Deepthi

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, multiport (multi input, multi output, multi inputmulti output) dcdc
convertors have been widely used in photovoltaic systems, wind generation, handheld and
portable consumer products (such as cell phones, digital cameras, MP3 players, and PDAs),
electric vehicles, and fuel cell systems.
These applications are composed of different sub modules, which require varied
voltage/current levels of power supplies. Conventionally, the transformer-based or inductorbased multiport dcdc converters are widely employed. However, the drawbacks of these types
of converters include the high component count, large circuit size, and higher electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
In this paper, two voltage levels as input, it is anticipated that the two voltage levels can
be converted to other voltage levels in order to suit different voltage needs for other electronic
appliances. There are circuits in this proposed method to create the summation, subtraction,
double, half, and inversion levels from the two voltage levels. Fig. 1 is the diagram of multilevel
dc conversion from two voltage levels.
In the previous work, the author has described how to get double, half, and inverted
voltage levels with one input. In this paper, the summation circuit and subtraction circuit will be
presented. The two circuits are similar to the double-mode, half mode, and inverting-mode
circuits; only two switching components, two diodes, one switching capacitor, and one output
filter capacitor are used in each circuit. Together with the other three original circuits, the whole
family of switched-capacitor convertor can convert two voltage levels to eight voltage levels.
Compared with the current mainstream dc power convertors that use inductor or transformer to
process energy switched capacitor convertors have no inductive component, small size, and
simple structure.
The new circuits ensure that the circuit size is small, power loss is very low, and
component count is small. This paper will describe in detail the summation circuit and
subtraction circuit. If the voltage is high, the switching currents are very high and oscillatory, and
S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E
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the devices are operated at hard switching. It not only induces large electromagnetic interference,
but also shortens the life of a convertor and more switching loss. Therefore, in this paper, the
concept is further extended. A small resonant inductor is used to limit the current transient, so
that the switches can be switched ON and OFF under the zero-current condition. The resonant
summation circuit is analyzed in detail and is one of the new members of the family. Its four
states of operation and the relationships among the resonant current voltage, and output current
are analyzed in this paper. They provide the basis for the design of the circuits. The simulation
and experiment of non resonant and resonant conversion circuits are completed to verify the
circuit performance in this paper.
Fig. 1. Diagram of a multilevel dc converter.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 TYPES OF CONVERTERS
AC DC Converter
DC AC Converter
AC AC Converter
DC DC Converter
2.1.1 AC-DC Converter (Phase-controlled Rectifiers):

These convert constant ac voltage to variable dc output voltage. These rectifiers use line
voltage for their commutation, as such these are also called line-commutated are naturallycommutated ac to dc converters. Phase controlled converters may be fed from one phase are
three phase source. These are used in dc drives, metallurgical and chemical industries, excitation
system for synchronous machines etc.
2.1.2 DC-AC Converter (inverters):

An inverter converts fixed dc voltage to a variable ac voltage. The output may be a
variable voltage and variable frequency. These converters use line, load or forced commutation
for turning-off the thyristors. Inverters find wide use in induction-motor and synchronous
motor drives, induction heating, UPS, HVDC transmission etc. At present , conventional
thyristors are also being replaced by GTOs in high-power applications and by power transistors
in low-power applications.
2.1.3 AC-AC Converter:

These convert fixed ac input voltage in to variable ac output voltage. These are of two
types as under:
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(a) AC voltage controller (AC voltage regulators):

These converter circuits convert fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac voltage at the same
frequency. AC voltage controller employs two thyristors in antiparallel or a triac. Turn-off of
both the devices is obtained by line commutation. Output voltage is controlled by varying the
firing angle delay. AC voltage controllers are widely used for lighting control, speed control of
fans, pumps etc.
(b) Cycloconverters:
These circuits convert input power of one frequency two output power at a different
frequency through one-stage conversion. Line commutation is more common in these converters,
though forced and load commutated cycloconverters are also employed. These are primarily used
for slow-speed large ac drives like rotary kiln etc.
2.1.4 DC-DC Converters:

A dc chopper converts fixed dc input voltage to a controllable dc output voltage. The
chopper circuits require forced, or load, commutation to turn-off the thyristors. For lower power
circuits, thyristors are replaced by power transistors. Classification of chopper circuits is
dependent upon the type of commutation and also on the direction of power flow. Choppers find
wide applications in dc drives, subway cars, trolley trucks, battery-driven vehicles etc.
2.2 DC-DC CONVERTERS

DC-DC converters are electronic devices used whenever we want to change DC electrical
power efficiently from one voltage level to another. They are needed because unlike AC, DC
cannot simply be stepped up or down using a transformer. In many ways, a DC-DC converter is
the DC equivalent of a transformer.
Typical applications of DC-DC converters are where 24V DC from a truck battery must
be stepped down to 12V DC to operate a car radio, CB transceiver or mobile phone; where 12V
DC from a car battery must be stepped down to 3V DC, to run a personal CD player; where 5V
DC on a personal computer motherboard must be stepped down to 3V, 2V or less for one of the
latest CPU chips; where the340V DC obtained by rectifying 240V AC power must be stepped
down to 5V, 12V and other DC voltages as part of a PC power supply; where 1.5V from a single
cell must be stepped up to 5V or more, to operate electronic circuitry where 6V or 9V DC must
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be stepped up to 500V DC or more, to provide an insulation testing voltage; where 12V DC must
be stepped up to +/-40V or so, to run a car high amplifiers circuitry; or where 12V DC must be
stepped up to 650V DC or so, as part of a DC-AC sine wave inverter.
In all of these applications, we want to change the DC energy from one voltage level to
another, while wasting as little as possible in the process. In other words, we want to perform the
conversion with the highest possible efficiency.
An important point to remember about all DC-DC converters is that like a transformer,
they essentially just change the input energy into a different impedance level. So whatever the
output voltage level, the output power all comes from the input; there is no energy manufactured
inside the converter. Quite the contrary, in fact some is inevitably used up by the converter
circuitry and components, in doing their job.
We can therefore represent the basic power flow in a converter with this equation:
Pin = Pout + P losses
Where Pin is the power fed into the converter,
Pout is the output power
P losses is the power wasted inside the converter.
Of course if we had a perfect converter, it would behave in the same way as a perfect
transformer. There would be no losses, and Pout would be exactly the same as Pin. We could
then say that:
Vin x Iin = Vout x Iout
or by re-arranging, we get:
Vout/Vin = In/Iout
In other words, if we step up the voltage we step down the current, and vice-versa.
Of course there is no such thing as a perfect DC-DC converter, just as there are no perfect
transformers. So we need the concept of efficiency, where:
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Efficiency(%) = Pout/Pin
Now a days some types of converter achieve an efficiency of over 90%, using the latest
components and circuit techniques. Most others achieve at least 80-85%, which as you can see
compares very well with the efficiency of most standard AC transformers.
2.3 Types of Dc-Dc Converters

