Ch04 First Order Circuits PDF

Chapter 4
Introduction to Differential
Equations
Transient Analysis of
First-Order Networks
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute
University of the Philippines - Diliman
Revised by Michael Pedrasa, May 2012
Elec Ckts 9ed, Chapter 7
Differential Equations
Definition: Differential equations are equations
that involve dependent variables and their
derivatives with respect to the independent
variables.
d 2u
+ ku = 0
2
dx
Simple harmonic
motion: u(x)
Wave equation in three
dimensions: u(x,y,z,t)
2
2u 2u 2u
u
2
+
+
=
c
x 2 y 2 z 2
t 2
EEE 33 - p2
Ordinary Differential Equations

Definition: Ordinary differential equations
(ODE) are differential equations that involve only
ONE independent variable.
Example:
d 2u( x )
+ ku = 0
2
dx
u(x) is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
EEE 33 - p3
Ordinary Differential Equations

We can classify all ODEs according to
order, linearity and homogeneity.
The order of a differential equation is just the
highest differential term involved:
d 2y
dy
a2
+ a1
+ a0 = 0
2
dt
dt
dx
d 3x
=x 3
dt
dt
2nd order
3rd order
EEE 33 - p4
Linearity
The important issue is how the unknown variable
(ie y) appears in the equation. A linear equation
must have constant coefficients, or coefficients
which depend on the independent variable. If
y or its derivatives appear in the coefficient the
equation is non-linear.
dy
+ y = 0 is linear
dt
dy
+ y 2 = 0 is non-linear
dt
dy 2
+t = 0
dt
is linear
dy 2
y
+ t = 0 is non-linear
dt
EEE 33 - p5
Linearity - Summary
Linear
2y
dy
dt
(2 + 3 sin t) y
dy
t
dt
Non-linear
y2
or
sin( y )
dy
y
dt
(2 3 y 2 ) y
dy

dt
EEE 33 - p6
Homogeniety
Put all the terms of the differential equation which
involve the dependent variable on the left hand
side (LHS) of the equation.
Homogeneous: If there is nothing left on the
right-hand side (RHS), the equation is
homogeneous. (unforced or free)
Nonhomogeneous: If there are terms left on
the RHS involving constants or the independent
variable, the equation is nonhomogeneous (forced)
EEE 33 - p7
Examples of Classification
dy
+y=0
dx
2
d y
2
+
cos(
x
)
y
= sin( x)
2
dx
3
d y
5 3 4y = cos( x )
dx
1st Order
Linear
Homogeneous
2nd Order
Non-linear
Non-homogeneous
3rd Order
Linear
Non-homogeneous
EEE 33 - p8
Linear Differential Equations

A linear ordinary differential equation describing
linear electric circuits is of the form
dnx
d n1x
dx
an
+
a
+
...
+
a
+ a0 = v ( t )
n 1
1
n
n 1
dt
dt
dt
where
an, an-1,,a0 constants
x(t)
dependent variable (current or voltage)
independent variable
v(t)
voltage or current sources
EEE 33 - p9
Linear Differential Equations

Assume that we are given a network of passive
elements and sources where all currents and
voltages are initially known. At a reference instant
of time designated t=0, the system is altered in a
manner that is represented by the opening or
closing of a switch.
Our objective is to obtain equations for currents
and voltages in terms of time measured from the
instant equilibrium was altered by the switching.
EEE 33 - p10
Solution to Differential Equations

1
In the network shown, the

switch is moved from position
1 to position 2 at time t=0.
After switching, the KVL equation is
di
L
+ Ri = 0
dt
(1)
Re-arranging the equation to separate the

variables, we get
di
R
= dt
i
L
(2)
EEE 33 - p11

Equation 2 can be integrated to give
R
lni = t + K
L
(3)
where ln means the natural logarithm (base e).

The constant K can be expressed as
ln k
Thus, equation 3 can be written as
ln i = ln e Rt / L + ln k
We know that
(4)
ln y + ln z = ln yz
EEE 33 - p12

Equation 4 is equivalent to
ln i = ln ( ke Rt / L )
(5)
Applying the antilogarithm we get
i = ke Rt / L
(6)
Equation 6 is known as the general solution. If

the constant k is evaluated, the solution is a
particular solution.
EEE 33 - p13
General and Particular Solutions

The general solution refers to a set of solutions
satisfying the differential equation.
A particular
solution fits the
specification of a
particular problem.
1.5e-250t
e-250t
0.5e-250t
Assume in the
previous circuit,
R=1k, L=4H.
EEE 33 - p14
Transient Analysis of
First-Order Networks
Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
First-Order Transients
Consider the homogeneous differential equation
dx
a
+ bx = 0
dt
with initial condition x(0)=X0.

