HVAC Systems Primary Functions

}Temperature Control
~Cooling
~Heating

}Humidity Control
~Humidification
~Dehumidification

}Air Quality Control

~Ventilation
~Cleaning

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems Energy Considerations

Typical Energy Use in a Commercial Building

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Effi i t Use
Efficient
U off Energy
E
Requirements
R i
t

Q Optimum Energy Designs

Q Well
Well-Developed
Developed Energy Use Policies
Q Dedicated Management backed up by
Properly Trained and Motivated Operating Staff

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Minimum
Mi
i
G
Guidelines
id li
in
i Energy
E
Conservation, Design and Operation
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Efficient Design of New
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
ASHRAE Standard 100-1995, Energy Conservation in Existing
Buildings

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

T i l Building
Typical
B ildi Design
D i Heat
H t Losses
L
or Gains
G i
Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Some Relevant Energy/Emissions Statistics
Buildings account for:
39% of all the energy (36%)
71 % of all the electricity (66%)
12% of water consumption
used in the US
Emissions related to building energy use account for
40% of non-industrial waste
38% of CO2 emissions (35%)
>47 % of SO2 emissions
>22% of NOx emissions

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Annual Energy Use Per Unit Floor Area

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
10 years ago

Capital Cost Estimating Factors

Mechanical Engineering Department

Building
Costs

Energy Costs

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Schematic of a Typical Commercial Air-Conditioning System

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Elementary Air Temperature Control System

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Air Handler and Associated Controls for Simple Constant-Volume,
Single-Duct All-Air System

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Schematic of a Blow-Through Air Handler With Hot and Cold Decks
and Zone Dampers

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Simplified Control Schematic for a Constant-Volume reheat System

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Si lifi d Control
Simplified
C t l Schematic
S h
ti off a Single-Duct
Si l D t VAV S
System
t
Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Simplified Control Schematic of a Dual-Duct System

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems

Multi-Zone System With Hot

and Cold Plenum Reset

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Air-Water Induction Unit

From Central A/C Unit

Typically installed at
perimeter wall under
window or overhead

Hot or Chilled Water

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
T i l Fan-Coil
Typical
F C il Unit
U it

Air-Conditioned Air

Mechanical Engineering Department

Chilled Water or Brine/

Hot Water or Steam or
Electric Heater

Recycles Room Air, Cheapest Perimeter

System, Ventilation Provided Separately

HVAC Systems

Typical Air-Conditioning
Ventilator with Separate Coils

Mechanical Engineering Department

HVAC Systems
Schematic View of a Room Air-Conditioner

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Cooling and Heating Loads

Distinguishing features from other buildings
zSmaller Internal

Heat Gains

heat ggain or loss through

g structural components
p
air leakage or ventilation
small internal heat gains (occupants , lights)
zVaried

Use of Spaces
flexible
localized or temporary temperature excursions tolerable

zFewer

Zones.
Zones
single or few zones - one thermostat
Capacity cannot be redistributed as loads change over day

zGreater Distribution

Losses.
Losses

ducts are installed in unconditioned buffer spaces

require significant increase in unit capacity
di t ib ti gains/losses
distribution
i /l
cannott be
b neglected
l t d
Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Cooling and Heating Loads

Distinguishing features from other buildings
zPartial

Loads
systems use units of small capacity
~ 12,000 to 60,000 Btu/h cooling
~ 40,000 to 120,000 Btu/h heating
units mostly operate at partial load
oversized units are bad for system performance
(especially for cooling in areas of high WBT)

zDehumidification

Issues

dehumidification only when cooling unit operates

space condition control is driven by room thermostats
(sensible heat actuated)
excessive sensible capacity leads to short-cycling
and degraded dehumidification
Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Cooling and Heating Loads

Classification based on load profiles

zSingle-Family

Detached

zExposed

Walls in four directions

zSingle
Si l zone one thermostat
h
zTwo-story houses may have separate cooling systems per floor
zMultifamily
zExposed

Walls not in four directions (east/west exposure plays a role)

zOther

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Cooling and Heating Loads

Approaches

zHeating
zNo

solar or internal gains and no heat storage

zHeat losses
l
assumedd instantaneous
i
zCooling
zNeed

to take account of temperature swing via empirical data and models

zNon-residential methods lead to unrealistically high loads
zUse Residential Load Factor (RLF) method
From detailed residential heat balance (RHB) of prototyped buildings
over a range off climates.
li

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load Considerations

No solar, internal gains, heat storage (highest load
during early am)
z Heat losses assumed instantaneous
z Calculated for a normal
normal worst case
case condition
(indoor/outdoor design conditions, ventilation/infiltration)
z Estimate maximum probable heat loss per room
z

Transmission Losses (walls, floor, roof/ceiling,

fenestration/doors)
z Infiltration & Ventilation
z

If night thermostat set-back is used, may need excess

capacity .
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load Procedure

z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z

Outdoor design condition (temp., wind speed and dir.)

