Department of Chemical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Assam - 781 039

Syllabus
Design of heat exchangers; mechanical and fabrication aspects. Design
of condenser, reboiler, and evaporator
Texts:
1. D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Int. ed. 1965.
2. Dutta B.K., Heat Transfer-Principles and Applications, PHI Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1st ed,
2006.
3. R. K. Sinnott, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering: Chemical Engineering
Design (volume 6), Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd ed, 1999.
4. Indian Standard (IS: 4503-1967): Specification for Shell and Tube Type Heat
Exchangers, BIS 2007, New Delhi.

What is a heat exchanger (HE)

A heat transfer equipment is a device in which two media, one hot
and another cold, are brought into thermal contact for efficient
heat transfer i.e. heat may be transferred from liquid to liquid, liquid
to gas/air, liquid to solid and so on
It provides a relatively large area of heat transfer for a given volume
of the equipment
Construction also caters for easy cleaning and maintenance of
equipment

 Exchangers recovers heat between two process streams. Steam and cooling
water are utilities and are NOT considered in the same sense as recoverable
process streams
Heaters are used primarily to heat process fluids and, steam is usually employed for
this purpose. Although oil refineries hot recirculated oil serves the same purpose
Coolers are employed to cool process fluids. Water is the main cooling medium.
Condensers are coolers whose primary propose is removal of latent heat instead
of sensible heat
Reboilers supplies heat requirement of a distillation process as latent heat
Evaporators are used to concentrate a solution by evaporation of water. If any other
fluid is vaporized besides water, the unit is a vaporizer

Design of Heat Exchanger

o Process design or Thermal design
o Mechanical design

Unit Conversion

Viscosities of Liquids (page 822, DQ Kern)

[Coordinates to be used with Figure -A]

Viscosities of Petroleum Fraction (page 821, DQ Kern)

[Coordinates to be used with Figure -A]

(page 823, DQ Kern)

Figure - A

(pages 804-805, DQ Kern)

Specific heats of liquids

Specific heats of gases @ 1 atm

Classification of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchanger may have singe or two
phase flow on each side

Fixed tubesheet

Flow

U-tube

Shell & tube

Cross

Parallel

Counter

Removable bundle
Tubular

Spiral tube

Double pipe
Finned tube
Indirect
contact-type

Extended surface
Finned plate
Gasketed plate

Recuperative
Plate

Lamella

Direct
contact-type

Heat
Exchanger

Disk type
Rotary
regenerator
Regenerative

Drum type
Fixed-matrix
regenerator

Spiral plate

Floating head

Advantages and Limitations

Counter flow heat exchangers
Parallel (co-current) flow heat exchangers

Cross flow heat exchangers

Cross flow heat exchangers: How does it work

o Heat exchanger is easier to manufacture and thus cheaper

o Main disadvantage is the physical efficiency limitation i.e. lower temperature drop at both
ends
o Efficiency is therefore less, even when a very large exchange surface area is provided. In an
optimal scenario it reaches about 70% efficiency.

Cross-flow heat exchanger: LMTD correction factor

Regenerative or storage type heat exchanger (more commonly a regenerator): Heat is

transferred from hot fluid to cold fluid through a coupling medium in the form a porous
matrix/packing. Hot and cold fluids flow alternatively through the matrix; hot fluid storing heat in it
and cold fluid extracting hear from it
Collection and release of heat can be achieved in two modes. On a batch basis, as in the
checkerbrick regenerator for blast furnaces, or on a continuous basis, as in the Ljungstrom
air heater

Blast-furnace stove

Ljungstrom air heater

Recuperative or direct type heat exchanger: In which the

cold and hot fluids flow simultaneously through the device
and heat is transferred through a wall separating the fluids
Simplest configuration for a recuperative heat exchanger
is the metallic radiation recuperator. Inner tube carries the
hot exhaust gases and the outer tube carries the
combustion air. Bulk of the heat transfer from the hot
gases to the surface of the inner tube is by radiation, the
whereas that from the inner tube to the cold combustion
air is predominantly by convection.
Shell-and-tube heat and, double pipe exchangers may
also be used as recuperators. Convective heat transfer
dominates in these recuperators.
Cold fluid in

Hot fluid in

Diagram of a metallic
radiation recuperator

Hot fluid out

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Cold fluid out

Common Types of Heat Exchangers (HE)

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Plate Heat Exchanger

Plate Type Heat Exchangers: Invented by Dr. Richard Seligman in 1923

o Was first used for milk pasteurization in Germany

Gasketed Plate Heat Exchanger

o Channel gap ~2 to 10 mm
o Compact HE: Surface area density > 700 m2/m3

Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger

Lamella Type Heat Exchanger

Gasket
Mechanical seal used to fill the space between two or more surfaces to prevent the
leakage of the flowing fluid
Gasket materials:
Asbestos
Composites (typical made from asbestos or graphite
Metals
Rubbers
Plastics
Corks etc.

Extended Surface Heat Exchangers

Finned Tube Heat Exchanger

Finned Plate Heat Exchanger

Tubular Heat Exchangers

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Spiral Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell- and- Tube Heat Exchanger

Direct Contact Heat Exchangers

Cooling Tower

DESIGN OF DOUBLE PIPE

HEAT EXCHANGER

(Concentric) Double Pipe Heat Exchanger (HE)

Perhaps the simplest of all types of HE in terms of construction and well suited when one
or both the fluids is at high pressure and total required heat transfer area is small 100
(10) to 200 (20) ft2 (m2) or less
An axially-finned inner tube is used if heat transfer co-efficient is low
Principal components: Concentric pipes, two connecting Tees and a return head and a
return bend

 Inner pipe is supported within outer pipe by packing glands. Tees have nozzles or
screwed connection to permit entry and exit of annulus fluid
Two lengths of inner pipe are connected by return bend which is usually exposed
and does NOT provide effective heat transfer surface. When arranged in two legs
(as in Figure below), the unit is hairpin
Double pipe exchangers are usually assembled in 12, 15 or 20 ft effective length
(distance over each leg over which heat transfer occurs)

Source: Google images

Typical Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Fittings

Outer pipe (IPS), inch

Inner pipe (IPS), inch

5/4

5/2

5/4

IPS: Iron Pipe Size

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Design Calculations

When a hot fluid stream and a cold fluid stream, separated by a conducting wall, the rate of
heat transfer across the separating wall is expressed by Fouriers law :
=
(1)

Q = Heat transfer across the wall (W)

A =Heat transfer area (m2)
tm = Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) (F; C; K)
Ud = Overall heat transfer co-efficient considering fouling or dirt factor Rdo and Rdi
FT = LMTD correction factor
Ud can be expressed:

+
+

0
[Neglect wall resistance on tube site resistance is small]

=
+ +

kw = Thermal conductivity of tube wall material (Btu/h ft F; W/m.K; kcal/h.m .C)

ho and hi = Outside and inside heat transfer coefficient (Btu/h.ft2.F; W/m2.K)
Ao and Ai = Outside and inside individual heat transfer area of inner tube (m2; ft2)
ro and ri = Outside and inside heat transfer radius of inner tube (m; ft)
Rdo and Rdi = Fouling factor at outside and inside of inner tube (h.ft2.F/Btu/; m2.K/W)

Typical values of fouling coefficients and resistances (Rd)

Fluid

Coefficient (W.m-2.C-1)

Resistance (m2.C.W-1)

River water
Sea water
Cooling water (towers)
Towns water (soft)
Towns water (hard)
Steam condensate
Steam (oil free)
Steam (oil traces)
Refrigerated brine
Air and industrial gases
Flue gases
Organic vapors
Organic liquids
Light hydrocarbons
Heavy hydrocarbons
Boiling organics
Condensing organics
Heat transfer fluids
Aqueous salt solutions

3000-12000
1000-3000
3000-6000
3000-5000
1000-2000
1500-5000
4000- 10000
2000-5000
3000-5000
5000-10000
2000-5000
5000
5000
5000
2000
2500
5000
5000
3000-5000

0.0003-0.0001
0.001-0.0003
0.0003-0.00017
0.0003-0.0002
0.001-0.0005
0.00067-0.0002
0.0025-0.0001
0.0005-0.0002
0.0003-0.0002
0.0002-0.000-1
0.0005-0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0005
0.0004
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003-0.0002

Calculation of Individual Heat Transfer Coefficient

For Laminar flow through circular pipe, individual heat transfer co-efficient can be calculated from
Sieder-Tate equation :
.
/

= .
,
<
/

L = Pipe length
d = Pipe diameter
Equivalent diameter (dH) for annular section should be used:

=

=
, =

= Average heat transfer coefficient over the pipe length L including the entrance length

This correlation is applicable when :

( =

(
)

( )

i.

0.48<Pr <16700

ii.

