Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Particle
Symbol
Charge
Mass (a.m.u.)
proton
+1
1.007276
neutron
1.008665
electron
e-
-1
0.000549
positron
e+
+1
0.000549
Not present in
stable atoms.
Medical Imaging
E.g.
12
6
13
6
14
6
15
6
12
6
Unstable
nucleus;
prepared by
nuclear
reaction in a
cyclotron.
Stable
nucleus;
accounts for
98.89% of
natural
carbon.
Stable
nucleus;
accounts for
1.11% of
natural
carbon.
Unstable
nucleus; trace
amounts
present in
living matter.
Unstable
nucleus.
Mass Spectrometry
Astons results established the existence of isotopes. (They were already
known for radioactive elements, but never shown for stable elements.)
1920 - Aston measured two isotopes of Ne (20 and 22), three of S (32, 33, 34),
three of Si (28, 29, 30), six of Kr (78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86), and many others
Nucleogenesis
12
6
13
6
Mass of nuclide
is the reference
for a.m.u scale.
Mass of nuclide
taken from a
reference table
Nucleogenesis
Nucleogenesis
1
1
2
1
H H
H e
This denotes a
positron of mass 0
and charge 1
1
1
H 11H
12 H 01 e
and
In a nuclide, the charge is the same as the atomic number the number of
protons.
H 11H
23 He g
3
2
He 23He24 He 211 p
See - http://www.nobel.se/physics/articles/fusion/index.html
See - http://www.nobel.se/physics/articles/fusion/index.html
Nucleogenesis
4
2
Hydrogen burning
0
1
4 H
He 2 e g
T < 2 x 108K
Carbon core
T ~ 107K
3
2
He 24He 47 Be g
7
4
Be11p 58B g
Heavier nuclei like 13C, 13N, 14N, 15N, 15O... are produced by red giant stars, still
heavier nuclei in supergiants, and true heavy elements form in supernovae.
Hydrogen
burning
T ~ 107K
Helium
burning
T < 2 x 108K
40Ca58Ni
formed
(C and O burning)
T < 3 x 109K
Heavy
elements
Second-generation stars
Supernova explosions inject carbon, oxygen, silicon and other heavy elements up to iron
into interstellar space. They are also the site where most of the elements heavier than
iron are produced. This heavy element enriched gas will be incorporated into future
generations of stars and planets.
We know from the presence of
heavy elements in our sun that it
is (at least) a second-generation
star, currently undergoing
hydrogen burning.
H burning
He burning. Star
expands to red giant
C burning. Core
of red giant
Red supergiant
core.
Natural Radioactivity
Natural Radioactivity
Nucleogenesis produces nuclides that can be stable or
unstable. Unstable nuclei decay through a range of
mechanisms involving the release of particles with high
kinetic energy or of g-radiation. These high-energy products
are collectively known as radioactivity.
Henri Becquerel
e.g.
4
Bi
208
81Tl 2 a
Pierre Curie
2. b decay
e.g.
12
5
B
126 C 10e
Marie Curie
Natural Radioactivity
3. Positron (b +) emission
12
7
e.g.
12
6
0
1
N
C e
e e
g
2.
234
92
U
230
90Th
63
28
4
2
He or 24a
Ni
2963Cu 10e
4. Electron capture
e.g.
55
26
Fe 10e
2555Mn
3.
36
17
Cl
0
1
1636S
e
14
7
2.
239
94
3.
N 24 He
178 O 11H or
1
1
1
Pu 24 He
242
96 Cm 0 n
28
14
Si 12 H
1529 P 01n
Natural Radioactivity
Natural Radioactivity
238
92
4
U
234
90Th 2a
234
90
Th
234
91 Pa
234
91
Pa
234
92
0
1
0
1
b
b decay is shown as a decrease of
one neutron and an increase of one
proton.
234
92
4
U
230
90Th 2 a
230
90
4
Th
226
88 Ra 2 a
Natural Radioactivity
etc, etc,...
238U
Nuclear Stability
Marie Curie
Born Maria Sklodowska in Warsaw, Poland on November 7, 1867.
In 1891 at 24, Sklodowska went to Paris to study mathematics,
physics and chemistry at the Sorbonne.
July 25, 1895 married Pierre Curie
Bi
All known stable nuclides fall
inside the zone of stability.
This zone has a N:Z ratio
near to 1, but bends
towards more neutrons per
proton as the nucleus gets
larger.