Indoor design condition (temp., humidity level)
T
Temps.
off adjacent
dj
t unconditioned
diti d spaces; Ground
G
d temp.
t
if
below grade
Estimate overall heat transfer coefficients for every
b
boundary
d
element
l
t
Estimate area of each boundary element
Compute heat transmission losses (Table 6-17)
Estimate infiltration and compute associated energy
Estimate required ventilation and compute associated
energy
Calculate the total heating load
Estimate pickup loads for intermittently heated buildings
or thermostat set-back.

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load Equations

Heating Load Factor

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load

Below-Grade
Below
Grade Surfaces

Mechanical Engineering Department

Heating Load Factor

Residential Heating Load

Below-Grade Surfaces Basement Walls

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load

Below-Grade Surfaces Basement Floors

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load

On-Grade Surfaces
Concrete Slab Floors
Unheated
Heated

Mechanical Engineering Department

Heating Load Factor

Residential Heating Load

On-Grade Surfaces Heat Loss Coefficient

Mechanical Engineering Department

Residential Heating Load

Infiltration Heat Losses
Sensible

L t t
Latent

Mechanical Engineering Department

On Infiltration
Estimation Methods
z

Air Change Method

zSimple
zHighly Empirical (performance of similar construction)

Mechanical Engineering Department

On Infiltration
Estimation Methods
z

Crack Method
z Requires estimation of indoor-outdoor pressure differences
z Wind Effect
z Stack Effect
z Pressurization
z Requires estimation of building envelope permeability and
associated crack characteristics.

Mechanical Engineering Department

On Infiltration
Estimation Methods
z

Estimation based on Effective Leakage Area

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Outdoor Weather Data
Figure 4-4 Climatic Design Information
z Table 4
4-77 Design Conditions by location
z Information is provided on two levels
zAnnual seasonal means
zMonthly means (to include seasonal variation)
z Often data is given in association with percentiles
z Warm Season 0.4, 1, 2 annual percentiles
z Cold Season 99.6, 99 annual percentiles
z 0.4,
0 4 2,
2 55, 10 monthly
thl percentiles
til
z Variable value at n% means that the value is
equaled
equa
ed oor eexceeded
ceeded n%
% of
o the
t e time.
t e.
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Outdoor
z Annual

Heating and Humidification Design Conditions

z Annual

Cooling, Dehumidification, and Enthalpy Design Conditions

Extreme Annual Design Conditions

Monthly Design Conditions

z

Temperatures, Degree-Days, and Degree-Hours

Monthly Design Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb, and Mean Coincident Temperatures

Mean Daily Temperature Range

Cl
Clear-Sky
Sk S
Solar
l IIrradiance
di

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Annual Heating and Humidification
Coldest Month ((1=January)
y)
z Heating, 99.6% and 99%: Dry-Bulb Temperature (DB)
z Humidification, 99.6% and 99%:
z Dew Point (DP)
For Humidification
z Humidity Ratio (HR)
Decisions
z Mean Coincident Dry Bulb Temperature (MCDB)
z Coldest Month,
Month 00.4%,
4% 1%:
z Wind Speed (WS) - mph
z Mean Coincident Dry Bulb Temperature (MCDB)
z For
F th
the 99
99.6%
6% DB value
l
z Mean Coincident Wind Speed (MCWS) - mph
z Prevailing Coincident Wind Direction (PCWD)
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Maximum
Heating
i Loadd
To Size
Equipment

Peak Loads
accounting for
Infiltration

Design Conditions
Annual Cooling,
g, Dehumidification,, and Enthalpy
py
z

Hottest Month (1=January)

z DB Range
g

Time that Maximum Sensible

Cooling Load occurs
For Cooling Load

Cooling, 0.4%, 1%, 2%:

z DB and Mean Coincident Wet Bulb Temperature (MCDB)

Evaporation, 0.4%, 1%, 2%:

z Wet Bulb Temperature (WB) and MCDB

For the 0.4 % DB value

z MCWS and
d PCWD

Sizing Chillers &

Air-Conditioners

Design of Cooling Towers,

Evaporative Coolers, Fresh-Air
Ventilation Systems

Estimates of Peak Loads accounting for Infiltration

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Annual Cooling,
g, Dehumidification,, and Enthalpy
py