0.0044 < < 9.75, =Viscosity at bulk fluid temperature, w=at wall temperature (Tw)

iii.

(Pe. d/L) > 108

( = . )

For Turbulent Flow:

For fully developed turbulent flow through a pipe, Dittus & Boelter correlation can be used.
= 0.023 0.8
Where, n=0.4 for heating (Tw > Tbulk fluid)
n=0.3 for cooling (Tw < Tbulk fluid)

This correlation is applicable when:

i.
0.7 Pr 160
ii. d/L < 0.1
iii. Re 10,000
Above correlation is applicable for moderate values of temperature difference between
the wall and bulk
Fluid properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the bulk temperature (average
of inlet & outlet temperature of the fluid)

If the temperature difference is substantial

Effect on the fluid properties, particularly on viscosity needs to be taken into account
For such cases Sieder-Tate equation is used:
= .

Conditions:
i.
0.7 Pr 16,700
ii. d/L 0.1
iii. Re 10,000

Calculation of Caloric Temperature

The ratio of LMTD for constant U and true temperature difference at varying U can
be used for finding a true mean overall heat transfer coefficient rather than
arithmetic mean
Variation of U is expressed as = +

Caloric temperature of the hot fluid is given by : Thc T2 FC (T1 T2 )

Caloric temperature of the cold fluid is given by :

tcc t1 FC (t2 t1 )

API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity: Deg. API =

Where, = Sp. gravity of fraction at 15.6C/15.6C

Caloric Temperature: DQ Kern, page 93-97

Caloric Temperature, Fc

Fc

tc T2 t1

t h T1 t 2

For Transition region : 2100 < Re <104

Hausen equation is used:
/

= .

 Calculation of Tube Wall Temperature

= =
T cavg Cold fluid (outer side)
T w hot fluid

Thavg (inner side)

Now, =

Calculate Tw , hi and ho. Assume

Flow through non-circular duct:

Correlation are also applicable for flow through non-circular duct but the
equivalent diameter of the duct should be used
Equivalent diameter (dH) is four times the hydraulic radius (rH):

() =

() =
Wetted perimeter of a duct may be different in case of heat transfer
calculation and pressure drop calculation

Equivalent Diameter for Pressure drop:

do
Di

Both the wall forming annulus contribute to fraction pressure drop:

, =

Equivalent Diameter for Heat transfer:

Wetting the outer wall of the inner tube only becomes relevant to calculate heat
transfer coefficient in the annulus

, =
=

Different Reynolds number due to different value of dH,Pr and dH,heat

Series-Parallel Configuration and LMTD Correction Factor

LMTD has to be used as average driving force
For counter flow double-pipe exchanger, LMTD correction factor does not require (FT = 1)
Deviation from true counter-current flow causes a change in the average driving force and
a correction factor is introduced
Advantages: Tube side & annulus-side fluids can be spitted at different proportion to
reduce pressure drop in tube side

Double pipe heat exchanger in Series

Series-Parallel arrangement

LMTD Correction Factor (FT)

( )
( )
=
( )

( )

( )

( )
=
( )
( )
+
( )

= and =

( )

( = )

Where
= Number of parallel branches
and =Intel and outlet temperature of series stream
and =Intel and outlet temperature of parallel stream

Design Procedure of Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Setp #1: Calculate thermophysical properties of the fluids at arithmetic mean
temperature (average of inlet and outlet temperature in case of both hot & cold
streams) or at calorific temperature:
Step #2: Calculate heat load:
= =
Cold fluid : Mass flow rate= (or w) and specific heat capacity = Cpc (or c)
Hot fluid: Mass flow rate= (or W) and specific heat capacity = Cph (or C)
Tc1
Th2

Th1

Tc2

Step #3: Calculate LMTD assuming counter-current flow if there is no specific reason
Step #4: Select the diameters of the inner and outer pipes. There are no rules for this
purpose. It primarily depends on flow rates of streams
Smaller diameter :
high velocity, Re will be high, larger will be heat transfer coefficient
It will give larger pressure drop

If the allowable pressure drops of the individual streams are given, this may provide a
basis of reflection of tube/pipe diameters
Step #5: Calculate Re number for both tube side and fluid flowing through annulus.
Calculate hi and ho from Sieder-Tate or proper correlation or from JH -chart assuming
.

= .

Both JH factor charts are wrong ( next 2 slides

and similar slides given after)

Colburn factor (jH) for tube-side heat transfer

Reynolds number, Re=

Dittus-Boelter and Sieder-Tate equations may be used

to calculate the tube-side heat transfer co-efficient

Step #6: Calculate Tw (tube wall temperature) from hi and ho [

Step #7: Calculate

.
=

. ]

0.14
at Tw

Step #8: Recalculate hi and ho from Nusselt number correlation or using JH -factor.
Convert hi to hio =
Step #9: Choose suitable dirt factor and calculate overall heat transfer coefficient
considering dirt factor
Step #10: Calculate LMTD correction factor (FT) and calculate heat transfer area (A)
Step #11: Use a number of hairpin in series if length is large

Step #12: Calculate pressure drop for both annulus fluid and tube fluid
If pressure drops does not matches allowable pressure drops, then- Select different diameters of inner and outer pipes
- Switch the fluids (interchange fluid arrangement)
- Split flow stream (tube side fluid & annulus fluid)
Allowable Pressure drop of 5 to 10 psi is customary except where the flow is by
gravity. For each pumped stream 10 psi is fairly standard
For gravity flow, pressure drop is determined by the elevation of final fluid outlet
from the storage vessel

Step #13: Calculate over-surface & over-design

Pressure Drop Calculation

(A). Pressure drop in the straight section of pipe is calculated from (frictional loss):

=
()
.
L=Tube length or length of straight section, (ft)

G =Mass velocity

lbm
hr.ft2

or mass flow rate

flow area

di = ft (Inner tube diameter or dH of annulus)

s, f & are dimensionless
s=specific gravity, (=62.5s, lbm
=
=
=

/ft3)];

(Laminar flow in inner pipe)

[Laminar flow
+ +()/

in annulus]

do= O.D. of inner pipe, Di=I.D. of outer pipe

For commercial pipe and turbulent flow (Re 3,000), for both inner pipe and the annulus:
= . .

F factor charts are wrong. Check it

Friction factor, f

Tube-side friction factors

Reynolds number, Re=

(B) Return loss:

When hair-pins are connected in series, both the fluids make an additional 180
change of direction between the outlet of hairpin and the inlet of the next hairpin
Pressure drop (psi) resulting from direction changes for both inner pipe and annulus
fluids :
= . ( ) /
(Laminar flow, Re 500)
= . ( ) / (Turbulent flow)
N = Number of hairpins connected in series

(C) Entrance and Exit losses

Inner pipe: Entrance and exit losses for flow through inner pipe of a double-pipe
exchanger are generally negligible because; connections to process piping are
inline and losses are mainly size mismatches
Annulus side: Fluid enters and leaves through standard nozzle, where it
experiences a sudden expansion (entering) and contraction (leaving)
The nozzle losses are given as (psi) :
= . / (Laminar flow, Ren 500)
= . / (Turbulent flow)
Gn and Ren are the mass flux and Reynolds number for the selected nozzle sizes

Total pressure drop in Inner tube = +

Total pressure drop in Annulus = + +

Over-surface and Over-design

Over-surface is a measure of the safety factor incorporate in the design of a heat
exchanger through fouling factors
It deals directly with exchanger surface area and easier to visualize than fouling factors
and calculated versus required heat transfer coefficients

% =

A = Actual heat transfer area in the exchanger (calculated from tube length and diameter.
Consider number of hair pins also)
Ac = Calculated heat-transfer area based on clean overall heat transfer co-efficient Uc

Over-surface depends on the relative magnitudes of total fouling allowances & the film and
wall resistances
Typical value: 20-40 %, however higher values are not unusual

Over design represents extra surface area required beyond to compensate for fouling

% =

[ Exact area required for design using Fouriers equation]

Typical value 10% or less is acceptable

Problem: 5000 lb/h of benzene will be heated from 60 to 120F by exchanging heat with
an aniline stream, that will be cooled from 150 to 100F. A number of 12 ft hairpins
consisting of 2-inch by 1.25 inch schedule stainless steel (type 316, kw=9.4 Btu/h.ft.F)
are available and will be used for this purpose. Maximum allowable pressure drop is 5
psi for each stream. Design the configuration and determine the number of hair-pins
required.
Fluid Property

Benzene (90F, avg)

Aniline (125F, avg)

(cP)

0.55

2.0

Cp (Btu/lbm.F)

0.42

0.52

k (Btu/h ft.F)

0.092

0.1

s (Specific gravity)

0.879

1.022

Rd (h.ft2.F/Btu)

0.001

0.001

2 inch schedule 40 : ID= 2.067 inch, OD=2.375 inch, thickness =0.154 inch
1.25 inch schedule 40: ID=1.38 inch, OD=1.66 inch, thickness =0.140 inch
Nozzle: 1.0 inch schedule 40 (flow area= 0.006 ft2)

DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE

HEAT EXCHANGER

http://www.rexheatexchanger.com/

Classification of Shell and tube heat exchanger

1.

Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle): Simplest and cheapest

type of shell and tube exchanger is with fixed tube sheet design. Tube sheet is welded
to shell
Advantages
Less costly than removable bundle designs
Provides maximum amount of surface for a given shell and tube diameter
Single and multiple tube passes to assure proper velocity
Limitations
Shell side can be cleaned only by chemical methods
No provision to allow for differential thermal expansion, must use an expansion joint

Fixed tube sheet: 1-1 pass STHE

Fixed tube sheet: 1-2 pass STHE

Source: Google images

2. Removable tube bundle (Floating-head and U-tube exchanger: Tube bundle may be
removed for ease of cleaning and replacement

2a. Floating-head exchanger: Consists of a stationery tube sheet which is clamped with the shell
flange
Advantages
Tubes may expand into a freely riding floating-head at opposite end of the bundle
A floating head cover is bolted to the tube sheet and the entire bundle can be removed for cleaning
and inspection of the interior
Limitations
Tube side passes limited to single or two pass design
All tubes are attached to two tubesheets. Tubes cannot expand independently

Source: Google images

Kettle type reboiler

Source: Google images

2b. U-tube exchanger: Consists of tubes which are bent in the form of a U and rolled back
into the tube sheet
Advantages
Tubes can expand freely towards the U bend end
Shell circuit can be inspected and steam or mechanically cleaned
Provides multi-pass tube circuit arrangement
Limitations
Some tubes are omitted at the centre of tube bundle depending on the tube arrangement
Less surface per given shell and tube diameter than other removable designs
Due to U-tube nesting, individual tube is difficult to replace
Tube wall thickness at the U-bend is thinner than at straight portion of the tubes

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers (STHE)

Amongst of all type of exchangers, shell and tube exchangers are most commonly used
heat exchange equipment

Typical parts and connections of STHE

1. Shell
2. Shell cover
3. Shell flange (channel end)
4. Shell flange (cover end)
5. Shell nozzle or branch
6. Floating tube sheet
7. Floating head cover
8. Floating head flange
9. Floating head gland
10. Floating head backing ring
11. Stationary tube sheet
12. Channel or stationary head
13. Channel cover
14. Channel nozzle or branch
15. Tube (straight)

16. Tubes (U-type)

17. Tie rods and spacers
18. Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates
19. Longitudinal baffles
20. Impingement baffles
21. Floating head support
22. Pass partition
23. Vent connection
24. Drain connection
25. Instrument connection
26. Expansion bellows
27. Support saddles
28. Lifting lugs
29. Weir
30. Liquid level connection

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TEMA (USA) and IS:

4503-1967 (India)
standards provide the
guidelines for the
mechanical design of
unfired shell and tube
heat exchangers
TEMA 3-letter codes
specify the types of frontend, shell, and rear-end
of shell and tube
exchangers

TEMA:
Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers
Association

Thermal / Process Design Considerations

Shell
Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube bundle is placed inside the shell
Shell diameter should be selected in such a way to give a close fit of the tube bundle
Clearance between the tube bundle and inner shell wall depends on the type of
exchanger
Shells are usually fabricated from standard steel pipe with satisfactory corrosion
allowance
Shell thickness of 3/8 inch for the shell ID of 12-24 inch can be satisfactorily used up
to 300 psi of operating pressure
Shell fabricated from steel pipe with nominal IPS diameters up to 24 inches in the
next slide

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Tube
Tube OD of and 1 are very common to design a compact heat
exchanger
Most efficient condition for heat transfer is to have the maximum number
of tubes in the shell to increase turbulence
Tube thickness should be enough to withstand the internal pressure along
with the adequate corrosion allowance. Tube thickness is expressed in
terms of BWG (Birmingham Wire Gauge) and true outside diameter (OD)
Tube length of 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 ft are preferably used. Longer tube
reduces shell diameter at the expense of higher shell pressure drop.
Finned tubes are also used when fluid with low heat transfer coefficient
flows in the shell side

 Stainless steel, admiralty brass, copper, bronze and alloys of copper-nickel

are the commonly used tube materials

Thermal conductivities of commonly used tube materials

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Tube Pitch, Tube-layout and Tube-count

Tube pitch is the shortest centre to centre distance between the adjacent tubes
Tubes are generally placed in square or triangular patterns (pitch) as shown in the next
slide. The widely used tube layouts are illustrated in Table.

Number of tubes that can be accommodated in a given shell ID is called Tube Count

Tube count depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube, tube pitch, tube layout,
number of tube passes, type of heat exchanger and design pressure
Common tube layouts
Tube OD, in
Pitch type
Tube pitch,
in
3/4
Square
1
1
5/4
3/4
Triangular
15/16
3/4
1

+
+

Flow

Flow

Flow

Pitch

Pitch

Square

Triangular

Heat exchanger tube-layouts

Pitch

+
+

Rotated square

Fixed tube sheet

(
S
T Q
U U
B A
E R
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C
O P
U

N T

T C
H
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Fixed tube sheet

Tube Passes
Number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid velocity to obtain greater
heat transfer co-efficient and also to reduce scale formation

Tube passes vary from 1 to 16. The tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are common in
application
Partition built into exchanger head known as partition plate (also called pass
partition) is used to direct the tube side flow

Pass Partition Plate

IS: 4503, specifies that the minimum thickness of channel pass partition plates including
corrosion allowance should be 10 mm for both carbon steel and alloy up to channel size
of 600 mm. For higher channel size, the same should be 13 mm carbon steel and 10 mm

for alloy

Tube Sheet
Tubes are fixed with tube sheet that form the barrier between the tube and shell fluids
Tubes can be fixed with the tube sheet using ferrule and a soft metal packing ring
Tubes are attached to tube sheet with two or more grooves in the tube sheet wall by
tube rolling. Tube metal is forced to move into the grooves forming an excellent tight
seal

Tube sheet thickness should be greater than the tube outside diameter to make a good
seal
Recommended standards (IS:4503 or TEMA) should be followed to select the minimum
tube sheet thickness
shell
channel

channel

(a)

tube
tube sheet

shell

shell

channel
tube

(b)
tube sheet

tube

(c)
tube sheet

Tube sheet connections: a) Integral construction on both sides, b). one side integral
construction and other side gasketed construction, c). both side gasketed construction

Tube Sheets

Tube sheet welding

Baffles
Baffles are used to increase the fluid velocity by diverting the flow across the tube
bundle to obtain higher transfer co-efficient
Distance between adjacent baffles is called baffle-spacing or baffle pitch. Baffle
spacing of 0.2 to 1 times of the inside shell diameter is commonly used
Baffles are held in positioned by means of baffle spacers
Closer baffle spacing gives greater transfer co-efficient by inducing higher turbulence.
Pressure drop is more with closer baffle spacing
In case of cut-segmental baffle, a segment (called baffle cut) is removed to form the
baffle expressed as a percentage of the baffle diameter. Baffle cuts from 15 to 45% are
normally used. A baffle cut of 20 to 25% provide a good heat-transfer with the
reasonable pressure drop. The % cut for segmental baffle refers to the cut away
diameter of the baffle.

Shell

a). Cut-segmental baffle

Shell

Doughnut
Disc

b). Disc and doughnut baffle

Baffle

Orifice

c). Orifice baffle

Different type of heat exchanger baffles: a). Cut-segmental

baffle, b). Disc and doughnut baffle, c). Orifice baffle

http://www.rexheatexchanger.com/

Fouling Considerations
Material deposited reduces the effective heat transfer rate due to relatively low thermal
conductivity
Net heat transfer with clean surface should be higher to compensate the reduction in
performance during operation
Fouling of exchanger increases the cost of (i) construction due to oversizing, (ii)
additional energy due to poor exchanger performance and (iii) cleaning to remove
deposited materials

A spare exchanger may be considered in design for uninterrupted services to allow

cleaning of exchanger
Effect of fouling is considered in heat exchanger design by including the tube side and
shell side fouling resistances (fouling factors)

Typical values of fouling coefficients and resistances

Fluid

Coefficient (W.m-2.C-1)

Resistance (m2.C.W-1)

River water
Sea water
Cooling water (towers)
Towns water (soft)
Towns water (hard)
Steam condensate
Steam (oil free)
Steam (oil traces)
Refrigerated brine
Air and industrial gases
Flue gases
Organic vapors
Organic liquids
Light hydrocarbons
Heavy hydrocarbons
Boiling organics
Condensing organics
Heat transfer fluids
Aqueous salt solutions