The solution can be shown to be an exponential of
the form
x = K st
where K and s are constants. Substitution gives
asKst + bKst = 0
EEE 33 - p16
After canceling the exponential term, we get
as + b = 0
b
s=
a
or
Thus the solution is
x = K
b
t
a
The constant K can be found using the given initial

condition. At t=0, we get
x(0) = X 0 = K0 = K
The final solution is
x = X0
b
t
a
t0
EEE 33 - p17
Source-Free RL Network
Consider the circuit shown. Let
i(0) = I0. From KVL, we get
di
L
+ Ri = 0
dt
R
i
The solution can be found to be
i = K
R
t
L
At t=0, we get
i(0) = I0 = K0 = K
EEE 33 - p18
Substitution gives
i(t) = I0
R
t
L
From Ohm s Law, we get the resistor voltage.
vR = Ri = RI0
R
t
L
The voltage across the inductor is given by
di
vL = L
= RI0
dt
R
t
L
= vR
Note: Every current and voltage in an RL

network is a decaying exponential with a
time constant of =L/R.
EEE 33 - p19
Source-Free RC Network
Consider the circuit shown. Let
vC(0) = V0. From KCL, we get
for t 0
dv C 1
C
+ vC = 0
dt
R
R
i
+
-
vC
The solution can be shown to be
vC = K
1
t
RC
At t=0, we get
vC (0) = V0 = K0 = K
EEE 33 - p20
Substitution gives
vC (t) = V0
1
t
RC
From Ohm s Law, we get the resistor current.
vC
V0
iR =
=
R
R
1
t
RC
The current in the capacitor is is given by

1
dv C
V0 RC t
iC = C
=
= iR
dt
R
Note: Every current and voltage in an RC

network is a decaying exponential with a
time constant of =RC.
EEE 33 - p21
The Exponential Function

Given the function
x(t) = X0
1
t
When t=0,
x(0) = X 00 = X 0
When t=,
x() = X0 1 = 0.368X0
When t=2,
x(2) = X0 2 = 0.135X0
When t=3,
x(3) = X0 3 = 0.050X0
When t=4,
x(4) = X0 4 = 0.018X0
When t=5,
x(5) = X0
= 0.007X0
EEE 33 - p22
Plot of the Exponential Function

X0 ..
1
..
- t
..
x(t) = X0e
..
..
..
..
...
...
. ..
. . .. . . .. . . .
t0
Note: As seen from the plot, after t=5, or after 5

time constants, the function is practically zero.
EEE 33 - p23
Comments:
1. When R is expressed in ohms, L in Henrys
and C in Farads, the time constant is in
seconds.
2. For practical circuits, the typical values of
the parameters are: R in ohms, L in mH,
C in F.
3. Typically, = L
R
= RC
in msec
in sec
Note: For practical circuits, the exponential

function will decay to zero in less than 1 second.
EEE 33 - p24
A More General RL Circuit

The circuit shown has several resistors but only one
inductor. Given
4 0.1H
i1(0+)=I0=2 Amps,
i3
find i1, i2, and i3 for i2
i1
I0
t 0.
6
3
2
First, determine the
equivalent resistance
seen by the inductor.
R ab
6(3)
=2+4+
6+3
=8
4 a
6
b
2
EEE 33 - p25
Next, find the time constant of the circuit.
L
1
=
=
sec
R ab 80
Every current will be described by the exponential
K 80 t
t0
For example, we get
i1 = K1
80t
t0
At t=0+, i1(0+)=I0=2 Amps. Thus, we get
i1(0+ ) = 2 = K10 = K1
EEE 33 - p26
Thus, we find the current i1 to be
i1 = 2 80t
Amps
t0
The remaining currents, i2 and i3, can be found

using current division. We get
or
3
1
i2 =
i1 = i1
3+6
3
2 80 t
i2 =
3
Amps
t0
Similarly, we get
4 80 t
i3 =
3
Amps
t0
EEE 33 - p27
A More General RC Circuit