H idit Control
Humidity
C t l Applications
A li ti
zDehumidification,

0.4%, 1%, 2%:

z DP, HR, MCDB

Desiccant Dehumidification,
Cooling-based Dehumidification
Fresh-Air Ventilation Systems
System Analysis at Partial-Load Conditions

Enthalpy,
py 0.4%, 1%, 2%:
z Enthalpy (Btu/lb) and MCDB

Number of Hours between 8am and 4pm with 55F

55F<DB<69F
DB 69F

Mechanical Engineering Department

Useful for Cooling Load related

to Infiltration and/or Ventilation

Design Conditions
Extreme Annual Design Conditions
Used for Smoke
Management Systems
S stems

Extreme Annual WS, 1%, 2.5%, 5%

z Extreme Maximum WB
z DB and Mean Coincident Wet Bulb Temperature (MCDB)
z Extreme Annual DB
z Mean & Standard Deviation
z Minima & Maxima
z n-Year Return Period Values of Extreme DB
z n=5, 10, 20, 50 years
z Minima & Maxima
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Monthlyy Design
g Conditions
Annual and Monthly Data

z Average

Temperatures (Tavg) and associated Standard Deviations (Sd)

Heating Degree Days, for 50F (HDD50) and 65 F (HDD65) bases

Cooling
z

Degree Days , for 50F (CDD50) and 65 F (CDD65) bases

Degree Hours, for 74F (CDH74) and 80F (CDD80) bases

Used for Energy
Estimation

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Monthlyy Design
g Conditions
Annual and Monthly Data
z

DB and MCWB; at 0.4%, 2%, 5%, 10%

WB and MCDB; at 0.4%, 2%, 5%, 10%

Mean Daily Temperature Range:

z

Mean Dry Bulb Range (MDBR)

Mean Coincident Dry Bulb Range (MCDBR) and Wet Bulb

Range (MCWBR) for 5% DB and 5% WB
z

Clear Sky Solar Irradiance

z

Beam (taub) & Diffuse (taud) Irradiance Optical Depths

Beam Normal (Ebn, noon) & Diffuse Horizontal (Edh, noon)

Irradiances at Solar Noon
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Comments
Design values based on DB temperature relate to peak
sensible
ibl outdoor
d
component
z

Design values based on WB temperature relate to enthalpy of

outdoor air

Conditions based on DP relate to peaks of humidity ratio

Designer must decide which set(s) of conditions and

probability of occurrence (expressed by the percentiles) apply
to the design situation in hand.
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Comments - Heating

Minimum Temperatures usually occur between

solar 6:00am-8:00am

For continuous occupancy the recommended

DB design temperatures should be used
z

For occupancy predominantly during the

middle of the day may use DB temperatures
above the recommended minimum
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Design Conditions
Comments - Cooling
g
Maximum Temperatures usually occur between solar 2:00pm4:00pm

Design DB and MCWB temperatures should be used for building

cooling loads
z

For continuous
contin o s occupancy
occ panc the recommended design
temperatures should be used
z

For occupancy predominantly during the middle of the day may

use temperatures below the recommended maximum
z

Peak occupancy load may occur before the effect of the

maximum temperature
p
is felt

Peak occupancy load may occur during months other than the
ones during which the maximum temperature is expected.

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Comfort and Health
Physiological Principles
z

Perception of the Environment often subjective

Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)

z

O i i nott always
Origin
l
obvious
b i

Irritation of mucus membranes, fatigue, headache,

lower resp. symptoms, nausea, nosebleeds, chest
tightness, fever
z

Building-Related Illness (BRI)

z

K
Known
origins
i i

Bioaerosols humidifier fever, asthma, allergies

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Comfort and Health
Physiological Principles
z

C
Contaminants
i
Air
Ai Quality
Q li

Body Temperature
z

Internal 98.6+/-1F
98 6+/ 1F

Skin Temperature varies 88F to 96.8F under normal conditions

91.5F +/-2.5F typically for comfort.

Moisture/Humidity level
z

Static Electricity

Prevention and Treatment of Disease (50% highest mortality of some

organisms)

Mold and bacteria growth due to Visible and Concealed condensation

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Bodys
y Interaction with the Environment

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Environmental Indices
z

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Mean Radiant Temperature
p
z

Definition

Simplification

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Operative
p
Temperature
p
z

Definition

Simplification

t0 is the operative temperature

ta is the operative
p
temperature
p
Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Comfort Chart

Mechanical Engineering Department

Indoor Design Conditions

Other Factors and Conditions
z

Metabolic Rate

Clothing Level

Mechanical Engineering Department