WAVES

A disturbance that carries energy through matter or space.

A matter through which a wave travels is called medium.
Types of Waves
Mechanical Waves -require a medium
Examples: water waves, sound waves, waves that move along a rope or spring
Electromagnetic Waves -do not require a medium
Examples: light waves, radio waves, microwaves
Pulse Waves - consists of a travelling pulse
Periodic Waves - pulses which are being created when pulses are continuously
generated at one end of the rope.
Transverse Waves - one in which vibrations are at a right angle or perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
The points where the coils of the spring are highest are called crests.
The points where the coils of the spring are lowest are called troughs.
Examples:
Light waves and other electromagnetic waves
Longitudinal Waves
- one in which the vibrations are along the direction of the wave.
The region where the coils are pressed together is called compression.
The region where the coils are spread is called rarefaction.
Examples:
Sound Waves
Condensation
When a longitudinal wave forces particles closer together.
This results in a pulse of increased density and pressure.
Rarefaction
A zone of reduced density and pressure
Surface Waves
- Combinations of transverse and longitudinal waves .
- These waves occur at the surface between two media, such as water and air.
- The particles in a surface wave move both perpendicular and parallel to the
direction in which the wave travels.
- The up-and-down motions combined with the side-to-side motions produce a
circular motion.

Examples:
Water waves
Classifying waves by appearance
Traveling Waves
Appear to move.
Standing Waves
Do not appear to move.
Characteristics of Waves
Waves can be characterized through the following components:
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their equilibrium
position.
The height of the crests or troughs is equal to the amplitude of the wave.
The amplitude depends on the amount of energy the wave is carrying.
Wavelength
The distance between neighboring maximum displacements.
The distance between two successive crests or troughs, or between two
successive compressions or rarefactions.
Frequency
describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time.
f=

1
t

f frequency;

t = period

Speed/Velocity
the speed at which a wave travels.
Wave speed is related to wavelength, frequency, and period by the equation
wave speed = frequency x wavelength.
The most commonly used wave speed is the speed of visible light, an electromagnetic
wave.
Period
the time required for a wave to repeat itself, that is the time for one complete
wavelength to move past a given location.
Crests
The highest point of a wave.
Troughs
The lowest point of a wave

Parts of a Wave
Measures of a Wave
The speed or velocity of a wave is equal to the product of the wavelength () and the
frequency (f) of the wave.
v = f
The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz), one cycle per second.
Example:
If a dog whistle has a frequency of 30,000 Hz, what is the wavelength of the sound
emitted? (Approximate speed of sound = 340 m/s)
v = 340 m/s
f = 30,000 Hz = 30,000/s
= v/f
= 340 m/s/30,000/s
= 0.0113 m
Interaction of Waves
There are four ways how waves interact depending on several conditions.
Reflection
The bouncing back of wave after it strikes a boundary that does not absorb the
entire waves energy.
The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection

Refraction
The bending of waves due to change in speed.
Occurs when waves move at different speeds and in different mediums or
materials. As waves pass through these materials, it moves faster or slower.
Diffraction
The bending of waves around an obstacle.
The result of new series of waves being formed when the original waves strike an
obstacle.
Interference
The interaction or combination when two or more waves arrive or meet at the
same place and at the same time.
Constructive Interference
Waves combine in such a way that the disturbance that results is greater than
either wave alone.

Destructive Interference
The disturbance that results is less than either wave alone.

Two waves of equal amplitude but slightly different frequencies interfere destructively
and constructively. The result is an alternation of loudness called a beat.
Sound
The movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate the energy
is transferred through the substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound
is far less than other forms of energy.
Sound Energy
form of energy that is associated with vibrations of matter. It is a type of mechanical
wave which means it requires an object to travel through. This object includes air and
water. Sound originates from the vibrations that result after an object applies a force to
another object.
If the vibrational waves of a medium changes, the sound it produces will also change.

through air.

Sounds travels through a solid much faster

than through air.