There are many different types of DC-DC converter, each of which tends to be more
suitable for some types of application than for others. For convenience they can be classified into
various groups, however. For example some converters are only suitable for stepping down the
voltage, while others are only suitable for stepping it up; a third group can be used for either.
Another important distinction is between converters which offer full dielectric isolation
between their input and output circuits, and those which do not. Needless to say this can be very
important for some applications, although it may not be important in many others.
In this data sheet were going to look briefly at each of the main types of DC-DC
converter in current use, to give you a good overview. Well start first with those which do not
offer input-output isolation, and then progress to those which do.
2.3.1 Non-isolating converters

The non-isolating type of converter is generally used where the voltage needs to be
stepped up or down by a relatively small ratio (say less than 4:1), and there is no problem with
the output and input having no dielectric isolation.
There are five main types of converter in this non-isolating group, usually called the
buck, boost, buck-boost, Cuk and charge-pump converters. The buck converter is used for
voltage step-down/reduction, while the boost converter issued for voltage step-up. The buckboost and Cuk converters can be used for either step-down or step-up, but are essentially voltage
polarity reversers or inverters as well. (The Cuk converter is named after its originator, Slobodan
Cuk of Cal Tech university in California.) The charge-pump converter is used for either voltage
step-up or voltage inversion, but only in relatively low power applications.
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(a) BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER

In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage V in on one end of the inductor. This
voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor is OFF, the current will
continue flowing through the inductor but now flowing through the diode.
We initially assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the
voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the full OFF time.
The average voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the transistor provided the
inductor current is continuous.
Fig 2.3.1(a): Buck converter
Voltage and current changes
To analyze the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor current over one
cycle. From the relation
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. (1)
the change of current satisfies
. (2)
For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not change. To get a
simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across transistor or diode while ON
and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time Vx=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0. Thus
. (3)
Which simplifies to
(4)
or
(5)
and defining "duty ratio" as
. (6)
the voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the input and output
powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input and output current
must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption that the inductor current does
not reach zero.
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Transition between continuous and discontinuous
When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then either the transistor T1 or the
diode D1 must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage Vx is either Vin or 0. If the
inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will not be forced to either of these
conditions. At this transition point the current just reaches zero as seen in Figure (buck booster
boundary). During the ON time Vin-Vout is across the inductor thus
(7)
The average current which must match the output current satisfies
(8)
Buck Converter at Boundary

If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point satisfies
(9)
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Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous Mode)
As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral of voltage across the
inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The transistor OFF time is now divided into
segments of diode conduction ddT and zero conduction doT. The inductor average voltage thus
gives
(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0
(10)
Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction
(11)
for the case
. To resolve the value of
consider the output current which is half the
peak when averaged over the conduction times

(12)
Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time
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(13)
Thus from (6) and (7) we can get
(14)
using the relationship in (5)
(15)
and solving for the diode conduction
(16)
The output voltage is thus given as
(17)
Defining k* = 2L/(Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the voltage ratio of
the converter.
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The above figure shows Output Voltage vs Current

As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio depends
only on the duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends to increase the
output voltage of the converter towards Vin.
(b) BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER
The schematic in fig shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a higher output
voltage than input is required.
Fig 2.3.1(b): Boost Converter Circuit
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While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows through the
diode giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor current always remains
flowing (continuous conduction). The voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig. 7 and the
average must be zero for the average current to remain in steady state
(18)
This can be rearranged as
. (19)
and for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures
.. (20)
Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)
Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be higher than the
input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage.
(C)
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
In this the output voltage may be less than or greater than the input voltage. The
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Output polarities are opposite to the input polarity it is known as inverting regulator.
Fig2.3.1(c): buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor is ON and
Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a period the average voltage
across the inductor is zero
Waveforms for buck-boost converter

.. (21)
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which gives the voltage ratio
(22)
and the corresponding current
.. (23)
Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can vary between lower or higher
than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output
voltage.
CONVERTER COMPARISON
The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC converters is summarized in Fig. 10. Notice
that only the buck converter shows a linear relationship between the control (duty ratio) and
output voltage. The buck-boost can reduce or increase the voltage ratio with unit gain for a duty
ratio of 50%.
Comparison of Voltage ratio

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(d) CUK CONVERTER:
The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy between input and
output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage balance across the inductor. The CUK
converter uses capacitive energy transfer and analysis is based on current balance of the
capacitor. The circuit in Fig. below (CUK converter) is derived from DUALITY principle on the
buck-boost converter.
Fig 2.3.1(d): CUK Converter

If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially ripple free we can examine the
charge balance for the capacitor C1. For the transistor ON the circuit becomes
Fig: CUK "ON-STATE"

and the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode conducts and the current in C1
becomes IL2.
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Fig: CUK "OFF-STATE"

Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise ,the net current is zero
(24)
which implies
.. (25)
The inductor currents match the input and output currents, thus using the power conservation
rule
(26)
Thus the voltage ratio is the same as the buck-boost converter. The advantage of the CUK
converter is that the input and output inductors create a smooth current at both sides of the
converter while the buck, boost and buck-boost have at least one side with pulsed current.
2.3.2 Isolating converters

All of the converters we have looked at so far have virtually no electrical isolation
between the input and output circuits; in fact they share a common connection. This is fine for
many applications, but it can make these converters quite unsuitable for other applications where
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the output needs to be completely isolated from the input. Here is where a different type of
inverter tends to be used the isolating type.
There are two main types of isolating inverter in common use: the .fly back type and
the .forward type. Like most of the non-isolating converters, both types depend for their
operation on energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor or in this case, a transformer.
(a) Fly back converter