3000-12,000
1000-3000
3000-6000
3000-5000
1000-2000
1500-5000
4000- 10,000
2000-5000
3000-5000
5000-10,000
2000-5000
5000
5000
5000
2000
2500
5000
5000
3000-5000

0.0003-0.0001
0.001-0.0003
0.0003-0.00017
0.0003-0.0002
0.001-0.0005
0.00067-0.0002
0.0025-0.0001
0.0005-0.0002
0.0003-0.0002
0.0002-0.000-1
0.0005-0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0005
0.0004
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003-0.0002

Selection of Fluids for Tube and Shell Side

Routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects on the heat
exchanger design. Some general guidelines for positioning the fluids are given in
Table
These guidelines are not ironclad rules and the optimal fluid placement depends on
many factors that are service specific
Tube-side fluid

Shell-side fluid

Corrosive fluid
Cooling water
Fouling fluid
Less viscous fluid
High-pressure steam
Hotter fluid

Condensing vapor (unless corrosive)

Fluid with large temperature difference (>40C)

Individual and Overall heat transfer coefficients

=

+ +

Where,
Ud= Overall heat transfer coefficient that includes fouling factor (kcal/h.m2.C)
ho =Outside heat transfer coefficient (kcal/h.m2.C)
hi =Inside heat transfer coefficient (kcal/h.m2.C)
Ao =Outside heat transfer area (m2)
Ai = Inside heat transfer area (m2)
kw = Thermal conductivity of wall (kcal/h.m.C)

Am = Mean heat transfer area (m2)

Rdo, Rdi =Dirt factors (h.m2.C/kcal)

Shell-film coefficient (ho):

[For shell side Reynolds number (Res): 2,000 to 10,00,000]
In case there no baffle:


= .

Where,
DH =Hydraulic diameter or equivalent diameter of the shell side
ko =Thermal conductivity of the shell-side (or outside) fluid
Gs =Mass flow rate (kg/m2s) of the shell fluid
ho =Outside heat transfer coefficient
=Viscosity of fluid at the bulk temperature
w =Viscosity of wall at the wall temperature
cp =Specific heat of the fluid
Equivalent diameter (DH) for tubes on square pitch:

/
=

Flow
+

Pitch (PT)

Flow
+

Pitch (PT)

Equivalent diameter (DH) for tubes on 60 triangular pitch:

. . /
=
/

Mass flow rate (Gs) can be calculate as:

= ; and =

Where,
W =Flow rate of the shell fluid, kg/s
as = Shell side flow area, m2
c =Clearance between two adjacent tubes, m
B =Baffle spacing, m
Ds =Inside diameter of the shell, m

 Both JH factor charts are wrong ( next 2 slides

and similar slides given before)

Colburn factor (jH) for shell-side heat transfer with segmental baffles

Reynolds number, =

Colburn factor (jH) for Tube-side heat transfer

Reynolds number, Re=

Dittus-Boelter and Sieder-Tate equations may be used

to calculate the tube-side heat transfer co-efficient

Typical ranges of Overall heat transfer co-efficients

LMTD Correction factor (FT)

(R)
(P)
FT expressions in 1-2 shell and tube
heat exchanger:

ln

Effect of Temperature Differences on Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Countercurrent flow

Cocurrent flow

Cross

Approach

1-1 exchanger flow

1-2 exchanger flow

Temperature correction factor: 1 shell pass; two or more even tube passes

FT

Temperature correction factor: 2 shell passes; four or multiples of four tube passes

FT

Pressure Drop Calculation

Tube-side pressure drop (Pt), kg/m2 :

=

Where,
f = Friction factor
Gt =Mass velocity of the tube fluid, kg/m2s
L =Tube length, m
np =Number of tube passes
g =Gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2
t=Density of tube fluid, kg/m3
di =Inside diameter of the tube
t =Dimensionless viscosity ratio

; = 0.14 for > 2100; = 25 for < 2100

Pressure drop owing to the return loss ( ), kg/m2 :

=

Where,
V =Linear velocity of tube fluid, m/s
np =Number of tube passes
g =Gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2
t =Density of tube fluid, kg/m3

Total tube-side pressure drop (PT) neglecting nozzle loss:

= +

Friction factor, f

Tube-side friction factors

Reynolds number, Re=

Shell-side pressure drop (with segmental baffles) ( ), kg/m2:

+
=

Where,
fs =Friction factor for the shell-side flow
Gs=Mass velocity of shell fuid, kg/m2s
Ds=Inside diameter of the shell, m
Nb= Number of baffles
g=Gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2
s=Density of shell fluid, kg/m3
DH =Hydraulic diameter of the shell, m (as given before)
=

0.14

=Viscosity correction factor for the shell-side fluid

Friction factor, f

Shell-side friction factors

Reynolds number, =

Shell-side pressure drop ( ), kg/m2 for unbaffled shell:

=

Where,
L=-Shell length, m
N=Number of shell passes
s=Density of shell fluid, kg/m3
Gs=Shell-side mass velocity, kg/m2s
DH=Hydraulic diameter of the shell, m
=

0.14

=Viscosity correction factor for the shell-side fluid

4 2 /4 2
=
+
Where,
do=Outside diameter of the tube, m
Ds=Inside diameter of the shell, m
nt =Number of the tubes in the shell

Design of Shell and Tube Exchanger

Thermal or process design of a shell and tube heat exchanger typically includes:

Determination of heat transfer area

Number of tubes
Tube length and diameter
Tube layout
Number of shell and tube passes
Type of heat exchanger (fixed tube sheet, removable tube bundle etc)
Tube pitch, number of baffles, its type and size
Shell and tube side pressure drop etc

Mechanical design of heat exchangers includes design of various pressure and

non-pressure parts:

Determination of the thickness of the shell

Tube sheet
Flanges
Channels
Baffles
Gaskets
Nozzle thickness and connection
Support design etc

Process (Thermal) Design Procedure of STHE

[Kern method ]
Shell and tube heat exchanger is designed by trial and error calculations. The main steps
of design following the Kern method are summarized as follows:
Step #1: Obtain the required thermophysical properties of hot and cold fluids at the
caloric temperature or arithmetic mean temperature. Calculate these properties at the
caloric temperature if the variation of viscosity with temperature is large
Step #2: Perform energy balance and find out the heat duty (Q) of the exchanger

Step #3: Assume a reasonable value of overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo,assm)
Step #4: Decide tentative number of shell and tube passes (np). Determine the LMTD and
the correction factor FT. FT normally should be greater than 0.75 for the steady operation
of the exchangers
Step #5: Calculate heat transfer area (A) required:

Q
U o ,assm . LMTD . FT

Step #6: Select tube material, decide the tube diameter (ID=di , OD =do ), its wall
thickness (in terms of BWG or SWG) and tube length (L). Calculate the number of tubes
(nt) required to provide the heat transfer area
nt

A
do L
.

Calculate tube side fluid velocity,

.

Fix np so that

Re

4 m(n p / nt )

di

104

4m(n p / nt )

di 2

and u1 m/s

Where, m, and are mass flow rate, density and viscosity of tube side fluid. However,
this is subject to allowable pressure drop in the tube side of the heat exchanger
Step #7: Decide type of shell and tube exchanger (fixed tubesheet, U-tube etc). Select the
tube pitch (PT), determine inside shell diameter (Ds) that can accommodate the calculated
number of tubes (nt). Use the standard tube counts table for this purpose

Step #9: Assign fluid to shell side or tube side . Select the type of baffle (segmental,
doughnut etc.), its size (i.e. percentage cut, 25% baffles are widely used), spacing (B) and
number. The baffle spacing is usually chosen to be within 0.2Ds to Ds
Step #10: Determine the tube side film heat transfer coefficient (hi) and shell side film heat
transfer coefficient (ho)
Select the shell side dirt factor (Rdo) and tube side) dirt factor (Rdi)
Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo,cal) based on the outside tube area (you may
neglect the tube-wall resistance) including dirt factors

U o ,cal

1
A0 d 0 di
Rdo
Ai 2k w
ho

A0 1 A0
Rdi

Ai hi Ai

Step #11: If , 0

U o ,cal U o ,assm
U o ,assm

30%

go the next step # 12. Otherwise go to step #5, calculate heat transfer area (A) required
using Uo,cal and repeat the calculations starting from step #5
If the calculated shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho) is too low, assume closer baffle
spacing (B) up to 0.2Ds and recalculate shell side heat transfer coefficient. However, this is
subject to allowable pressure drop across the heat exchanger
Step #12: Calculate % overdesign. Overdesign represents extra surface area provided
beyond that required to compensate for fouling. Typical value of 10% or less is acceptable
Step #13: Calculate the tube-side pressure drop (PT): (i) pressure drop in the straight
section of the tube (frictional loss) (Pt ) and (ii) return loss (Prt) due to change of direction
of fluid in a multi-pass exchanger
Total tube side pressure drop: PT = Pt + Prt