These two observations are enough
to give us a rule for nuclear stability
that goes something like
Unstable isotopes must decay
towards the zone of stability, finally
falling below 209Bi.
12
6
13
6
14
6
15
6
Unstable
nucleus
Stable
nucleus;
Stable
nucleus;
Unstable
nucleus;
Unstable
nucleus;
N/Z = 0.83
N/Z = 1
N/Z = 1.17
N/Z = 1.33
N/Z = 1.5
too high
too high
too low
11
6
C
115 B 01e
C
147 N 10e
Fe 10e
2555Mn
N/Z = 1.11
N/Z = 1.2
15
6
C
157 N 10 e
N/Z = 1.5
N/Z = 1.14
Nuclear Stability
Nuclear Stability
4
Bi
208
81Tl 2 a
12
5
This microscopic model does not explain how nuclides with too many
neutrons can be unstable. To do so will involve quantum mechanics.
Parent nuclide
B
126 C 10 e
Emitted
Particle
Daughter
nuclide
32
15
N (t ) N0 exp(t )
P
1632S 10 e
The number of
nuclei remaining
after time t.
The number of
nuclei present at
the beginning.
The decay
constant.
3H,
0.75
N/N0
So, after 14.7 days, half of an initial 10g of 32P will have decayed, leaving
5g. At the same time 5g of 32S will have formed.
After a further 14.7 days, only 2.5g of 32P will remain, and 7.5g of
32S will be present
This also tells us that the rate of decay, the number of nuclei that
disintegrate each second, also halves every 14.7 days.
The rate of decay halves after every half-life.
0.5
0.25
0
0
25
50
75
100
time (years)
N0
N 0 exp( t1 2 )
2
ln(2) 0.693
and solve, this gives t1 2
N (t ) N 0 exp( 0.693t / t1 2 )
N
The activity (rate of decomposition) of a sample is proportional to the
number of nuclei present.
i.e. when the number of nuclei present is halved, the activity is also
halved.
Units of Activity
A N
0.693
N
t1 2
0.693
NA
t1 2
N A 0.693 N A
Specific Activity = Activity/gram AS
M
t1 2 M
Molar Activity = Activity/mole
AM N A
M = atomic mass
Molar Activity, Specific Activity and Half-Life are both independent
of the amount of radioactive material present in the sample.
13 N,
AM N A
0.693
NA
t1 2
Radiocarbon Dating
14 C
N 01n
146 C 11 p
Radiocarbon Dating
Other Sources of
14 C:
Radiocarbon Dating
How is the amount of
14 C
determined?
14
6
C
147 N 10e
C
147 N 10 e
14C
0.693
N)
t1 2
http://www.c14dating.com/
Measuring
14 C
A dN dN 0 N
N
exp(t )
A0 dt dt N 0 N 0
To determine the age of a sample we compare the activity A with the activity of a
still-living (or recently dead) sample, A0, and use the half-life or decay constant.
1
0.75
0.75
0.5
0.25
0.5
0.25
25
50
75
100
time (years)
Radiocarbon Dating
A N
Thus the ratio of the activity after death to activity while alive is equal to
the ratio of the number of 14C nuclides.
A/A0
N/N 0
Radiocarbon Dating
25
50
75
100
Willard Libby, who invented 14C dating in 1946 (Nobel Prize, 1960), prepared a
primary calibration graph, shown below, using samples with independentlydetermined ages.
The curve shows the Libby half-life of 5568y, which is used to determine the
radiocarbon age of materials and effectively assumes a constant rate of 14C
production.
1. The age of a sample is reported as its radiocarbon age. This may be reported
as years BP (before present, where present = AD1950 when radiocarbon dating
was invented).
2. An uncertainty or error range is often reported based on known changes in
levels as well as on experimental uncertainty.
14C
3. The radiocarbon age may be corrected using a calibration graph obtained from
independent data.
This pre-factor is
obtained from the Libby
half-life and is equal to
5568/ln(2)
8033ln
0.350
1950 Years BP (rounded up from 1947)
The units of time are determined by the units
of the pre-factor or half-life.
R Rstd
1000
Rstd
AMS was used to determine the age of the Shroud of Turin by radiocarbon dating in
1989. Each sample investigated consisted of 50mg of cloth, which was analysed
independently by three different laboratories.
d13C was measured directly, and gave results around -25, consistent with
calibration standards for such fibres (independent of age).