The circuit shown has several resistors but only one
capacitor. Given
vC(0+)=V0=20 volts,
2K
find i for t 0.
i
6k
3k
+
1F vC
First, determine the
equivalent resistance
seen by the capacitor.
R ab
6k(3k)
= 2k +
6k + 3k
= 4 k
2K
6k
a
b
3k
EEE 33 - p28
Next, find the time constant of the circuit.
= R abC = (4k)(1F) = 4 msec

Any current or voltage will be described by the
exponential
K 250 t
t0
For example, we get
vC = K 250 t
t0
At t=0+, vC(0+)=V0=20 volts. Thus, we get
vC (0+ ) = 20 = K0 = K
EEE 33 - p29
Thus, we find the Voltage vC to be
vC = 20 250 t
volts
t0
The current in the capacitor is described by
dv C
iC = C
= 5 250 t
dt
mA
t0
Applying current division, we get the current i(t).
6k
- 250 t
i(t) =
(-iC ) = 3.33 e
6k + 3k
mA
t0
EEE 33 - p30
End
RL Network with Constant Source

In the circuit shown, the
switch is closed at t = 0.
Find current i(t) for t 0.
R
+
For t 0, we get from

KVL
t=0
di
L
+ Ri = E
dt
The solution of a non-homogeneous differential

equation consists of two components:
1. The transient response
2. The steady-state response
EEE 33 - p32
Transient Response: The solution of the homogeneous differential equation; that is
dit
L
+ Rit = 0
dt
The transient response for the RL circuit is
it = K
R
t
L
Steady-State Response: The solution of the

differential equation itself; that is
diss
L
+ Riss = E
dt
EEE 33 - p33
The steady-state response is similar in form to the

forcing function plus all its unique derivatives. For
constant excitation, the steady-state response is
also constant.
Let iss=A, constant
diss
=0
dt
Substitute in the differential equation

or
0 + RA = E
E
A=
R
EEE 33 - p34
Complete Response: The sum of the transient

response and steady-state response.
R
i(t) = iss
t
E
+ it =
+ K L
R
t0
Initial Condition: For t<0, i=0 since the switch is

open. At t=0+, or immediately after the switch is
closed, i(0+)=0 since the current in the inductor
cannot change instantaneously.
Evaluate K. At t=0+, we get
E
i(0 ) = 0 = + K0
R
+
or
E
K=
R
EEE 33 - p35
Finally,we get
E E
i(t) =

R R
R
t
L
t0
A plot of the current for t 0 is shown below.
...
...
....
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
...
...
....
....
iss
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
E
R
i(t)
it
EEE 33 - p36
Transient Response
The transient response is the solution of the
homogeneous differential equation.
(1) It is an exponential function whose time
constant depends on the values of the electrical
parameters (R, L and C);
(2) It is also called the natural response since it is
a trademark of any network;
(3) It is independent of the source; and
(4) It serves as the transition from the initial
steady-state to the final steady-state value.
EEE 33 - p37
Steady-State Response
The steady-state response is the solution of the
original differential equation.
(1) It is also called the forced response since its
form is forced on the electrical network by the
applied source;
(2) It is similar in form to the applied source plus
all its unique derivatives;
(3) It is independent of the initial conditions; and
(4) It exists for as long as the source is applied.
The forced response is the response that will be left after
the natural response dies out.
EEE 33 - p38
RC Network with Constant Source

In the circuit shown, the
switch is closed at t = 0.
Assume vC(0)=V0. Find vC
(t) for t 0.
R
+
t=0
vC
-
For t 0, we get from KVL
Since
Ri + vC = E
dv C
, we get
i=C
dt
dv C
RC
+ vC = E
dt
EEE 33 - p39
Transient Response: For an RC network, we get
vC,t = K
1
t
RC
Steady-State Response: Since the forcing

function is constant, the steady-state response is
also constant.
Let vC,ss = A, constant
dv C,ss
dt
Substitute in
RC
=0
dv C,ss
dt
+ vC,ss = E
EEE 33 - p40
We get
0+A =E
A =E
or
Complete Response: Add the transient response

and steady-state response.
vC = vC,ss + vC,t = E + K
1
t
RC
Evaluate K. At t=0+, we get
vC (0 ) = V0 = E + K
or
Finally,we get
vC (t) = E + (V0 E)
1
t
RC
K = V0 E
t0
EEE 33 - p41
L and C at Steady State