Step #14: Calculate shell side pressure drop (PS ): (i) pressure drop for flow across the
tube bundle (frictional loss) (Ps ) and (ii) return loss (Prs ) due to change of direction of
fluid
Total shell side pressure drop: PS = Ps + Prs
If the tube-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop for the process
system, decrease the number of tube passes or increase number of tubes per pass. Go
back to step #6 and repeat the calculations steps

If the shell-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop, go back to step #7
and repeat the calculations steps
Step #15: Upon fulfillment of pressure drop criteria, go mechanical design

Design Problem
150000 lb per hour of kerosene will be heated from 75 to 120F by cooling a gasoline
stream from 160 to 120F

Inlet pressure will be 50 psia for each stream and the maximum pressure drop of 7 psi
for gasoline and 10 psi for kerosene are permissible
Published fouling factors for oil refinery streams should be used for this application
Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this service

Specific Gravity of Hydrocarbons

Thermal Conductivities of Hydrocarbon Liquids

Specific Heats of Hydrocarbon Liquids

Mechanical Design of STHE

[Refer to the handout]

Two Phase Heat Transfer

Condenser
Reboiler
Evaporator

DESIGN OF CONDENSER
[Condensation of single vapor]

CONDENSER
Change from liquid phase to vapor phase is called vaporization and the reverse phase
transfer is condensation
Change from liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid occurs at one temperature (called
saturation or equilibrium temperature) for a pure fluid compound at a given pressure.
Industrial practice of vaporization and condensation occurs at almost constant pressure;
therefore the phase change occurs isothermally
Condensation occurs by two different physical mechanisms i.e. drop-wise
condensation and film condensation
Heat transfer coefficient is about 4 to 8 times higher for drop wise condensation
Condensers are coolers whose primary propose is removal of latent heat instead of
sensible heat

Types of Condensers
1. Vertical condenser
Downflow vertical condenser: The vapor enters
at the top of condenser and flows down inside
tubes. Condensate drains from the tubes by
gravity and vapor induced shear
Upflow vertical condenser: Vapor enters at the
bottom and flows upwards inside the tubes.
Condensate drains down the tubes by gravity
only

2. Horizontal condenser

Condensation may occur inside or outside the horizontal tubes. Condensation in

the tube-side is common in air-cooled condensers. Main disadvantage is that the
liquid tends to build up in the tubes; effective heat transfer co-efficient is reduced
significantly

 When the allowable pressure drop is difficult to meet through a 1-2 condenser, a lower
pressure drop can be obtained by using a double flow or divided flow condenser

Divided-flow 1-2 condenser

Condenser Design
Design of condenser is similar to a typical shell and tube exchangers
Condenser must have a vent for removal of non-condensable gas
Non-condensable gas decreases the heat transfer rate
Condenser usually use a wider baffle spacing of (ID of shell) as the allowable
pressure drop in shell side vapor is usually less
Vertical cut-segmental baffles are generally used in condensers for side-to-side
vapor flow and not for top to bottom
An opening at the bottom of the baffles is provided to allow draining of condensate

Mean Temperature Difference

Condensation occurs almost at a fixed temperature (isothermally) at constant pressure
for a pure saturated vapor compound
Logarithmic mean temperature difference can be used for condenser design
No LMTD correction factor for multiple pass condensers
Logarithmic mean temperature difference:

(Tsat t1 ) (Tsat t2 )
(t2 t1 )
LMTD

(Tsat t1 )
(Tsat t1 )
ln
ln
(Tsat t2 )
(Tsat t2 )
Where,
Tsat = Saturation vapor temperature
t1 = Coolant inlet temperature
t2 = Coolant outlet temperature

Calculation of heat transfer co-efficient during condensation

1.

Calculation of tube side heat transfer co-efficient (hi):

Calculation of heat transfer co-efficient for the cold fluid (coolant) can be performed
similarly as discussed in design of shell and tube heat exchanger (heat transfer without
phase change)
It is assumed that the coolant flows in tube side and the condensing saturated vapor
flows in the shell side
If the condensation occurs in the tube side, follow the procedure discussed in
next section for shell side calculation

2. Calculation of shell-side heat transfer coefficient (condensing film heat transfer

coefficient) (ho):
Kern method will be used to calculate the individual heat transfer co-efficient of the
condensing fluid by trial and error calculation
i.

Assume, ho,(assm) in the range from 100 (500) to 300 (1500) BTU/h.ft2.F
(kcal/h.m2.C). Film coefficient of condensing hydrocarbons generally varies in this
range. Air-free condensing steam has a coefficient of 1500 BTU/h.ft2.F

ii.

Calculate the tube wall temperature (Tw):

Tw TC ( avg )

ho (Tv TC ( avg ) )
(hio ho )

Or

ho (Tv Tcc )
Tw Tcc
(hio ho )

Where, hio hi

di
do

(di tube ID and do tube OD)

TC(avg)= Average temperature of the cold fluid

Tcc=Caloric temperature of the cold fluid

iii. Calculate condensate film temperature,T f

(Tw Tv )
2

Tv =Condensation temperature (For pure fluid compound Tv is the saturation temperature.

Average of condensation over a temperature range also can be used for non-isothermal
condensation)
iv. Calculate all thermophysical property of the condensing fluid at film temperature (Tf)
v. Recalculate ho(cal) from jH factor
Now again set, ho(assm) = ho(cal) and continue the calculation till ho(assm) ho(cal)
vi. Calculate the overall heat transfer-coefficient (Ud) including the dirt factors

Pressure Drop Calculation

1. Tube side pressure drop
For condensation in the tube side by taking one-half of the conventional pressure
drop relation calculated on inlet conditions can be used

=

2. Shell side pressure drop
Similarly for condensation in the shell-side condensation (with segmental baffles)
+
=

Calculate all fluid property at film temperature(Tf). No return loss calculation is

required for the condensing fluid
In case of non-condensing fluid (single phase flow), use the conventional
pressure drop relation

De-superheating and Sub-cooling

De-superheating is different from condensation of a saturated vapor
Sensible heat should be removed first to de-superheat the vapor to obtain the saturated
vapor
Similarly, the saturated liquid is to be further cooled down (sub-cooled) by extracting
sensible heat below the boiling point
Mean temperature difference and heat transfer coefficient should be calculated
individually for each section if the degree of superheat/ sub-cool is large
Weighted mean temperature difference and Weighted overall transfer co-efficient
can be used to design the condensers if heat load due to sensible heat transfer in each
unit about 25% of latent heat transfer. Otherwise, it is convenient to design separate desuperheater and sub-cooling exchangers
Calculations for detail study can be found out in D.Q. Kern (pages 283-285)

Tsuperheat

Temperature

Tsat
Tsub-cool

Desuper
-heating

Condensation

LMTDdesuperh

LMTDcondensatio

LMTDsubcooli

eat

ng

Heat transfer

Subcooling

Condensation with de-superheating and sub-cooling

DESIGN OF REBOILER

REBOILER
Classification of reboilers
There are three major types of reboilers:

1. Thermosyphon natural circulation reboiler: Boiling occurs inside the tubes

in vertical thermosyphon reboiler and inside shell in horizontal thermosyphon reboiler
In vertical thermosyphon reboiler, the liquid circulation occurs due to density difference
between vapor-liquid mixture (two phase) in the exchanger from the reboiler and the
liquid through the downcomer to the reboiler.
Advantages: most economical because no pump is required

Limitations: not suitable for heavily viscous fluid; high construction cost for the
installation of the column base at suitable elevation to get thermosyphon effect; not
suitable for low temperature difference processes due to boiling point elevation imposed
by static head

Horizontal thermosyphon reboiler

Vertical thermosyphon reboiler

2. Forced circulation reboiler

Liquid is fed by means of a pump. Forced circulation reboilers with vertical or horizontal
tubes boiling may be designed
Forced circulation reboilers are similar to vertical thermosiphon reboilers, except the
pump is used for the circulation of the liquid
To calculate the heat transfer coefficient it is generally assumed that, heat is transferred
only by forced convection. The usual method of shell and tube exchanger design can be
used.
Advantage: suitable for viscous and highly fouling fluids
Disadvantage: high pumping and maintenance cost; pump is required to circulate the
boiling liquid through the tubes and back into the column

3. Kettle reboiler
Tube bundle is immerged in a pool of liquid at the base of the column in an oversize
shell
Kettle reboiler is also called a submerged bundle reboiler. Height of the tube
bundle is usually 40-60% of the shell ID. Submergence of the tube bundle is
assured by an overflow weir at height of typically 5-15 cm from the upper surface of
topmost tubes
Advantage: suitable for vacuum operation and high vaporization rate up to about 80%
of the feed
Limitations: low heat transfer rate than other types as there is no liquid circulation
(low velocity); not appropriate for fouling fluids; Kettle reboiler is not suitable for heat
sensitive materials as it has higher residence time

Bundle diameter Db, can be obtained from the empirical equation:

1/ n1

nt
Db d o
K1

Where,

Db= Bundle diameter [mm]

nt= Number of tubes
do= Tube outside diameter [mm]
Values of the constants
Pitch type

Constants

Number of tube passes (nt)

1

Triangular
(PT = 1.25do)

K1

0.319

0.249

0.175

0.0743

0.0365

n1

2.142

2.207

2.285

2.499

2.675

Square
(PT = 1.25do)

K1

0.215

0.156

0.158

0.0402

0.0331

n1

2.207

2.291

2.263

2.617

2.643

Design of Kettle reboiler [Kern method]

It is assumed that the degree of sub-cooling and super-heating of the cold fluid is
negligible i.e. vaporization of close boiling compounds with negligible super-heating of
vapors formed
i.