Sound travels faster through a liquid such

as water faster than it travels

Dogs' ears are more sensitive than human ears which allow them to hear sounds that
humans cannot hear.
Flies cannot hear at all.
When whales communicate with each other under water, their sound can travel up to
800 km in the ocean
Properties of Sound
Frequency
The number vibrations per second which the ear receives.
Sounds with frequencies higher than 20,000 hertz are called ultrasonic.
Sounds lower than 20 hertz are called infrasonic.
Sounds of higher frequencies are called overtones.
Pitch
The highness or lowness of sound or tone.
Frequency determines the pitch of sound.
Intensity
The rate which sound energy moves in certain amount of time.
It determines the loudness of sound.
The greater the intensity of sound is the louder the sound to the

ear.

Intensity depends on the distance of source of sound and the kind

vibrating body.

of

The loudness of the sound depends on the waves amplitude.

Quality
Determined by the pleasantness of the sound to the ear.
Also called a timbre.
A tone is produced when the sound is regular but if the sound is irregular, it is producing
noise which is unpleasant to the ear.
Doppler Effect
the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving
relative to its source.
As the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren sound (a measure of
the siren's frequency) was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of
the siren sound was low.
Parts of the Ear
The Outer Ear
The portion of the ear that sits atop the skull, which is made of flesh and cartilage.

It is the visible part which serves to protect the eardrum. It also collects and guides
sound waves into the middle ear.

Pinna (ear flap)

This is the physical portion of the ear that you see on the side of your head,
which is used like a satellite dish to collect sound and transmit it inward where it can be
translated into the appropriate medium.
Meatus (ear canal)
This is the ear canal, which extends inward from the outer ear.
This 2 cm canal helps to amplify sound as it enters the middle ear so it can be
interpreted properly.
This area also contains cells which produce ear wax, which helps keep debris out of
the middle ear.
The Middle Ear
Contains tissue and bone but no skin, and is the area where sound is translated
into mechanical energy so it can pass through the body.
Most diseases such as ear infections will take hold in the middle ear, though some
can also affect the inner ear.
It translates sound waves from the outer ear into the form of pressure waves.
Malleus (Hammer)
The malleus or hammer of the ear is one of the smallest bones in the body.
It is connected to the ear drum, and will vibrate as the drum is hit by the sound
waves, passing the sound on to the rest of the ear.
Incus (Anvil)
The anvil bone or the incus sits on top of the hammer, and will collect the
vibrations coming from the hammer.
Stapes (Stirrup)
The stirrup or stapes sits below the anvil, and is the final bone in the inner ear to collect
and pass on sound. These sound waves will cause the stirrup to compress, compressing
the waves so they can be passed on to the inner ear.
Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
The eardrum, known scientifically as the tympanic membrane Is a thin piece of tissue
that is stretched between the outer and middle ear. It is called the drum because sound
waves will hit it and cause it to vibrate, which will take the sound from acting as wave
energy and translate it to mechanical energy that can travel through the rest of the ear.
The Inner Ear
The portion of the ear which is responsible for translating the message and sending it to
the brain where it can be interpreted. It is filled with fluid that helps to balance the ear
organs and comprise the hearing so it can be passed to the nerves.

Cochlea
This is a spiral tube that is covered in a stiff membrane. This membrane is filled
with nerve cells, commonly known as ear hairs. These hairs are each designed to pick up
on a different type of vibration, which hits in different frequencies. As the nerves begin to
vibrate they will turn these frequencies into an electrical pulse which will be sent up to
the brain. If the ear is exposed to sound that is too high pitched or too loud, these hairlike nerves can break off, and they will not grow back. This is one of the biggest
contributors to hearing loss.
Auditory Nerve
These nerves receive the electrical impulses generated by the ear and pass this
information up to the brain so it can be interpreted.
Semicircular Canals
These are attached to the cochlea, but do not spend much time interacting with
the hearing portion of ear function. Instead, these fluid filled tubes will turn and sway
with movement, helping you keep your balance.
Mechanism of Hearing
Sound energy is received by the pinna from the environment.
The it is transmitted inward through the ear canal that helps to amplify sound as it
enters the middle ear.
As sound reaches the tympanic membrane (eardrum), it is further amplified to
enhance the reception of soft sounds.
The high amplification of sound can be reduced to
very loud sounds.