With all sources constant, then at steady-state,
all currents and voltages are constant.
I0
iC C
L
+
vL
+ V0 -
If the current is
constant, then
If the voltage is
constant, then
dI0
vL = L
=0
dt
dV0
iC = C
=0
dt
Note: With constant sources, L is short-circuited

and C is open-circuited at steady state condition.
EEE 33 - p42
10
Example: Find the

current and voltages
at steady state.
24V
+
-
+ vR -
vL
iss
24
=
= 2.4 A
10
Since the source is constant,

the inductor is shorted at
steady state.
10
24V
+
-
+ vR,ss -
iss
vL,ss
-
+
-
vR ,ss = 24 V
vL ,ss = 0
EEE 33 - p43
10
Example: Find the

current and voltages
at steady state.
24V
+
-
+ vR -
vC
-
Since the source is constant,

the capacitor is open-circuited
at steady state.
iss = 0
10
24V
+
-
+ vR,ss -
iss
vC,ss
-
vR ,ss = 0
v C,ss = 24 V
EEE 33 - p44
Example: Find the

inductor current and
capacitor voltage at
+
steady state.
24V -
vC
-
At steady state, short

the inductor and open
the capacitor.
iL ,ss
24
=
=2A
12
iL
9
3
+
24V -
vC,ss = 9iL ,ss = 18 V

vC,ss
-
iL,ss
9
EEE 33 - p45
Example: Find the

inductor currents
+
and capacitor
24V
voltages at
steady state.
iL1
4
8
vC1
vC2
iL2
C3 vC3
-
Equivalent circuit at steady-state

IL1
4
24V
+
-
VC1
-
VC2
-
IL2
C3 VC3
IL1
IL2
VC1
VC2
VC3
=0
=2A
= 16 V
=0
= 16 V
EEE 33 - p46
Example: The switch is

closed at t=0. Find the
+
current i(t) for t 0.
12V -
t=0
10mH
The transient current is
it = K
R
t
L
= K
400 t
t0
The steady-state equivalent circuit for t 0
Iss
12
=
=3A
4
4
12V
Iss
EEE 33 - p47
The complete solution
i(t) = iss + it = 3 + K
400 t
t0
Initial condition: At t=0+, i(0+)=0 since the

inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
Evaluate K: At t = 0+,
i(0 ) = 0 = 3 + K
+
or
K = 3
Thus, we get
i(t) = 3 3 400 t A
t0
EEE 33 - p48
RL and RC Networks
The solution of a non-homogeneous differential
equation consists of two components: the transient
response and the steady-state response
RL Network with
Constant Source
i( t ) = A + K
steady-state
response
RC Network with
Constant Source
R
t
L
transient
response
v( t ) = A + K
steady-state
response
1
t
RC
transient
response
With constant sources, L is short-circuited and C

is open-circuited at steady state condition.
EEE 33 - p49
Example: The switch has been in position 1 for a

long time. At t=0, the switch is moved to position
2. Find the current i(t) for t 0.
5k 1 2 10k
12V
+
-
vC
t=0
i
1F
The circuit is at steady-state

condition prior to switching.
-
vC,ss = 12 V = vC (0 )
12V
+
-
6V
5k
+
-
vC,ss
-
EEE 33 - p50
Equivalent circuit for t 0
10k
From KVL, we get
1
Ri +
C
At t=0+,
or
1F
idt = E
+
-
E=6V
Ri(0 ) + vC (0 ) = E
+
E vC (0 )
i(0 ) =
R
+
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change

instantaneously,
vC (0+ ) = vC (0- ) = 12 V
EEE 33 - p51
We get
6 12
+
i(0 ) =
= 0.6 mA
10k
V (0
C
it = K
1
t
RC
= K
+)
=12V
The transient response is
10k
100 t
1uF
+
-
6V
t0
The steady-state current is zero since the capacitor

will be open-circuited. Thus, the total current is
equal to the transient current. Since i(0+)=-0.6 mA,
we get
i(t) = 0.6
100 t
mA
t0
EEE 33 - p52
Comments:
+
VC
-
10k
- VR +
1uF
6V
1. The actual current flows in the clockwise

direction. The capacitor supplies the current.
The 6-volt source is absorbing power.
2. The voltages across the resistor and capacitor
can be found to be
vR = Ri(t) = 6
100 t
vC = 6 vR = 6 + 6
V
100 t
t0
V
t0
EEE 33 - p53
Comments:
3. The energy stored in the capacitor decreases
from 72 J to 18 J.
WC (0 + ) = 12 Cv C2 (0 + ) = 12 (1F)(12) 2 = 72 J
WC () = 12 Cv C2 () = 12 (1F)(6) 2 = 18 J
The resistor will dissipate a total energy of 18 J.
WR =
36
v2
200 t
dt =
dt = 18 J
0 10 k
R
The 6V source will absorb a total energy of 36 J.
WR = Vi dt = 6 (0.6 100 t mA)dt = 36 J