Make energy balance and determine the heat duty

ii.

Calculate of fluid property at the caloric temperature (or at arithmetic mean

temperature)

iii.

Follow the same guideline and design requirements for shell containing the vaporizing
liquid

iv.

Calculation of heat transfer co-efficient

Calculation of individual heat transfer co-efficient hot fluid: Calculation of heat

transfer co-efficient of the hot fluid can be performed similarly as in case of design of
shell and tube heat exchanger for single phase

 Calculation of individual heat transfer coefficient of the boiling liquid: Kern

method is discussed here to calculate the individual heat transfer co-efficient of the
boiling liquid by trial and error procedure

Kern recommends that the maximum allowable vaporizing film coefficients:

300 Btu/h.ft2 F for natural or forced circulation vaporizing organics

- 1000 Btu/h.ft2 F for natural or forced circulation vaporizing aqueous solution of low
concentration
Maximum allowable heat flux:
- 20,000 Btu/(h)ft2) for forced circulation reboilers and 12000 Btu/(h)ft2) for natural

circulation reboilers vaporizing organics

- 30,000 Btu/(h)ft2) for both forced or natural circulation reboilers vaporizing aqueous
solution

 Assume that h(assm) = 300 Btu/h.ft2 F for organics or 1000 Btu/h.ft2 F for water. With
this assumed value, calculate the tube wall temperature (Tw):

Tw Th ( avg )

hio (Thc Th ( avg ) )

(hio ho )

Th(avg)= Average temperature of the hot fluid

Thc=Caloric temperature of the hot fluid
d
hio hi i (di tube ID and do tube OD)
do
Now, re-determine hcal (latent heat transfer) from the Figure (next slide) corresponding
to (Tw-t)
t is the cold fluid boiling temperature
Continue the calculation till, hcal= h(assm)

 If the calculated hcal is greater than the maximum heat transfer co-efficient of 300
Btu/h.ft2 F for organics and 1000 Btu/h.ft2 F for water, take hcal = 300 Btu/h.ft2 F for
organics and hcal =1000 Btu/h.ft2 F for water
Calculate the overall heat transfer-coefficient (Ud) including the dirt factors
Maximum for water
500

t tr

an
s fe

Maximum for organics

nt
he
a

100

ion

La
te

Heat transfer co-efficient (h), Btu/(hr)(ft )( F)

1000

ible
Sens

hea

sfer
n
a
r
t
t

e
by fr

t
nvec
e co

20
4

10

50

100

200

(Tw-t), F
Temperature difference between tube wall and boiling liquid

Natural circulation boiling and sensible heat transfer

v. Decide type of exchanger i.e. fixed tube sheet or U- shell (use U-tube reboiler for large
temperature difference), tube size (diameter, length, tube pitch), layout, effective tube length.
A tube pitch of between 1.5 to 2 times the tubes OD should be used to avoid
vapor blanketing
vi. Calculate exchanger area (A =

)
.

and number of tubes ( =

Number of tubes should be calculated based on the effective tube length for U-tube
reboilers. Effective tube length is less than physical tube length due to U-bend

vii. Calculate the heat flux= [Btu/(h.ft2)]

It should be less than the maximum heat flux of 20000 Btu/(h)ft2) for forced
circulation reboilers vaporizing organics and 30000 Btu/(h)ft2) for both forced or
natural circulation reboilers vaporizing aqueous solution
Otherwise, go to step # v, repeat the calculation until within the allowable limits

viii. Check for allowable vapor velocity (uv)

Maximum vapor velocity (m/s) at the liquid surface should be less than that given by
the expression below to avoid too much entrainment
1/ 2

l v
uv 0.2

where, l= liquid density and, v = vapor density

If this criterion is not satisfied, go to step # v and revise the calculation
ix. Pressure drop calculation
Tube side pressure drop (hot fluid): Pressure drop calculation of the hot fluid can be
carried out as discussed before
Shell side pressure drop (vaporizing liquid): There will be negligible hydrostatic head
for the flow of liquid from the column to reboilers (low circulation velocity) if the liquid
level above the tube bundle is not too high. Therefore, shell side pressure drop may be
considered negligible.
x. Calculate over surface and over design
xi. Go for mechanical design

Vapor velocity at liquid surface, uv (m/s) =

Vapor flow rate (kg/h)

1
1

3
3600
Vapor density (kg/m ) Liquid surface area (m 2 )

Tube Counts of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR

EVAPORATOR
Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or suspension of
solid in a liquid
Aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic compounds, inorganic salts,
acids or bases from a solvent
Common solutes are caustic soda, caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride,
phosphoric acid, and urea
Most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water

Invention of evaporators: Norbert Rillieux is famous for his invention of the multiple
effect pan evaporator for sugar refining process in 1881. Rillieux born in New Orleans,
Louisiana in 1806. He used the steam generated from one pan to heat the sugar juice in
the next pan for energy efficient means of water evaporation

TYPE OF EVAPORATORS
1.

Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators (Calandria Evaporators)

2.

Basket-type Vertical Evaporators

3.

Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators

4.

Falling Film Evaporators

5.

Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators

6.

Forced Circulation Evaporators

7.

Agitated Thin Film Evaporator

8.

Gasketed Plate Evaporator

Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators

Oldest but still widely used in sugar industry in evaporation of cane-sugar juice, also known
as Calandria or Robert evaporators. First built by Robert. Sometimes known as standard
evaporator. Short-tube vertical evaporators consist of a short tube bundle (about 4 to 10
ft in length) enclosed in a cylindrical shell, called calandria
Feed introduced above the upper tube sheet and
steam is introduced to the shell or steam chest of
the calandria
Solution is heated and partly vaporized in the
tubes
Central tube in a calandria is of longer diameter.
Downcomer area is about 40 to 70% of total
cross sectional area of tubes
Circulation rate through downcomer/downtake is
many times the feed rate
Flow area of the downtake is approximately equal
to total tubular flow area

Calandria evaporator

Basket-type Vertical Evaporators

Construction and operational features of basket-type evaporators are very similar to
those of the standard evaporator except that the downtake is annular
Tube bundle with fixed tube sheets forms a basket hanging in the centre of the
evaporator from internal brackets
Diameter of the tube bundle is smaller than the diameter of evaporator vessel, thus
forming an annular space for circulation of liquid
Tube bundle can be removed for the purpose of cleaning and maintenance and thus
basket evaporators are more suitable than standard evaporators for scale forming
solutions
Vapor generated strikes a deflector plate fixed close to the steam pipe that reduces
entrained liquid droplets from the vapor

Long-Tube Vertical (LTV) Evaporators

Another most widely employed natural circulation evaporator

because it is often the cheapest per unit of capacity

Long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a shell that extends into a
larger diameter vapor chamber at the top

LTV evaporator consists of one pass shell and tube heat

exchanger

Liquid flows as a thin film (both rising and falling film) on the
walls of long and vertical heated tube

Tube length usually varies from 20 to 65 ft

Feed enters at the bottom and the liquid starts boiling at lower
part of the tube

Commonly used in concentrating black liquors in the paper and

pulp industries

Main advantage of this type of evaporators is higher heat

transfer rate

Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators

LTV evaporator is frequently called a rising or climbing film evaporator
Liquid starts boiling at the lower part of the tube and the liquid and vapor flow upward
through the tube
If the heat transfer rate is significantly higher, the ascending flows generated due to
higher specific volume of the vapor-liquid mixture, causes liquid and vapor to
flow upwards in parallel flow
Liquid flows as a thin film along the tube wall
Co-current upward movement against gravity has the advantageous effect of creating
a high degree of turbulence in the liquid
Useful during evaporation of highly viscous and fouling solutions

