents limits within which the
observations should fall 50% of
the time.
Called 2 error represents limits within which the

observations should fall 95% of the time. As an example, a
particular project may call for the 95% error to be less than or
equal to a certain value for the work to be acceptable.
Standard deviation = location where the curve deviate from

concave downward to concave upward.
It gives the range of residuals that can be expected to occur
68.3% of the time.
5
9
9
4
4
6
.
1
0
9
0
5
5
4
7
6
.
0
= errors that have a 50, 90 and 95 % chance of occurring.
2 1
e
n
c
n
a
i
r
a
v
Precision can be expressed by standard deviation () and

variance.
1. ..
2.
E E E
1. ..
2.
Error of a series:
If a series of similar quantities such as angles within a
closed polygon (case of traverse) are read with each
observation being in error by about the same amount then:
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Dr. Riad Al Wardany
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
1. ..
2.
1. ..
2.
Error in a mean:
A mean = sum of a series of observations / number of
observations
Also:
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Error Propagation
1. ..
2.
Error Propagation
Error in a product:
If a computed quantity z is such as:
Z= A x B
1. ..
2.
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Dr.

Riad Al Wardany, Ph.D.

Measurement = process of estimating or

Surveying (also called

The distances may be horizontal or vertical in

Usually distances are measured on a

Surveying involves the measurement of

Why Surveying is Needed?

There are two fundamental purposes for

The first is to determine the relative positions of

Surveying has led to:

Important role in construction: building, bridges, tunnels,

Dr. Riad Al Wardany

Surveying is based on the use of precise

Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and

As-built surveys document the precise final locations and

Measuring tape: measures horizontal and

Measures angles in the

Dr. Riad Al Wardany

Total station: measures angles and

Electronic Distance Measuring Device

Level and rod: measures the difference in

GPS (Global Positioning System): gives

= measurement of distances and elevations using

Dr. Riad Al Wardany

Geographic Information System

Vertical aerial photographs = photographs

Schematic illustration of mapping layers used in

Geographic Information System

Geodetic and Plane Surveys

In geodetic survey the curved surface of

Geodetic and Plane Surveys

Geodetic and Plane Surveys

In plane survey, except for leveling, the reference

The direction of a plumb line is considered to be parallel

On a line of 8 km, the ellipsoidal arc and chord

Dr. Riad Al Wardany

Geodetic and Plane Surveys

We measure lengths, areas, volumes and angles

1 m = 1/10,000,000 of the length of the earths meridian through

Angles: an angle is simply a figure formed by the intersection of

Degrees (1 = 1/360 circle = 60; 1 = 60), Minutes, and Seconds

Radians (2 rad = circle = 360 )

1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)

The designation A-BC or A-CB shows which of the two

Significant figures = number of digits recorded = indication of

For example: a distance measured with a tape whose smallest

Three significant figures: 364, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240

What about the number 2400 (for example)?

In computation operations (+, -, x and ) the number of significant

2400 or 2.40 x (10) 3 3 significant figures.

In x and : the number of significant figure in the answer should

Dr. Riad Al Wardany

Rounding off Numbers

When the digit to be dropped is < 5, the number is written without

If we need to round of f 78.374 to 4 f igures 78.37

Field notes can be hand written or elecronically collected.

Instrument operator: operation and care of the instrument.

When the digit to be dropped is = 5, the nearest even number is

If we need to round 78.375 to 4 f igures 78.38

Important: round should only be done on the final answer, not in

Include name and address in the first page.

Right pages are kept for the sketches.

Should show project name, number, weather, date, used