EEE 33 - p54
Example: The network has reached steady-state

condition with the switch in position 1. At t=0, the
switch is moved to position 2. Find i, vc1 and vC2 for
t 0. Assume that capacitor C2 is initially
uncharged.
10k 1 2 2.5k
100V
+
-
t=0
5F
vC1
The circuit is at steady-state

prior to switching.
+
100V
vC1,ss = 100 V
vC2
-
20F
10k
+
vC1,ss
-
EEE 33 - p55
Equivalent circuit at
vC1(0+ ) = 100 V
v C2 (0 + ) = 0
2.5k
t=0+
+
vC1(0+)
i(0+)
C1
C2
vC2(0+)
From KVL, we get
vC1(0+ ) = Ri(0+ ) + vC2 (0+ )

Substitution gives i(0+) = 40 mA.
2.5k
C eq = 4 F
= RC eq = 10 ms
5F
+
-
+
-
20F
EEE 33 - p56
The current for a source-free RC circuit is given by
i(t) = K
1
t
RC
= K 100t
t0
Since i(0+) = 40 mA, we get
i(t) = 40
100 t
mA
t0
The voltages are
vR = Ri(t) = 100 100 t V t 0

1 t
1 t
+
vC2 =
idt = vC2 (0 ) +
idt
+
C2
C2 0
= 20 20 100 t V t 0
EEE 33 - p57
vC1 = vR + vC2
= 20 + 80
100 t
t0
Comments:
1. The current decays to zero but vC1 And vC2 do
not decay to zero. At steady-state (t=),
VC1,ss = VC2,ss = 20 V
2. The initial energy stored in C1 and C2
2
C1
WC1(0 ) =
1
2
C1v (0 ) = 25 mJ
WC2 (0+ ) =
1
2
C2v2C2 (0+ ) = 0
EEE 33 - p58
3. The final energy stored in C1 and C2
WC1() =
1
2
C1v2C1() = 1 mJ
WC2 () =
1
2
C2v2C2 () = 4 mJ
4. The total energy lost is 20 mJ.

5. The total energy dissipated by the resistor
WR =
i Rdt =
4 200 t dt = 20 mJ
Note: At t=0+, vC1=100 volts and vC2=0. Capacitor

C1 supplies the current that charges capacitor C2.
The current stops when vC1 = vC2 =20 V.
EEE 33 - p59
Example: The network has reached steady-state

condition with the switch closed. At t=0, the switch
is opened. Find i(t)
t=0 2k
1k
for t 0.
12V
0.1H
The circuit is at steadystate prior to switching.
IL ,ss
12 36
=
+
1k 2k
= 30 mA
12V
1k
+
-
IL,ss
36V
2k
+
- 36V
EEE 33 - p60
1k

The transient current is
i t = K
R
t
L
= K
12V
10, 000 t
+
-
0.1H
At steady-state, the inductor is short-circuited.

Thus, the steady state current is 12 mA.
The complete response is
i( t ) = 12 + K
10, 000 t
mA t 0
Since i(0+) = 30 mA, we get K = 18 mA. The final

expression is
i( t ) = 12 + 18 10,000t mA t 0
EEE 33 - p61
First-Order RL and RC Circuits

General Procedure
1. Find f(0+), the initial value of the variable to
be solved.
2. Find f(), the final value of the variable to be

solved.
Note: When solving for the initial and final values, treat the
capacitors as open circuits & the inductors as short circuits.
3. Simplify the RC or RL circuit to get Req, Ceq or

Leq. The time constant is ReqCeq or Leq/Req.
4. The solution is:

f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

EEE 33 - p62
NOTES:
1. f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/

forced response
natural response
2. Req is the thevenin resistance seen by the

capacitor or inductor.
3. If a switch changed state (closes or opens) at
t = t0, then
vC(t0+) = vC(t0-)
iL(t0+) = iL(t0-)
The voltage across a

capacitor cannot change
instantaneously.
The current through an

inductor cannot change
instantaneously.
All other voltages and currents can change instantaneously.
EEE 33 - p63
t=0
Example: In the circuit,

vC1(0-) = 12 V
and vC2(0-) = 0 V.
+
vC1
_
Find vC1(t), vC2(t) and iR(t).
1 k i (t)
R
3 uF
6 uF
+
vC2
_
Step 1: Initial conditions

t = 0++ :
At att=0
+
12 V
_
1 k 12 mA
3 uF
6 uF
v C1(0 + ) = v C1(0 ) = 12V

+
0V
_
v C2 (0 + ) = v C2 (0 ) = 0V
+
+
v
(0
)
v
(0
) 12 0
+
C1
C2
iR (0 ) =
=
= 12mA
1k
1k
EEE 33 - p64
Step 2: Final conditions