The basic circuit for a fly back type converter is shown in Fig.6. In many ways it operates
like the buck-boost converter of Fig.3, but using a transformer to store the energy instead of a
single inductor.
When MOSFET Q1 is switched on, current flows from th source through primary
winding L1 and energy is stored in the transformers magnetic field. Then when Q1 is turn off,
the transformer tries to maintain the current flow through L1 by suddenly reversing the voltage
across it. Generating a fly back pulse of back-EMF.
Q1 is chosen to have a very high breakdown voltage, though, so current simply cannot be
maintained in the primary circuit. But because of transformer action an even higher fly back
pulse is induced in secondary winding L2. And here diode D1 is able to conduct during the
pulse, delivering current to the load and recharging filter capacitor C1 (which provides load
current between pulses).
So as you can see, the fly back converter again has two distinct phases in its switching cycle.
During the first phase Q1 conducts and energy is stored in the transformer core via the primary
winding L1. Then in the second phase when Q1 is turned off, the stored energy is transferred into
the load and C1 via secondary winding L2.
The ratio between output and input voltage of a fly back converter is not simply a matter
of the turns ratio between L2 and L1, because the back-EMF voltage in both windings is
determined by the amount of energy stored in the magnetic field, and hence depends on the
winding inductance, the length of time that Q1 is turned on, etc.
However the ratio between L2 and L1 certainly plays an important role, and most fly
back converters have a fairly high turns ratio to allow a high voltage step-up ratio. Because of the
way the fly back converter works, the magnetic flux in its transformer core never reverses in
polarity. As a result the core needs to be fairly large for a given power level, to avoid magnetic
saturation.
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Because of this fly back converters tend to be used for relatively low power applications .
like generating high voltages for insulation testers, Geiger counter tubes, cathode ray tubes and
similar devices drawing relatively low current. Although it is not shown in Fig.6, a third
small winding can be added to the fly back transformer to allow sensing of the fly back pulse
amplitude (which is reasonably close to the output voltage Vout). This voltage can be then fed
back to the MOSFET switching control circuit, to allow it to automatically adjust the switching
to regulate the output voltage
.
Fig2.3.2(a) : Fly Back Converter
(b) Forward converter

In contrast with the flyback converter, where there are two distinct phases for energy
storage and delivery to the output, the forward converter uses the transformer in a more
traditional manner, to transfer the energy directly between input and output in the one step. The
most common type of forward converter is the push-pull type, and the basic circuit for this type
is shown in Fig.7. As you can see there are now two switching MOSFETs, Q1 and Q2,
connected to either end of a centre-tapped primary winding on the transformer. The positive side
of the input voltage source is connected to the centre tap. In operation, the switching control
circuit never turns Q1 and Q2 on at the same time; they.re turned on alternately. And since their
sources are connected back to the negative side of the input voltage, this means that the input
voltage is first connected across one half of the primary winding, and then across the other. So
current flows first in L1, and then in L2. This cycle is repeated over and over, continuously and
at a relatively high rate . often many tens or even hundreds of kilohertz. So in effect, the action
of Q1 and Q2 is to convert the DC input voltage into a high frequency AC square wave. As a
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result the transformers secondary delivers the same AC square wave, with a peak voltage
(during each halfcycle) equal to:
Vac (pk) = Vin x (L3/L1)
Where L3 and L1 (=L2) are the number of turns on each winding, not the inductance. So if
secondary winding L3 has 10 times the number of turns as each side of the primary, the
transformers peak output voltage will be 10 times the input voltage. As you can see, diodes D1
D4 are connected directly across the secondary winding as a bridge rectifier. So the AC square
wave that appears across L3 will be rectified back into high voltage DC, to feed the load and
maintain the charge on filter capacitor C1. And if we ignore the diode voltage drops, the DC
output voltage Vout will be equal to the peak AC output from the transformer . or in other words,
Vout = Vin x (L3/L1)
If you like, then, the forward converter is basically just a way of being able to use a transformer
for DC, by converting the DC energy into AC so the transformer can handle it. After being
transformed the AC is then rectified back into DC. Needless to say, once we have the energy in
the form of AC we can use the transformer to do pretty well anything we want step it up, step it
down, or any combination of the two. This becomes simply a matter of manipulating the turns on
the secondary winding, adding other secondary windings if we want to have multiple outputs,
and so on. Because the forward converter reverses the polarity of magnetic flux in the
transformer core for each alternate half-cycle, there is much less tendency to cause saturation
than in the fly back converter. So the transformer can be significantly smaller, for the same
power level. This together with the tighter and more predictable relationship between input and
output voltage makes the forward converter much more suitable for high power applications.
One important application for forward converters is in car high amplifiers, where they.re used to
step up the relatively low battery voltage to higher voltage supply rails, to allow the amplifiers to
develop higher power output. Another common use for the forward DC-DC converter is as the
heart of many modern multi-voltage switch mode power supplies, as found in computers, TV
sets and many other types of electronic equipment. In these cases the incoming AC mains voltage
is generally rectified straight away to produce 340V DC (in the case of 240V mains voltage),
which is then used to drive the forward converter. There may be three, four or even more
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secondary windings on the transformer, to produce the various low voltage DC supplies needed
by the electronic circuitry.
Fig 2.3.2(b): Forward Converter
2.5.3 Push Pull Converter:
Fig.2.3.2 Push pull converter

SMPS with push-pull configuration is shown in fig.2.3.2. It uses two power MOSFETS M1 and
M2 and a transformer with mid- taps on both primary and secondary sides. As in flyback
converter, an uncontrolled rectifier feeds push-pull SMPS. Inductor L and capacitor C are the
filter components.
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When M1 is turned on, Vs is applied to lower half of transformer primary, i.e.v1=Vs. As
a result, voltage v2=(Vs/N1) N2 is induced in both the secondary windings. Voltage v2 in the
upper half secondary forward biases diode D1, therefore load voltage Vo is given by
Vo=(Vs/N1)N2 = aVs.
When M2 is turned on, v1=-Vs is applied to upper half of primary winding.
Consequently, v2=-(Vs/N1)N2 is induced in both the transformer secondaries. As v2 is negative,
diode D2 gets forward biased and Vo=aVs as before.
This shows that voltage on primary swings from +Vs with M1 on to Vs with M2 on.
Power MOSFETS M1 and M2 operate with duty cycle of 0.5.When M1 is off, the voltage across
M1 terminals is Voc=2Vs.As both M1 and M2 are subjected to open-circuit voltage of 2Vs, this
configuration is suitable for low-voltage applications only.
TYPES OF SWITCHING DEVICES:

In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
A power electronic switch integrates a combination of power electronic components or
power semiconductors and a driver for the actively switchable power semiconductors. The
internal functional correlations and interactions of this integrated system determine several
DIODES:
In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with a nonlinear
currentvoltage characteristic. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a
crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube
diode (now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two
electrodes: a plate and a cathode
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check
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valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action.
Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward biased). The
voltage drop across a forward biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function
of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes have nonlinear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by
varying the construction of their PN junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that
perform many different functions.
Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals'
rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of
mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors
such as germanium are sometimes used.
A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has
impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers
(electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive
charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of
these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction,
is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts a current of electrons in a
direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not
in the opposite direction. However, conventional current flows from anode to cathode in the
direction of the arrow (opposite to the electron flow, since electrons have negative charge).
Another type of semiconductor diode, the Scotty diode, is formed from the contact
between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a pn junction.
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THYRISTORS:
A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating n and ptype material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current pulse,
and continue to conduct while they are forward biased (that is, while the voltage across the
device is not reversed).
Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous.
Circuit symbol for a thyristor
FUNCTION
The thyristor is a four-layer, three terminal semiconducting device, with each layer
consisting of alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals,
labeled anode and cathode, are across the full four layers, and the control terminal, called the
gate, is attached to p-type material near to the cathode. (A variant called an SCSSilicon
Controlled Switchbrings all four layers out to terminals.) The operation of a thyristor can be
understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the
self-latching action:
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Structure on the physical and electronic level, and the thyristor symbol.
Thyristors have three states:
1. Reverse blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would be blocked by a
diode
2. Forward blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would cause a diode to
conduct, but the thyristor has not yet been triggered into conduction
3. Forward conducting mode The thyristor has been triggered into conduction and will
remain conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold value known as the
"holding current"
INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT):
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor
device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many modern
appliances: electric cars, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners, and even stereo systems
with digital amplifiers. Since it is designed to rapidly turn on and off, amplifiers that use it often
synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width modulation and low-pass filters.
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs with the highcurrent and lowsaturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors by combining an isolatedgate FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single device. The
IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications such as switched-mode power supply,
traction motor control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically consist of many
devices in parallel and can have very high current handling capabilities in the order of hundreds
of amps with blocking voltages of 6,000 V.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
An examination of reveals that if we move vertically up from collector to emitter. We
come across p+, n- , p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as the combination of MOSFET and
p+ n- p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as the combination of MOSFET and p + n- p
transistor Q1 .Here Rd is resistance offered by n drift region. Approximate equivalent circuit of
an IGBT.
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MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of
this kind of transistor was first proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In MOSFETs, a
voltage on the oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two
other contacts called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or p-type (see article on
semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a pMOSFET (also commonly
nMOS, pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits,
though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.
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The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate
material is now often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the
gate material until the mid 1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to
form self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the
speed of operation of transistors without metal gates.
MOSFET OPERATION:
A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the
modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode and a gate
electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device regions by a gate dielectric
layer which in the case of a MOSFET is an oxide, such as silicon dioxide. If dielectrics other
than an oxide such as silicon dioxide (often referred to as oxide) are employed the device may be
referred to as a metalinsulatorsemiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS
capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional terminals (source and drain), each connected to
individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These regions can be
either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body
Page 27

region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by a '+' sign after the
type of doping.
If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'n+' regions
and the body is a 'p' region. As described above, with sufficient gate voltage, holes from the body
are driven away from the gate, forming an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between
the p region and the oxide. This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain,
and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between source and drain.
Increasing the voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer and
therefore increases the current flow between the source and drain.
For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and only a
very small sub threshold leakage current can flow between the source and the drain.
If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'p+' regions
and the body is a 'n' region. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is
applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but
with opposite polarities of charges and voltages.
When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for p-channel)
is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a very small sub threshold
current can flow between the source and the drain.
The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for nchannel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the
charge carriers leave the channel.
The device may comprise a Silicon On Insulator (SOI) device in which a Buried Oxide
(BOX) is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region between the gate
dielectric and a Buried Oxide (BOX) region is very thin, the very thin channel region is referred
to as an Ultra Thin Channel (UTC) region with the source and drain regions formed on either
side thereof in and/or above the thin semiconductor layer. Alternatively, the device may comprise
a Semiconductor On Insulator (SEMOI) device in which semiconductors other than silicon are
employed. Many alternative semiconductor materials may be employed.
Page 28
2.6 Comparison between IGBT and MOSFET
1.
2.
3.
4.
IGBT
Gate, Emitter, Collector
High input impedance
Voltage control device
Operating frequency is up to 50
KHz
5. High voltage ratings
6.
On State resistance is low
7.
On state voltage drop is low
1.
2.
3.
4.
MOSFET
Gate , source, drain
High input impedance
Voltage control device
Operating frequency is
up
to about 1MHz
5. Low voltage rating than IGBT
6. On state resistance is high
7. On state voltage drop is high
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES:
Switching losses can be reduced by employing slight topological modifications to
achieve soft switching technique or by employing new type of switching technique such as Zero
Current Switching (ZCS) or Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS). However, these methods cannot be
applied directly to the ready-made system. A flexible control platform is presented that allows
rapid prototyping of soft switching topologies.
The soft switching techniques have been adopted in the converter circuit. By the soft
switching techniques, the switching losses are ideally zero and the switching frequencies can be
increased to above the audible range. A DC-DC converter using soft switching buck converter is
proposed. This proposed converter consists of soft-switching buck converter.
To reduce the switching losses across the device there are two types of switching
techniques. They are:
1. Hard switching
2. Soft switching.
HARD SWITCHING:
Page 29

In the 1970s, conventional PWM power converters were operated in a switched mode
operation. Power switches have to cut off the load current within the turn-on and turn-off times
under the hard switching conditions. Hard switching refers to the stressful switching behavior of
the power electronic devices. The switching trajectory of a hard-switched power device.
During the turn-on and turn-off processes, the power device has to withstand high voltage and
current simultaneously, resulting in high switching losses and stress. Dissipative passive
snubbers are usually added to the power circuits so that the dv/dt and di/dt of the power devices
could be reduced, and the switching loss and stress are diverted to the passive snubber circuits.
However, the switching loss is proportional to the switching frequency, thus limiting the
maximum switching frequency of the power converters. Typical converter switching frequency
was limited to a few tens of kilo-Hertz (typically 20 kHz to 50 kHz) in early 1980s. The stray
inductive and capacitive components in the power circuits and power devices still cause
considerable transient effects, which in turn give rise to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
problems.
The large technological evolution in the Power Electronics area imposes that the static
converters must present small Volume, high efficiency and consequently high power density.
In order to reduce the volume and size of these converters, it is necessary to elevate their
switching frequency of operation. However, as known, the switching losses of semiconductor
devices are proportional to switching frequency as shown in the Fig 2.2 (a). In this way, to
minimize or even to eliminate the switching losses, the soft-commutation techniques have been
developed, improving the efficiency of the converters and permitting the increase of switching
frequency.
Page 30
(a) (b)
Fig.2.2 Typical Switching Waveforms of
(a) Hard-Switched and (b) Soft Switched Devices
SOFT SWITCHING:
Due to the Losses in hard switching across the devices, to reduce this we are going for
soft switching. Soft switching is referred as improving the efficiency of the converters and permit
the increase of switching frequency.
There are two types of Soft switching techniques. They are:I.