Radiocarbon age (corrected for d13C) was
determined from the 14C/13C ratio to be 69030
years BP. Three similar references samples were
also dated:
11-12th century linen dated at 940y BP
Linen from the mummy of Cleopatra dated at
1960y BP
Threads independently dated to 1300AD, 14C
dated at 724y BP.
Conclusion:
...the linen of the shroud of Turin is
mediaeval.
g + H2O H2O+. + eBoth products lead to the production of more free radicals
e- + H2O H . + OH-
Radiation Exposure
b+
10
0.693
A N
N
t1 2
Dosage attempts to include all the factors that can affect a living organism activity, energy, penetration, and the mass of living matter irradiated.
Source
Activity
Energy of
Radiation
That is, longer half lives equals lower (molar) activity, so lower
potential for ionization and radiation damage.
From this point of view 238U, with a half-life of 4.5 billion years, or
230Th (T = 83,000 y) is less damaging than 3H (T = 12 y) or
1/2
1/2
234Th (T = 24.5 days).
1/2
a
bg
Bq or Ci
Joule
The total expected dosage for an average person is about 360 mrem/year.
What are the short-term effects of radiation dosage?
25,000 mrem in 24h
50,000 mrem in 24h
100,000 mrem in 24h
200,000 mrem in 24h
500,000 mrem in 24h
No detectable effects
Slight temporary blood change
Nausea & fatigue
First death (no medical intervention)
LD50 (50% of humans exposed die.)
N.B. The probability of longer-term effects increases with dose. Most health
physicists use a linear no-threshold model. That is, they assume that there
is no level of exposure that is free from effects. However the time-scale and
statistical nature of the effects make low-dose response hard to determine.
Relative
Biological
Effectiveness
Gray (J/kg)
or Rad
10
1
Q-factor
Effective Dosage
Equivalent
rem = rad x Q
Sievert =Gy x Q
1Sv = 100 rem
1Gy = 100 rad
Energy
Absorbed per
unit mass
(dose)
Radiation distributed
or localised?
Less penetrating
radiation does more
damage.
4
Rn
218
84 Po 2 He
K
1840 Ar 10 e
C
147 N 10e
Medical Imaging
Basic principles of medical imaging.
Use a radioisotope to specifically target a chemical agent, organ or process
in the body with high selectivity.
Isotope should emit low-energy, highly-penetrating radiation to minimise
effective dosage equivalent to patient. In practice this usually means g.
Image distribution of radioisotope (by its activity) using scintillation counting
gamma camera (planar image like an x-ray) or
computer-assisted tomography (CAT or CT scan - cross section or
three-dimensional reconstruction)
Images may be a simple gray scale density or pseudo-colour signal.
Pseudo colour is especially common in computer-reconstructed imaging.
11
Gamma camera
CT scanner
Mo
9943mTc 01 e
E.g. tomographic
image of a single
anatomical level of
the brain using 18Flabelled glucose.
1
Mo 12 H
98
43Tc 2 0 n
Tc
99
43Tc g
Highly penetrating g
radiation.
Tc
4499 Ru 10 e
Long half-life = low activity.
N.B. As a gamma emitter, 99mTc remains the same element during its
residence in the body so it doesnt change its chemistry when it decays.
Sr
3782 Rb 10e
t1/2(82Rb) = 76 s
Medical Imaging
Unlike 99mTc and other direct gamma emitters, positron emitters undergo
a nuclear transformation when they decay.
99mTc
e.g.
http://www.nuclearonline.org/PIbyGeneric2.htm
11
6
C
115 B 10e
18
9
F
188 O 01e
This means that chemical reactions may ensue from both the nuclear
change and the reaction with an electron that produces the two gs for
tomographic scanning.
e e
2g
The annihilation of the positron by its
antiparticle produces energy in the form
of two gs. Conservation of momentum
ensures that they travel in exactly
opposite directions, so the tomographic
detector gets two signals from each
decay event.
12
14
7
N 11H
116 C 24 He
16
8
O 11H
137 N 24 He
13
6
C 11H
137 N 01 n
14
7
N 12 H
158 O 01n t1/2 = 2.07 min
20
10
Ne 12 H
189 F 24 He t1/2 = 109.7 min
Ne 12 H
189 F 24 He
FDG
Precursor glucose
derivative reagent
Summary I
13
Summary II
Summary III
14