After a very long time, iR() = 0.
Therefore, vC1() = vC2() or
Q1 Q2
=
2Q1 = Q2
3u 6u
Initial charge stored = final charge stored
(12V)(3uF) = 36uC = Q1 + Q2 = Q1 + 2Q1

Q1 = 12uC and Q2 = 24uC
Therefore, vC1() = 4 V
vC2() = 4 V
+
4V
_
1 k
3 uF
0 mA
6 uF
+
4V
_
EEE 33 - p65
Step 3: Find the time constant,

Req = 1 k
Ceq = 3 uF in series with 6 uF = 2 uF
Therefore, = ReqCeq = (1 k)(2u) = 2 ms
Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/
iR(t) = 0 + [12 - 0] e-t / 2ms = 12 e
-t / 2ms
mA
vC1(t) = 4 + [12 - 4] e-t / 2ms

= 4 + 8 e -t / 2ms V
vC2(t) = 4 + [0 - 4] e-t / 2ms
=4-4e
-t / 2ms
EEE 33 - p66
12
iR(t) = 12 e -t / 2ms mA iR
vC1(t) = 4 + 8 e -t / 2ms VvvC1
C2
vC2(t) = 4 - 4 e -t / 2ms V
10
0
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
EEE 33 - p67
Example: Find the inductor

current iL(t) and the
inductor voltage vL(t).
t=0
10 V
2.4 k
iL(t)
80 uH

iL(0+) = iL(0-) = 0
+
vL(t)
_
vL(0+) = 10 V

2.4 k
The inductor will behave like a
short circuit so
10 V
80 uH
+
0V
_
vL() = 0 V
iL() = 102400= 4.167 mA
EEE 33 - p68

Req = 2.4 k

Leq = 80 uH
Therefore = Leq / Req = 33.33 ns

Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/
iL(t) = 4.167 + [0 - 4.167] e-t/33.33n
= 4.167 - 4.167 e-t/33.33n mA
vL(t) = 0 + [10 - 0] e-t/33.33n V
= 10 e-t/33.33n V
EEE 33 - p69
Transient and Steady-State Response

10
i
L
iL(t) = 4.167 - 4.167 e-t/33.33n mA
v
L
9
8
vL(t) = 10 e-t/33.33u V
Transient
response
iL()=4.167mA
iL(0+)=0A
vL()=0V
vL(0+)=10V
Steady-state
Response
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
=33.33 ns
0.8
1.2
1.4
5=1.67x10-4
1.6
1.8
2
x 10
-4
EEE 33 - p70
Example: If the switch in the network closes at

t=0, find v0(t) for t>0.
4
+
3A
vA
24V
2vA
-+
-+
2F
vo

At t=0-
3A
4
+
vA
24V
2vA
-+
-+
vC(0-)
vA(0-)=3A(4)
= 12V
+
-
vC(0-)= 2vA+24+vA
= 60 V
EEE 33 - p71
At t=0+,
v0(0+) = vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 60V
24V
-+
4
3A
vA
2vA
-+
+
vo
vA,ss = 0
v0,ss = 24V

Since we have a dependent source, the equivalent
resistance seen by the capacitor can be obtained
by finding vOC/iSC

EEE 33 - p72
Determine vOC
v0C = 24V
Get iSC
3A
24V
-+
+
3A
24V
-+
4
+
vA
vA
2vA
-+
vOC
2vA
-+
iSC
From KVL,
2vA + vA = -24
vA = -8V
The two resistors are in parallel, thus

2iSC 24 2vA = 0
iSC = 4 A

EEE 33 - p73
The equivalent resistance is

Req = vOC iSC = 24V / 4A = 6

The time constant is
= ReqC = 6(2F)= 12sec
Step 4: f(t) = f() + [f(0+) - f()] e-t/
v0(t) = 24 + [60 - 24] e-t/12 V
= 24 + 36 e-t/12 V
EEE 33 - p74
End
The Unit Step Forcing