Falling Film Evaporators

Liquid is fed at the top of the tubes in a vertical tube bundle

Liquid is allowed to flow down through the inner wall of the tubes as a
film. As the liquid travels down the tubes the solvent vaporizes and
the concentration gradually increases

Vapor and liquid are usually separated at the bottom of the tubes and
the thick liquor is taken out

Evaporator liquid is recirculated through the tubes by a pump below

the vapor-liquid separator

Distribution of liquid in the inner wall of the tubes greatly affects the
performance of this type of evaporator

Falling film evaporator is largely used for concentration of fruit juices

and heat sensitive materials because of the low holdup time

Device is suitable for scale-forming solutions as boiling occur on the

surface of the film

Forced Circulation Evaporators

Any evaporator that uses pump to ensure higher circulation velocity is called a
forced circulation evaporator
Forced circulation evaporators are usually more costly than natural circulation
evaporators. However the natural circulation evaporators are not suitable under some
situations such as:
- highly viscous solutions due to low heat transfer coefficient
- solution containing suspended particles
- for heat sensitive materials
It may be overcome when the liquid is circulated at high velocity through the heat
exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer rate and inhibit particle deposition
Main components of a forced circulation evaporator are a tubular shell and tube heat
exchanger (either horizontal or vertical), a flash chamber (separator) mounted above
the heat exchanger and a circulating pump

 Solution is heated in the heat exchanger without boiling and the superheated solution
flashes off (partially evaporated) at a lower pressure are reduced in the flash chamber
Pump pumps feed and liquor from the flash chamber and forces it through the heat
exchanger tubes back to the flash chamber

Forced Circulation Evaporator

Forced circulation evaporator is commonly used for concentration of caustic and brine
solutions and also in evaporation of corrosive solution

Agitated Thin Film Evaporator

Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical
steam-jacketed cylinder and the feed solution flows
down as a film along the inner surface of large
diameter jacket
Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating
assembly of blades mounted on shaft placed
coaxially with the inner tube
Blades maintain a close clearance of around 1.5
mm or less from the inner tube wall
Main advantage is that rotating blades permits
handling of extremely viscous solutions
Device is suitable to concentrate solutions having
viscosity as high as up to 100 poise

Gasketed Plate Evaporator

Also called plate evaporator because the design is
similar to that of a plate heat exchanger
A number of embossed plates with four corner openings
are mounted by an upper and a bottom carrying bar
Gasket is placed at periphery of plates Interfering
gaskets of two adjacent plates prevent mixing of fluids
and lead fluid to the respective flow path through corner
opening
Fluids may either flow in series or parallel depending on
the gasket arrangement

Heat transfer coefficient is greatly enhanced due to high

turbulent flow through narrow passages
Used for concentration of food products,
pharmaceuticals, emulsions, glue, etc

Selection of Suitable Evaporator

Selection of the most suitable evaporator type depends on:

Methods of Feeding of Evaporators

Evaporators are classified by the number of EFFECTS
Single-effect evaporator: Vapor from the boiling liquor is condensed and the
concentrated product is withdrawn from the bottom of the evaporator. Although the
operation is simple, the device does not use steam efficiently. Typically 1.1 to 1.3 kg
of steam is required to evaporate 1 kg of water
Steam consumption per unit mass of water evaporated can be increased by putting
more than one evaporator in series such that the vapor from one evaporator is used in
the second evaporator for heating: called double-effect evaporators
Evaporation of water is nearly doubled in double effect evaporation system compared to
single effect per unit mass of steam used
Additional effects can be added in series in the same way to get a triple-effect
evaporator, quadruple-effect evaporator and so on

Performance of Evaporators (Capacity and Economy)

Performance of a steam-heated evaporator is measured in terms of its capacity and
economy
Capacity is defined as the number of kilogram of water vaporized per hour
Economy (or steam economy) is the number kilogram of water vaporized from all the
effects per kilogram of steam used

Single effect evaporator: Steam economy 0.8 (<1)

n-effect evaporators: Capacity and economy are about n-times and 0.8n times,
respectively that of a single effect evaporator

Pumps, interconnecting pipes and valves are required for transfer of liquid from one
effect to another effect that increases both equipment and operating costs

Configuration of multiple effects evaporator

Forward Feed

Both feed and steam are introduced in the first effect and the feed passed from effect to effect
parallel to the vapor from the earlier effect. Concentration increases from the first effect to the last

Forward feeding operation is helpful when the concentrated product may degenerate if exposed
to high temperature

It requires a pump for feeding of dilute solution to the first effect. A pump removes thick liquor from
the last effect

Liquid from one effect to the next effect also can be transferred without a pump as the flow occurs
in the direction of decreasing pressure

Backward Feed

Feed enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and is pumped through the successive effects

Product is withdrawn from the first effect (hottest) where the steam is introduced

Feeding requires a pump between each pair of effects to transfer liquid from lower pressure effects
to higher pressure effects

It is advantageous when cold feed entering needs to be heated to a lower temperature than in
forward feed operation

Backward feed is commonly used when products are viscous and exposure to higher
temperature increases the rate of heat transfer due to reduction in viscosity of the liquid

Mixed Feed
Dilute feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect and flows in the next higher effect till it
reaches the last effect of the series. In this section, liquid flows in the forward feed
mode
Partly concentrated liquor is then pumped back to the effect before the one to which the
fresh feed was introduced for further concentration
Mixed feed arrangement eliminates some of the pumps needed in backward
configuration as flow occurs due to pressure difference whenever applicable

Parallel Feed
Fresh feed is introduced to each effect and product is withdrawn of from the same effect
in parallel feed operation

There is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect

Used primarily when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry
Most common in crystallizing evaporators

Heat Transfer Coefficients

Heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam in shell side is normally very high
compared to the liquid side. Tube side (liquid side) heat transfer coefficient practically
controls the rate of heat transfer

Overall heat transfer coefficient should be either known/ calculated from the
performance data of an operating evaporator of the same type and processing the
same solution
Typical overall heat transfer coefficients in evaporators
Type of evaporator
Long-tube vertical evaporator
Natural circulation
Forced circulation
Short-tube vertical or calandria evaporators
Agitated-film evaporators
Low to medium viscosity (<1 P)
High viscosity (> 1 P)
Falling film evaporators (viscosity <0.1 P)
Rising film evaporators

Overall heat transfer coefficient

W.m-2C-1
Btu.ft-2h-1F-1
1000-2700
2000-7500
750-2500

200-550
400-1500
150-500

1800-2700
1500
500-2500
2000-5000

300-500
300
100-500
100-1000

Boiling Point Elevation (BPE)

Most evaporators produce concentrated liquor having a boiling point considerably higher
than that of pure solvent (or water), called boiling point elevation (BPE)
Determination of BPE: For strong solutions, the BPE data is estimated from an
empirical rule known as Dhring rule
Boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point of pure water at
the same pressure

Boiling point of the solution is a straight line against boiling point of pure water at the
same pressure
Different lines are obtained if such plots made for solution of different concentrations
Dhring lines can be drawn if boiling points of a solution and water (read from steam
table) at two different pressures are known
This line can be used to predict boiling point of a solution at any pressure

Dhring plots for the NaOH-water system

Thermal Design Calculation

Single Effect Calculations
Single effect evaporator calculations are straight forward
Latent heat of condensation of the steam is transferred through the heating surface to vaporize
water from a boiling solution
Two enthalpy balance equations are required in order to calculate the rate of solvent
vaporization and the rate of required input heat
Assumptions are made to develop the mass and energy balance equations:
- there is no leakage or entrainment
- flow of non-condensable is negligible
- heat loss from the evaporator system is negligible
Overall heat transfer coefficient (including dirt factor) is should be either known or a reasonable
value can be selected from literature
With this information the required area of heat transfer can be estimated
Calculate the tube-side and shell-side pressure drop from specified values of the tube length,
diameter and the tube layout

Multiple Effect Calculations

Multiple effect evaporator calculations require a trial-and-error approach as many of
necessary properties depend on unknown intermediate temperatures
Often heat transfer areas in all effects are considered to be equal. Use of equal size
evaporator in all effects, reduces the cost of equipment significantly
In a typical evaporator problem, you are provided with the supply pressure and
temperature of steam, the operating pressure of the final effect, the feed and
concentrations
Designer is often required to have trial estimates of overall heat transfer coefficients
Overall strategy is to estimate intermediate temperatures
Energy and material balance equations are solved sequentially to determine the
heat transferred in each effect and the heat transfer area
If the areas are not equal, calculation is repeated to revise the intermediate
temperatures and procedure is repeated till the heat transfer area in all effects are equal