II.
Zero Voltage Switching

Zero Current Switching.
By the Soft-switching techniques, the switching losses are ideally zero and the
switching frequencies can be increased to above the audible range as shown in the Fig .2.2(b).
The concept was to incorporate resonant tanks in the converters to create oscillatory (usually
sinusoidal) voltage and/or current waveforms so that zero voltage switching (ZVS) or zero
current switching (ZCS) conditions can be created for the power switches. The reduction of
switching loss and the continual improvement of power switches allow the switching frequency
of the resonant converters to reach hundreds of kilo-Hertz (typically 100 kHz to 500 kHz).
Page 31

The soft-switched converters have switching waveforms similar to those of conventional
PWM converters except that the rising and falling edges of the waveforms are smoothed with
no transient spikes. Soft-switched converters usually utilize the resonance in a controlled manner.
Resonance is allowed to occur just before and during the turn-on and turn-off processes
so as to create ZVS and ZCS conditions. Soft-switching converters also provide an effective
solution to suppress EMI and have been applied to DC-DC, AC-DC and DC-AC converters.
In many high power applications, controllable switches such as GTOs and IGBTs have
replaced thyristors. However, the use of resonant circuit for achieving zero-current-switching
(ZCS) and/or zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) has also emerged as a new technology for power
converters. Comparison between hard and soft switching is shown in Fig. 2.3.
I
Safe Operating Area
On
Hard-switching
snubbered
Soft-switching
Off
Fig. 2.3Typical Switching Trajectories of Power Switches

2.5.3 ZERO CURRENT SWITCHING:
ZCS eliminates the switching losses at turn-off and reduce the switching losses at turnon. As a relatively large capacitor is connected across the output diode during resonance, the
converter operation becomes insensitive to the diodes junction capacitance. The major
limitations associated with ZCS when power MOSFETs are used are the capacitive turn-on
losses.
Page 32

Thus, the switching loss is proportional to the switching frequency. During turn-on, considerable
rate of change of voltage can be coupled to the gate drive circuit throughthe Miller capacitor,
thus increasing switching loss and noise. Another limitation is that the switches are under high
current stress, resulting in high conduction loss. It should be noted that ZCS is particularly
effective in reducing switching loss for power devices (such as IGBT) with large tail current in
the turn-off process.
CLASSIFICATION:
Resonant-ty pe DC-DC
Converters
Conventional Resonant
Converters
Quasi-Resonant Converters
Consta nt Frequency
Operation
Phase Shift-modula ted
Parallel Resonant
Converters
Consta nt Frequency
Operation
Varia ble Frequency
Operation
Load-Resonant Converters
Series Resonant
Converters
Multi-Resonant Converters
Variable Frequency
Operation
Series-Parallel
Resonant Converters
RESONANT SWITCH:
Prior to the availability of fully controllable power switches, thyristors were the major power
devices used in power electronic circuits. Each thyristor requires a commutation circuit, which
usually consists of a LC resonant circuit, for forcing the current to zero in the turn-off process.
This mechanism is in fact a type of zero-current turn-off process. With the recent advancement
in semiconductor technology, the voltage and current handling capability, and the switching
speed of fully controllable switches have significantly been improved.
Page 33

In many high power applications, controllable switches such as GTOs and IGBTs have
replaced thyristors. However, the use of resonant circuit for achieving zero-current-switching
(ZCS) and/or zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) has also emerged as a new technology for power
converters. The concept of resonant switch that replaces conventional power switch is
introduced in this section. A resonant switch is a sub-circuit comprising a semiconductor switch
S and resonant elements, Lr and Cr.
The switch S can be implemented by a unidirectional or bidirectional switch, which determines
the operation mode of the resonant switch. Two types of resonant switches, including zerocurrent (ZC) resonant switch and zero-voltage (ZV) resonant switches.
ZC RESONANT SWITCH:
Prior to the availability of fully controllable power switches, thyristors was the major
power devices used in power electronic circuits. Each thyristors requires a commutation circuit,
which usually consists of a LC resonant circuit, for forcing the current to zero in the turn-off
process. This mechanism is in fact a type of zero-current turn-off process.
In a ZC resonant switch, an inductor Lr is connected in series with a power switch S in
order to achieve zero-current-switching (ZCS). If the switch S is a unidirectional switch, the
switch current is allowed to resonate in the positive half cycle only. The resonant switch is said
to operate in half- wave mode. If a diode is connected in anti-parallel with the unidirectional
switch, the switch current can flow in both directions.
In this case, the resonant switch can operate in full wave mode. At turn-on, the switch
current will rise slowly from zero. It will then oscillate, because of the resonance between Lr and
Cr. Finally, the switch can be commutated at the next zero current duration. The objective of this
type of switch is to shape the switch current waveform during conduction time in order to create
a zero-current condition for the switch to turn off is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Page 34
Fig. 2.4:Zero-Current (ZC) Resonant Switch
Vi
CR1
Lr
i Lr
V Cr Cr
Lf
Df
Io
Cf
RL Vo
Fig: 2.4.1 Schematic Diagram of ZCS
Page 35
gate sig nal

to S
V i /Z
I Lr
IO
t0
t1
DS
Cr
Fig: 2.4.3 Circuit Waveforms of ZCS in Full-Wave mode
ZERO VOLTAGE SWITCHING:

ZVS eliminates the capacitive turn-on loss. It is suitable for high-frequency operation. For
single-ended configuration, the switches could suffer from excessive voltage stress, which is
proportional to the load. It will be shown that the maximum voltage across switches in halfbridge and full-bridge configurations is clamped to the input voltage.
For both ZCS and ZVS, output regulation of the resonant converters can be
achieved by variable frequency control. ZCS operates with constant on-time control, while ZVS
operates with constant off-time control. With a wide input and load range, both techniques have
to operate with a wide switching frequency range, making it not easy to design resonant
converters optimally.
ZV RESONANT SWITCH:
In a ZV resonant switch, a capacitor Cr is connected in parallel with the switch S for
achieving zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) is shown in Fig. 2.5. If the switch S is a unidirectional
switch, the voltage across the capacitor Cr can oscillate freely in both positive and negative halfcycle. Thus, the resonant switch can operate in full-wave mode.
Page 36

If a diode is connected in anti-parallel with the unidirectional switch, the resonant
capacitor voltage is clamped by the diode to zero during the negative half-cycle. The resonant
switch will then operate in half-wave mode. The objective of a ZV switch is to use the resonant
circuit to shape the switch voltage waveform during the off time in order to create a zero-voltage
condition for the switch to turn on.
Fig.2.5: Zero-Voltage (ZV) Resonant Switch
I Lr
D
V
Io
Lr
r
Lf
+
v oi
-
+
Vo
-
+ vc-
Fig. Schematic Diagram of ZVS
Page 37

1 cycle
I Lr
IO
t2
0
t0
t1
t1 '
t1 "
t
t2 '
t3
t4
t3
t4
vc
Z rIO
vi
0
t
t0 t1
t1 '
t1 "
t2
t2 '
Fig: 2.5.2 Circuit Waveforms of ZVS
COMPARISONS BETWEEN ZCS AND ZVS:

ZCS can eliminate the switching losses at turn-off and reduce the switching losses at
turn-on. As a relatively large capacitor is connected across the output diode during resonance,
the converter operation becomes insensitive to the diodes junction capacitance. The major
limitations associated with ZCS when power MOSFETs are used are the capacitive turn-on
losses. Thus, the switching loss is proportional to the switching frequency.
During turn-on, considerable rate of change of voltage can be coupled to the gate drive
circuit through the Miller capacitor, thus increasing switching loss and noise. Another limitation
is that the switches are under high current stress, resulting in high conduction loss. It should be
noted that ZCS is particularly effective in reducing switching loss for power devices (such as
IGBT) with large tail current in the turn-off process.
ZVS eliminates the capacitive turn-on loss. It is suitable for high-frequency operation.
For single-ended configuration, the switches could suffer from excessive voltage stress, which is
Page 38

proportional to the load. It will be shown that the maximum voltage across switches in halfbridge and full-bridge configurations is clamped to the input .
For both ZCS and ZVS, output regulation of the resonant converters can be achieved by
variable frequency control. ZCS operates with constant on-time control, while ZVS operates
with constant off-time control. With a wide input and load range, both techniques have to
operate with a wide switching frequency range, making it not easy to design resonant converters
optimally.
CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS OF LEVEL SHIFTING SWITCHED VOLTAGE COPIER
The switched-capacitor dcdc converter only uses capacitors for

energy storage. Its novel feature is that only capacitors and switches are required
in the power stage. The main advantage of this kind of converter is that no magnetic component
is required for storing energy, making it possible to fabricate a smaller size and lighter weight
converter in an IC. If we only have one dc power supply VS , the family of switched-capacitor
convertor that is presented in this paper can
transform it into 0.5VS , VS, or 2VS . And if we have two supplies VS 1 and VS 2 , it can
transform them into VS 1 + VS 2 or VS 1 VS 2 . So, using the switched-capacitor converter and
three distribution lines, two voltage levels can be converted into eight voltage levels. It includes
VS 1 + VS 2 , VS 1 VS 2, 2VS 1, 2VS 2 , 0.5VS 1, 0.5VS 2 , VS 1 , and VS 2 . Of course, for
higher order circuit, the 1/n and 1/n voltage levels and the conversion circuit for a different
voltage conversion ratio have been introduced. The present family introduced in this paper is for
the output voltage as shown in Fig. 1. Other complicated conversion ratio circuits can be derived
by deduction. The multilevel switched-capacitor converter is composed of
five kinds of switched-capacitor conversion circuits. It includes summation circuit, subtraction
circuit, double circuit, half circuit, and inverting circuit; these circuits are shown in Fig. 2. The
double, half, and inverting circuits have been presented , but the new summation and subtraction
circuits are presented in this paper. Each of the circuits used only two switches, two
Page 39

diodes and two capacitors. Therefore, the size of the circuits is very small and simple enough to
handle.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:
Five circuits are shown below . Switches Q1 and Q2 cannot be turned ON at the same
time; they can be triggered by a pair of half-bridge pulse signals. Each turn-on time can be half
or slightly less than half a period of switching frequency. The following analysis is based on a
circuit under steady-state conditions, and assuming that the input voltage VS and switching
devices are ideal and the capacitors C2 is large enough.
Summation circuit:
When Q1 is turned ON and Q2 is turned OFF, D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse
biased. The charging state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(a), VS 1 , C1 , Q1 , and D1 form a closed
loop. VS 1 charges C1 and the voltage across C1 is the same voltage as VS1, i.e., VC1=VS1.
Afterward, Q1 is turned OFF andQ2 is turned ON, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse
biased. The discharge state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(b). VS 2 , C1 , Q2 , D2 , and C2 form a
closed loop. C1 is connected in series with VS 2 and delivers the total voltage to C2 , so the
voltage across C2 is VS 2 + VC 1 . As discussed in the previous analysis, VC 1 = VS 1 , so the
output voltage is VO = VS 1 + VS 2.
Fig. Non-resonant summation circuit
Page 40
Fig (a) State circuits of the summation circuit . Charging state.
Fig (b) State circuits of the summation circuit . Discharging state.

Expected waveforms
Page 41
Subtraction circuit (suppose VS 1>VS 2 ):

biased. The charging state circuit is shown in Fig. 4(a). VS 1 , VS 2 , C1 , Q1 , and D1 form a
closed loop, and VS 1 is connected in series with VS 2 and charges C1 , so the voltage across
C1 is VS 1 VS 2 . Next, when Q1 is turned OFF and Q2 is turned ON, D2 is forward biased
and D1 is reverse biased. The discharging state circuit is shown in Fig. 4(b). C1, Q2, D2 , and C2
form a closed loop. C1 is connected in series with C2 , so the voltage across C2 is equal to VC
1 . As shown in the previous analysis,
Vc1 Vs1 Vs2
V0 Vs1 Vs2
, so the output voltage is
.The analyses of the double circuit, half circuit, and inverting circuit are the same as that of the
previous analysis. Q1 withD1 or Q2 with D2 works in the state of alternating conduction.
Page 42

Fig: Subtraction circuit
Fig (a) subtraction circuit Charging state.
When the switching frequency of Q1 and Q2 is large enough, and C2 is large, the output voltage
will remain a low-ripple stable value.
Fig (b) subtraction circuit Discharging state.
Page 43
Model waveforms:
Double circuit:
biased. The charging state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(a), VS , C1 , Q1 , and D1 form a closed loop.
VS charges C1 and the voltage across C1 is the same voltage as VS, i.e., VC1=VS. Afterward, Q1
is turned OFF andQ2 is turned ON, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The discharge
state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(b). VS , C1 , Q2 , D2 , and C2 form a closed loop. C1 is connected
in series with VS and delivers the total voltage to C2 , so the voltage across C2 is 2VS . As
discussed in the previous analysis, VC 1 = VS 1 , so the output voltage is VO = 2VS.
Page 44
Fig: Double circuit
Fig (a) Double circuit Charging state.
Fig (b) Double circuit Discharging state.
Page 45
Model Waveforms for double circuit:
Half circuit:
biased. The charging state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(a), VS , C1 , Q1 , D1 and C2 form a closed
loop. VS charges C1 and C2 the voltage across C1 is half of the supply voltage , i.e., VC1=VS/2.
Afterward, Q1 is turned OFF and Q2 is turned ON, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse
biased. The discharge state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(b). C1 , Q2 , D2 , and C2 form a closed
loop. C1 is connected in series with VS and delivers the total voltage to C2 , so the voltage across
C2 is VS/2 . so the output voltage is VO = VS/2.
Page 46
Fig: Half Circuit
Fig.(a) half circuit charging state
Fig.(b) half circuit discharging state

Model Waveforms of Half circuit:
Page 47
Inverting circuit:
biased. The charging state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(a), VS , Q1 , C1 , D1 and form a closed
loop. VS charges C1 the voltage across C1 is supply voltage , i.e., VC1=VS. Afterward, Q1 is
turned OFF and Q2 is turned ON, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The discharge
state circuit is shown in Fig. 3(b). C1 , Q2 , D2 , and C2 form a closed loop. C1 is connected in
series with VS and delivers the total voltage to C2 , so the voltage across C2 is -VS . so the output
voltage is VO = - VS.
Fig: Inverting circuit
Page 48
Fig(a): Inverting circuit Charging state
Fig: Inverting circuit discharge state

Model Waveforms of Inverting circuit:
Page 49
Analysis of a Resonant-Summation-Switched
Circuit:
A resonant-summation-switched circuit is shown in Fig. 5. When Q1 is turned ON while Q2
being OFF, D2 is reversely biased. Therefore, Vs 1 , Q1 , D1 , Lr , and C1 form a resonant loop
shown in Fig. 7(a).
Resonant summation circuits.