Function
0
u ( t ) =
1
t<0
t>0
+
_
u(t)
u(t)
u(t)
1
EEE 33 - p76
Example
5u(t)
5 u(t) V
5V
+
_
t
t > 0:
t < 0:
5V
+
_
EEE 33 - p77
Translated
Step Function
Step Function
Inverted in Time
0 t < to
u (t to) =
1 t > to
1 t < to
u (to t ) =
0 t > to
u(t0-t)
u(t-t0)
1
t0
t0
EEE 33 - p78
Example
2u(2-t)
2mA
2 u(2 - t)
mA
2 - t > 0 or t < 2 s:
2 - t < 0 or t > 2 s:
2 mA
EEE 33 - p79
Example: The circuit shown is initially at steadystate condition. Formulate the expression for vC(t)
and iR(t) for t>0.
iR
3k
+
vc
24u(t) 24u(t-4ms)
1F
6k
Evaluate the forcing function:

24V
24V 1
t
24u(t)
4ms
24V
t
24u(t-4ms)
4ms
24u(t) - 24u(t-4ms)
EEE 33 - p80
We need to evaluate the circuit using two time

intervals: 0 < t < 4ms , voltage source = 24V
t > 4ms
, voltage source = 0
First time interval: 0 < t < 4ms

At t<0, the circuit is in steady-state. The 3k
and 6k resistors will dissipate whatever energy
is initially stored in C, thus vC(0-) = 0.
At t = 0+:
iR(0+)
3k
+
vC
24V
-
(0+)=0
+
-
1F
vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 0
6k
iR(0+) = 0
EEE 33 - p81
Time constant for 0<t<4ms
= R eqC
= (2 K)(1F)
= 2 msec
24 V
iR
3k
+
vC
1F
6k
The transient response is of the form
vC,t = K1e
-500t
i R ,t = K 2e
Equivalent circuit at steady-state
6
v C,ss =
(24 V) = 16V
3+ 6
24V
i R ,ss =
= 2.67 mA
3k + 6k
24 V
-500t
iR,ss
3k
+
vC,ss
-
6k
EEE 33 - p82
Complete Response
v C ( t ) = 16 + K1e-500t V
i R ( t ) = 2.67 + K 2e-500t mA
Evaluate the constants K1 and K2 using initial
conditions.
v C (0 + ) = 0 = 16 + K1 or K 1 = -16
i R (0+ ) = 0 = 2.67 + K 2 or K 2 = -2.67

Thus, we get
v C ( t ) = 16 16e -500t V
i R (t ) = 2.67 2.67e-500t mA
0 < t < 4 msec
0 < t < 4 msec

EEE 33 - p83
Second time interval: t > 4ms

To get initial conditions, determine the voltage vC
right before switching.
-
v C (4 ms ) = 16 16e
-500(0.004 )
13.83 V
At t = 4ms+
3k
vC(4ms+) +
13.83V -
vC(4ms+) = vC(4ms-)
= 13.83 V
iR
1F
6k
iR(4ms+) = 13.83 6k
= 2.305 mA
Note:
i R (4ms ) = 2.67 2.67e-500(0.004) i (4ms ) i (4ms+ )

R
R
2.31 mA
EEE 33 - p84
Equivalent circuit for t 4 ms.

Req = 3k || 6k = 2K

iR
3k
' = R eq C = (2 K)(1F)
vC
+
-
1F
6k
= 2 msec
This is a source-free network, so at steady-state
i R,ss=0 and v C,ss=0.
Let t=t +4 ms. For t 0, the capacitor voltage
and resistor current is described by
v C ( t ' ) = 13.83e -500t' V, t' > 0
i R (t ' ) = 2.305e-500t' mA, t' > 0

EEE 33 - p85
Thus, the expression for vC and iR for t>0

vC(t) =
iR(t) =
16 16e-500t V,
t < 4ms
13.83e-500(t-4ms) V,
t > 4ms
2.67 2.67e-500t mA, t < 4ms

2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA,
t > 4ms
EEE 33 - p86
V
VCC(t)
(t)
(V)
(V)
Graph for vc(t)
16 16e-500t V
16 16e-500t V,
t < 4ms
13.83e-500(t-4ms) V,
t > 4ms
=2 ms
5= 10 ms
13.83e-500(t-4ms)
t
EEE 33 - p87
iR(t)
(mA)
2.67 2.67e-500t mA
Graph for iR(t)