protect ear against

A sound of sufficient loudness will trigger a set of muscles that tighten the eardrum
and lessen its responsiveness to the sound.
From the eardrum, a large fraction of the energy is passed by the three small
bones known as ossicles to the oval window.
The ossicles constitute a compound lever system which multiplies sound force
exerted on the oval window.
Soft Sounds
The lever system enhances the driving force to the inner ear, increasing ear
sensitivity.
Loud Sounds
The lever system is altered to reduce mechanical advantage.
The stirrup may actually pull away and break contact with the oval window,
strongly attenuating the sound signal to the inner ear.
The amplified mechanical force transmitted to the oval window by the ossicles
results in a hydraulic pressure in the cochlear fluid.

 The pressure is transmitted throughout the fluid , creating a wavelike ripple in the
basilar membrane.
The behavior of this wave as it travels through the cochlea is apparently the key to our
ability to distinguish different frequencies (pitches) of sound.
The pressure waves in the cochlea are converted to electrical impulses in the delicate
organ of Corti and are transmitted to the brain
Loudness of Sound
Decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure a sound's strength. The decibel scale is not
linear but logarithmic. This means that noise levels can't be added directly like other
numbers.

On the decibel scale, the smallest audible sound (near total silence) is 0 dB. A sound 10
times more powerful is 10 dB. A sound 100 times more powerful than near total silence is
20 dB. A sound 1,000 times more powerful than near total silence is 30 dB.

 Disorders of the Ear

Otosclerosis
Otosclerosis is the buildup of spongy or bone-like tissue in the middle ear that
prevents the ossicles, namely the stapes in the middle ear, from working properly. The
impaired movement and function reduces the sound that actually reaches the ear.
Otosclerosis usually results in conductive hearing loss, a hearing loss caused by a
problem in the outer or middle ear.
Mnire's disease
Mnire's disease affects the inner ear and the vestibular system, which is the
system that helps to maintain balance. In this disease, a part of the cochlea called the
organ of Corti becomes swollen, leading to a loss of hearing that may come and go over
time. It can also cause severe dizziness, lack of balance, tinnitus (ringing/buzzing sound
in the ears), ear pain, and pressure. The disease can exist in mild or severe forms.
Otitis Media
Infections of the middle ear are one of the most common reasons for children to
see a doctor. Three out of 4 children experience ear infection (otitis media) by the time
they are 3 years old. Children are more likely to have ear infections like otitis media that
come from bacteria or viruses than adults because of their developing ear anatomy.
Tinnitus
Also called ringing in the ears includes noises ranging from loud roaring to
clicking, humming or buzzing. Most tinnitus comes from damage to the microscopic
endings of the hearing nerve in the inner ear. Hearing nerve impairment and tinnitus can
be a natural accompaniment of advancing age. Exposure to loud noise is probably the
leading cause of tinnitus damage to hearing in younger people.
External Ear Infections
Also called Swimmers Ear are infections of the outer ear structures that may occur
when water gets trapped in the ear canal. In this warm, moist environment, bacteria
multiply causing irritation and infection of the ear canal.
Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease (AIED)
An inflammatory condition of the inner ear that occurs when the bodys immune
system attacks cells in the inner ear that are mistaken for a virus or bacteria.
Cholesteatoma

A skin growth that occurs in the middle ear behind the ear drum. This condition
usually results from poor eustachian tube function concurrent with middle ear infection
(otitis media), but also can be present at birth.
Applications of Sound
Bats use echoes to determine the location of its food and to navigate the black interior of
the cave.
Ships and submarines use sound waves to navigate and locate objects in the dark depths
of the ocean.
Sonar is a device used in commercial fishing to locate large schools of fish.
It is also used to find oil and minerals within the interior of the earth.
Sonar is also used by cars to calculate the distance from car nearby to avoid accidents
and also enables the car to park easily and safely.
Ultrasonic waves are also used to clean jewelry, electronic components, and delicate
machine parts.
Also used in medicine. It is directed into the body such as organs or bones.
Example of this is the ultrasound. Images like x-rays and developing fetus produced
during an ultrasound procedure.