C1 begins to be charged, and the loop current increases from zero. Fig. 6 shows State I (time
from t0 to t1 ). The state equations are as follows:
Lr dilr / dt Vc1 Vs1
(1)
Page 50

ilr C1 dVc1 / dt
(2)
where VS 1 is the input voltage, VC 1 is the voltage across C1 , iLr is the current flowing through
resonant inductor Lr and is also the loop current. The average value of VC 1 is equal to VS 1 ,
and the solutions are as follows:
VC1 = VS1 VC1 cos o (t to ) (3)
iLr = ILm sin o (t to ) (4)
where o is resonant angular frequency and is equal to1/LrC1 ; ILm is the maximum of iLr and
is related to the output current Io ; VC1 = (VC1 max VC1 min)/2 is the
Page 51

Fig: Idealized waveforms of the resonant circuit.
oscillation amplitude of VC 1 ; and VC 1max and VC 1min are the maximum
and the minimum values of VC 1 , respectively. After Lr and C1 resonate for
half a cycle, the loop current has fallen to zero, and the resonance stops
because D1 is reverse biased. At that time, the voltage across C1 is
maximum VC1 max = VS1 +VC1 ; it will remain the same voltage until
t2 when Q2 is turned ON. During the time, current iLr = 0; it is shown in
State II (t1 to t2 ) of Fig. 6. The state circuit is shown in Fig. 7(b). At time t2 ,
Q2 is turned ON while Q1 being OFF, D1 is reversely biased. VS 2 , C1 , Lr ,
D2 , Q2 , and Vo , therefore, form a resonant loop. The state circuit is shown
in Fig. 7(c). The resonant current begins to increase in the opposite direction.
C1 starts discharging as shown in State III (t2 to t3) of Fig. 6. The state
equations are as follows:
Vs2 Vc1 Lr
dilr
dt
ilr C1
(5)
dvc1
dt
(6)
where VS 2 is another input voltage, and VO = VS 2 + VS 1 is the output voltage. The initial
states are VC1 (t2) = VS1 +VC, and iLr (t2) = 0. So, the solutions are the following:
VC1 = VS1 +VC1 cos o (t t2)
(7)
iLr = ILm sin o (t t2 ).
(8)
After resonant current increases, its amplitude in a sine-wave manner for half
a cycle, it will return to zero again, and the
Page 52
Fig.26: State Circuit Of The Resonant Summation Circuit State I (t0 to t1).
Fig.27: State Circuit Of The Resonant Summation Circuit State II (t1 to t2).
Fig.28: State Circuit Of The Resonant Summation Circuit State III (t2 to t3).
Page 53
Fig.29: State Circuit Resonant Summation Circuit State IV (t3 to t4 ).
C. Analysis of Oscillation Amplitude

In the summation circuit, C1 will experience the process of charging and discharging
during each switching cycle. The voltage changes from VS 1 VC 1 to VS 1 +VC 1 during the
charging process, and it changes from VS 1 + VC 1 to VS 1 VC 1 during the discharging
process. The amount of charges flowing through the resonant inductor Lr during the positive and
negative half resonant cycles should also be equal. Fig. shows the following waveforms:
It is followed that iLr is sinusoidal for charging and discharging:
iLr = ILm sin o t.
(12)
So, S1 and S2 should be equal to
Page 54

where T0 is the period of the resonant frequency, and ILm is the maximum of iLr . And during
one switching cycle, the number of charges released by the resonant circuit should be equal to
the number of charges flowing through the load, i.e., S = S1 = S2 , where S is
Here, TS is the period of the switching frequency, and Io is the average output current. Therefore,
the current oscillation amplitude can be calculated by (13) and (14):
(or)
From (9) and (13), one can get the relationship of _VC 1 and ILm
So, the oscillation amplitude of the voltage across C1 is
(or)
D. Design Considerations
Based on the previous analysis, the value of the resonant current and voltage can be calculated
by the values of C1 , Lr , and load; similarly, the value of C1 and Lr can be determined by the
Page 55

design requirements of the resonant current and voltage in the design process. And the resonant
subtraction circuit also has similar characteristics.
1) The switching frequency should be enough high; usually, it is higher than 100 kHz. The
resonant frequency should not be less than the switching frequency, i.e., fO .fS . This is the
condition of zero-current switching of switches.
2) The value of the switched capacitor C1 can be determined by (19):
3) The value of resonant inductor Lr can be determined by
When the value of T0 has been determined, Lr is, therefore,
4) C2 is of a large capacitance and has to maintain constant voltage for the output stage. Its value
can be estimated by the basic capacitor ripple voltage calculation
where = sin1 (fS /fO ). When fo is close to fs , one can get =0.324 and
Page 56
CHAPTER-4
SIMULATION RESULTS
4.1 NON RESONANT AND RESONANT SUMMATION CIRCUIT
Simulation of each circuit is separately conducted using PSIM6.0. The
focus was on the output voltage Vout and the voltage VC 1 across the
capacitor C1 in non resonant circuits Fig. 8(a) shows the simulation results of
Vout and VC 1 of the summation circuit. The input voltages VS 1 and VS 2
are 100 and 50V, respectively; the switching frequency is 100 kHz; both the
capacitors C1 and C2 are of 2.2 F; and the load R is of 100 . Same values
are taken for the resonant summation circuit and the value of L= 0.27H.
Page 57

Fig: 4.1(a) Simulation of Non Resonant circuit
Fig:4.1(b) Simulation of input and output voltages of Non Resonant circuit
Fig : 4.1(c) Simulation of Resonant circuit
Page 58
Fig:4.1(d) Simulation of input and output voltages of Resonant circuit
4.2 NON RESONANT AND RESONANT SUBTRACTION CIRCUIT