2.67 2.67e-500t mA, t < 4ms
2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA,
t > 4ms
=2 ms
5= 10 ms
2.305e-500(t-4ms) mA
t
EEE 33 - p88
Equivalent of Switching
Vu(t-t0)
+
_
General
General
V +
_
Network
v(t)
V
Network
t0
t0
Equivalent circuit
i(t)
Iu(t-t0)
General
Network
General
I
Network
Equivalent circuit
EEE 33 - p89
50
Example: Find i(t)

for t>0.
i
30
2H
2 u(t)
+
_
When t < 0, the sources

are off, thus i(0-) = 0 A
100 u(t)
At t = 0+, the sources

turn on
50
50
i
i
30
2H
30
2H
2A
+
_
100 V
i(0+) = i(0-) = 0 A
EEE 33 - p90
Final condition: After a very long time, the

inductor will behave like a short circuit
50
i
30
ix
2A
+
_
100 V
From KCL, i + ix = 2
KVL yields
-100 30ix + 50i = 0
Thus, i = 2 A and ix = 0 i
() = 2 A
Time constant:
Leq = 2 H
= 0.025 s
Req = 30 + 50 = 80
Finally, i(t) = i() + [i(0+) i()]e-t/
i(t) = 2 + (0 2) e-t/0.025 = 2 - 2 e-40t A

EEE 33 - p91
Sinusoidal Sources
Consider the network shown.
Let v(t)=Vm sin t where Vm
+
and are constant.
v(t)
For t 0, we get from KVL
-
R
t=0
i
di
L
+ Ri = Vm sin t
dt
The transient response is
it = K
R
t
L
t0
Remember: The transient response is independent

of the source.
EEE 33 - p92
The steady-state response is the solution of the

differential equation itself. Let
iss = K1 sin t + K2cos t

diss
= K1 cos t - K2sin t
dt
Substituting in the original equation
gives
di
L
+ Ri = Vm sin t
dt
LK1 cos t - LK2sin t

+ RK1sin t + RK2cos t = Vm sin t
EEE 33 - p93
Substitution gives
LK1 cos t - LK2sin t

+ RK1sin t + RK2cos t = Vm sin t
Comparing coefficients, we get
Vm = RK1 LK2
and
0 = RK2 + LK1
Solving simultaneously, we get
RVm
K1 = 2
2 2
R +L
LVm
and K 2 = 2
2 2
R +L
EEE 33 - p94
The steady-state response is
iss = K1 sin t + K2cos t

Substituting K1 and K2
iss
Vm
= 2
(R sin t L cos t)
2 2
R +L
The complete response is
Vm
i(t) = 2
(R sin t L cos t)
2 2
R +L
R
+ K
t0
EEE 33 - p95
End

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Chapter 4

Elec Ckts 9ed, Chapter 7

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Ordinary Differential Equations

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Ordinary Differential Equations

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Linear Differential Equations

dependent variable (current or voltage)

voltage or current sources

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Linear Differential Equations

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Solution to Differential Equations

In the network shown, the

After switching, the KVL equation is

Re-arranging the equation to separate the

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Solution to Differential Equations

where ln means the natural logarithm (base e).

Thus, equation 3 can be written as

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Solution to Differential Equations

Applying the antilogarithm we get

Equation 6 is known as the general solution. If

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General and Particular Solutions

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

with initial condition x(0)=X0.

After canceling the exponential term, we get

Thus the solution is

The constant K can be found using the given initial

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The solution can be found to be

From Ohm s Law, we get the resistor voltage.

The voltage across the inductor is given by

Note: Every current and voltage in an RL

The solution can be shown to be

From Ohm s Law, we get the resistor current.

The current in the capacitor is is given by

Note: Every current and voltage in an RC

The Exponential Function

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Plot of the Exponential Function

Note: As seen from the plot, after t=5, or after 5

Note: For practical circuits, the exponential

A More General RL Circuit

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Next, find the time constant of the circuit.

For example, we get

At t=0+, i1(0+)=I0=2 Amps. Thus, we get

Thus, we find the current i1 to be

The remaining currents, i2 and i3, can be found

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A More General RC Circuit

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute

Next, find the time constant of the circuit.

= R abC = (4k)(1F) = 4 msec

For example, we get

At t=0+, vC(0+)=V0=20 volts. Thus, we get

Thus, we find the Voltage vC to be

The current in the capacitor is described by

Applying current division, we get the current i(t).