The subtraction circuit result is shown in Fig. 4.2(a). The simulation is
completed with the switching frequency 100 kHz, C1 = 4 F, C2 = 2 F, and
RL = 100 . Input voltages VS 1 = 100v and VS 2 = 50v, the output and VC 1
should be equal to the difference between VS 1 and VS 2 , which is 50v and
the same values are taken for the resonant subtraction circuit and the
inductor value L= 0.27 H.the resonant subtraction circuit is shown in fig 4.2( C).
Fig:4.2(a)Simulation of Non Resonant circuit
Page 59
Fig:4.2(c) Simulation of Resonant circuit

Page 60
4.3 NON RESONANT AND RESONANT DOUBLE CIRCUIT

The double circuit has only one input source VS . At first, it uses C1 to
copy the voltage of VS , and then, C1 is connected in series with Vs and
delivers the double of the input voltage to C2 . The switching frequency is
100 kHz; input is 50V; C1 and C2 both equal to 2.2 F; R is 100 ; and the
output Vout and VC 1 are shown in Fig. 4.3(b). In Resonant double circuit L
=0.27H Vout and Vc is shown in fig 4.3(d).
Fig:4.3(a)Simulation of Non Resonant circuit
Page 61
Fig:4.3(c)Simula
tion of Resonant circuit
4.4 NON RESONANT AND RESONANT HALF CIRCUIT

In Fig. 4.4(c), C1 and C2 are connected in series to copy the input
voltage in the half model. Therefore, at time t = 0 + when it is in the initial or
the zero state, when switch Q1 is turned ON and Q2 has never been turned
ON yet, the voltage across C1 and C2 should be proportional to their
reciprocal. This is shown in Fig. 4.4(c). The switching frequency is 100 kHz;
input is 50V; capacitor C1 is 4 F; C2 is 2.2 F; and load R is 100 . VC 2 is
equal to 2VC 1 , and the sum of VC 1 and VC 2 is equal to the input voltage
VS . But, then, Q1 will be OFF and Q2 will be ON. C1 is connected in parallel
with C2 and will be repeated like this in the next switching cycle. The
average value of VC 1 will be equal to the average of VC 2 .
Page 62
Fig: 4.4(a) Simulation of Resonant circuit
Page 63

Fig: 4.4(c) Simulation of Resonant circuit
4.5 NON RESONANT AND RESONANT INVERTING CIRCUIT

In the inverting circuit, the switching frequency is 100 kHz, VS = 12V, C1 = C2 = 4 F, R
= 100. C1 is connected to C2 in an anti parallel manner. The voltage across C2 should be equal
VC 1 . C1 is the voltage copier of the input source, so VC 2 is equal to VS as shown in Fig.
4.5(b). The aforementioned converters are improved by a resonant inductor. Fig. 4.5( c) shows
the simulation of the resonant summation circuit. The focus has been on the output stability, the
oscillation amplitude of resonant current and voltage, and the switching current and voltage.
Fig: 4.5(a) Simulation of Non Resonant circuit

Page 64
Fig: 4.5(c) Simulation of Resonant circuit
Page 65
CONCLUSION
The LSSVC is a multilevel multi input converter with simple structure and small size. It
can convert two voltage levels to eight voltage levels. The proposed circuit aims to provide a
solution for the summation and subtraction of two voltages. When two voltage sources share a
common ground or neutral, the summation and subtraction is usually difficult because they
cannot be connected together; otherwise, there are short-circuit faults. The proposed circuit can,
therefore, provide such a solution.
The application is that, for example, there are two voltages and three distribution lines,
we can then generate a summation or differential voltage using the proposed circuit. However, if
the two voltage sources have different grounds or isolated grounds, we can simply connect them
Page 66

together to obtain the required summation or differential voltage. This is less challenging for
research and industrial applications.
The output levels of the proposed family include a summation level, a subtraction level,
two half levels, two double levels, and two inverting levels. The family of the copier circuit
includes five kinds of circuit: summation circuit, subtraction circuit, half circuit, double circuit,
and inverting circuit. The summation and subtraction circuits are the same as other circuits,
which include only two switching devices, two diodes, and two capacitors. Experimental results
indicated that the copier can convert two voltage levels to more levels easily. But there is no
inductor installed to limit the current transient when a capacitor is connected to two different
voltages; hence, the switching current is very high.
Therefore, this voltage copier only can be used to output low power which is less than
20W. A small resonant inductor is introduced to limit current, and
It avoids the shortcomings of switching current being too large. Switches are turned ON
and OFF with the zero-current condition, so the switching loss is very low. Experimental results
indicated that the copier can output very stable voltage with high power. The resonant current is
limited and has a smooth transient during turnon and turnoff. With sufficient high switching
frequency and large-output filter capacitor, the voltage copier can be designed to the power up to
500W and with a stable output voltage. The summation and subtraction circuits as the new
members of the family and the new topologies and detailed analysis of them are presented in this
paper. The summation circuit can output the summation voltage of two input sources.
For example, there are two dc generators VS 1 and VS 2 , and the summation circuit can
achieve high-voltage output without direct series connection of the two generators but still
maintain the same common neutral. And the subtraction circuit can output the differential voltage
of two input sources. The LSSVC is efficient in both power and cost. One circuit only uses seven
electronic devices, and the trigger circuit is very simple because the switching frequency can be a
constant. So, the design and production cost is very low. On the other hand, the characteristic of
zero-current switching minimizes the loss and EMI, and hence, the switching frequency can be
further increased and the size of the capacitor can be decreased. Therefore, it is expected that it
could contribute to the application of dc distribution development.
Page 67
REFERENCES
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Page 69

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LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Fig. 1. Diagram of a multilevel dc converter.

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

2.1.1 AC-DC Converter (Phase-controlled Rectifiers):

2.1.2 DC-AC Converter (inverters):

2.1.3 AC-AC Converter:

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

(a) AC voltage controller (AC voltage regulators):

2.1.4 DC-DC Converters:

2.2 DC-DC CONVERTERS

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

2.3 Types of Dc-Dc Converters

2.3.1 Non-isolating converters

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

(a) BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER

Fig 2.3.1(a): Buck converter

Voltage and current changes

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Buck Converter at Boundary

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction

for the case

. To resolve the value of

consider the output current which is half the

peak when averaged over the conduction times

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

The above figure shows Output Voltage vs Current

Fig 2.3.1(b): Boost Converter Circuit

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Fig2.3.1(c): buck-boost converter

Waveforms for buck-boost converter

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Comparison of Voltage ratio

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Fig 2.3.1(d): CUK Converter

Fig: CUK "ON-STATE"

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

Fig: CUK "OFF-STATE"

2.3.2 Isolating converters

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

(a) Fly back converter

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

(b) Forward converter

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER

S.V. College Of Engineering For Women, Dept of E.E.E

LEVEL-SHIFTING MULTIPLE- INPUT SWITCHED- CAPACITOR VOLTAGE COPIER