If the sensible heat of the steam is neglected:

m f H f ms s (m f ms1 ) H1 ms1H s1

Energy balance equations

Effect I: m f H f ms H s (m f ms1 ) H1 ms1 H s1 ms H l1

(m f ms1 ) H1 ms1s1 (m f ms1 ms 2 ) H 2 ms 2 H s 2

Effect III:

(m f ms1 ms 2 ) H 2 ms 2 s 2 (m f ms1 ms 2 ms 3 ) H 3 ms 3 H s 3

Triple effect forward feed evaporators

Effect II:

(A1)
(A2)
(A3)
(A4)

Where,
msk = Rate of vapor generated in the kth effect
mf and ms = Feed and steam flow rate
Hk = Enthalpy of solution leaving kth effect at Ts and Ps

Hsk = Enthalpy of vapor (steam) generated in kth effect

Hlk = Enthalpy of liquid in kth effect
s = Latent heat of steam introduced in the 1st effect at Ps
1 and 2 are the latent heats of steam condensation at pressure P1 and P2

UD1, UD2 and UD3 : Overall heat transfer coefficients in 1st, 2nd and 3rd effects
A1, A2 and A3 are the corresponding heat transfer area required. Then Effect I:

Q1 ms s U D1 A1 (Ts Tb1 ) U D1 A1T1

(A5)

Effect II:

Q2 ms1s1 U D 2 A2 (Tw1 Tb 2 ) U D 2 A2 T2

(A6)

Effect III:

Q3 ms 2s 2 U D 3 A3 (Tw 2 Tb3 ) U D 3 A3T3

(A7)

Where,
Qk =Quantity of heat transferred in kth effect
Tbk =Boiling point of the solution in kth effect at the prevailing pressure
Ts =Steam temperature condensing in the 1st effect
(Tbk Twk) = Boiling point elevation in the kth effect, where Twk is the boiling point of pure
solvent (water) in kth effect at the prevailing pressure
Eqs. A2 to A7 are solved to calculate heat transfer area by trial-and-error calculations

Stepwise Design Procedure

Step 1#: Temperature in each effect is estimated with assumption that heat transfer rates in
all effects are roughly equal:

U D1 A1T1 U D 2 A2 T2 U D 3 A3 T3

(A8)

Determine overall temperature drop between the steam in 1st effect and saturation
temperature of last effect (considering the BPE in all effects):
(A9)

Ttot T1 T2 T3 (Ts Tw3 ) BPE

Where,

BPE (Tb1 Tw1 ) (Tb 2 Tw2 ) (Tb3 Tw3 )

(A10)

Step 2#: Calculate the total amount of solvent vaporized from the feed and product
concentration and feed flow rate. Total Ttot is distributed among all effects to have equal
heat transfer areas

 Assumed that heat transfer rate in each effect is roughly equal

Signifies that the rates of vaporization in each effect are also roughly equal
Calculate the approximate vaporization rate in each effect (it is one-third of total
amount of solvent vaporized in one effect in case triple effect system)
Calculate the concentration in each effect and find out the BPE in each effect
Then calculate the overall temperature drop (Ttot)

Step 3#: Redistribute the overall temperature drop (Ttot ) among all the effects. Since
areas are same (A1=A2=A3). Temperature difference in each effect is roughly proportional to
the overall heat transfer coefficients:

U D1T1 U D 2 T2 U D 3T3

(11)

U
U
T2 T1 D1 , T3 T1 D1
U D2
U D3
U D1 U D1
Ttot T1 T2 T3 T1 1

U
U
D2
D3

Calculate T1, T2 and T3

Step 4#: Use the calculated value of T1, T2 and T3; and composition estimated to
calculate the enthalpy values
Same reference temperatures for enthalpy must be used for all streams, including those
taken from steam tables, etc. Solve the enthalpy balance equations sequentially to
find out, ms, ms1 and ms2

Step 5#: Use heat transfer equations to calculate the heat transfer area for each effect.
(A12)

ms s
ms1s1
ms 2 s 2
A1
, A2
, A1
U D1T1
U D 2 T2
U D 3 T3

Step 6#: Compare the areas calculated. If they are not equal, repeat the calculation. Using
the areas obtained to revise the temperature estimates
Recommended approach is to use ratio of the calculated heat transfer area for an effect
to the arithmetic mean of the calculated areas as shown:
(A13)
A1
T1,new T1

A
mean
Repeat the calculations until the area of each effect is equal
Procedure above is for forward feed evaporators. Energy balance equation can
developed accordingly for backward feed system. The area for each effect is also
considered to be equal

Design Problem
A 5% aqueous solution (specific heat ~ 1 kcal.kg-1C-1) of a high molecular weight solute
has to be concentrated to 40% in a forward-feed double effect evaporators at the rate
of 8000 kg.h-1
Feed temperature is 40C. Saturated steam at 3.5 kg.cm-2 is available for heating
A vacuum of 600 mm Hg is maintained in the second effect
Calculate the area requirements, if calandria of equal area are used
Overall heat transfer coefficients are 550 and 370 kcal.h-1m-2 C-1 in the first and second
effect, respectively
Specific heat of the concentrated liquor is 0.87 kcal.kg-1C-1

Solution
? Pressure in effect I to be decided
Pressure in effect II = 760 - 600 = 160 mm Hg

Effect II: Boiling point at this pressure (160 mm Hg) = 60 C (from steam table)
(high molecular wt. solute, BPE is neglected)
Effect II: Latent heat vapor generated at 160 mm Hg (0.2133 bar) = 563 kcal.kg-1 (s2)

Steam (hot fluid): Heating steam is at 3.5 kg.cm-2 gauge:

- Saturation temp (Ts)=148 C & Latent heat (s)= 506 kcal.kg-1

Feed rate = 8000 kg.h-1

Solute content = 5%
Final concentration = 40%
Solid in = 80000. 05 = 400 kg.h-1
Water in = 8000-400= 7600 kg.h-1

 Product out (solvent+solid) = 400/0.40 kg.h-1 = 1000 kg.h-1

(40% solid content)

Water out with the product = 1000 (1-0.40) kg.h-1 = 600 kg.h-1
Total evaporation rate in two effects (ms1 +ms2) = 7600- 600 = 7000 kg.h-1

(ms1 +ms2) = 7000

(A14)

Allow equal areas and heat transfer rates to two effects, i.e.: U D1T1 U D 2 T2
Ttot= T1 + T2 = 148-60 = 88 C
UD1= 550, UD2= 370 kcal.h-1m-2 C-1 T1 = 35.4 C & T2 = 52.6 C
Temperature of the vapor leaving effect I (Tb1) =148 35.4 = 112.6 C
Latent heat vapor generated in effect I at 112.6 C = 531 kcal.kg-1 (s1)
[evaporator drum pressure ~ 1.2116 bar]

(ref. A11)

Energy balance for effect I:

m f H f ms s (m f ms1 ) H1 ms1H s1

(ref. A.2)

Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 112.6 C (temp of solution leaving effect I)

= (40 - 112.6)(1 kcal/ kg C) = -72.6 kcal/ kg

= 0 kcal/ kg (w.r.t. the reference temperature of 112.6 C)
= 506 kcal/ kg;
= 531 kcal/ kg

(8000)(-72.6)

+ ms(506) = (8000-ms1)(0) + ms1(531)

ms = 1.05ms1 + 1148

(A15)

Energy balance for effect II:

(m f ms1 ) H1 ms1s1 (m f ms1 ms 2 ) H 2 ms 2 H s 2

(ref. A3)

Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 60 C (temp of solution leaving effect II)

= (112.6 - 60)(0.94 kcal/ kg C)= 49.4 kcal/ kg

(Specific heat of the solution leaving the 1st effect is taken as the mean value of the sp.
heat of feed and the concentrated liquor, i.e.,

1 0.87

0.94)

= 0 kcal/ kg
(w.r.t. the reference temperature of 60 C)
= 531 kcal/ kg
= 563 kcal/ kg

(8000 - ms1)(49.4)

+ ms1(531) = (8000-ms1- ms2)(0) + ms2(563)

ms2 = 0.855ms1 + 702.6

(A16)

Solving Eqs. A.14-A.16 for ms, ms1 and ms2 :

ms= 4713
ms1= 3395 and
ms2 = 3605 kg/ h
Areas: A1

ms s
m
(4713)(506)
(3395)(531)

122.5 m 2 and A2 s1 s1
92.6 m 2
U D1T1 (550)(35.4)
U D 2 T2 (370)(52.6)

? The areas in the two effects are not equal. Revision needed
Revised temperature difference in 1st effect, T1 40 o C and T2 48 o C taken for the
calculation
(ref. A.13)
o

38.84
C
You may also continue the calculation with this revised value:
1, new

Temperature of the saturated vapor from effect-I = 148 -40= 108 C

Latent heat of the vapor leaving the 1st effect at 108 C= 530 kcal/ kg ( )
Corresponding evaporator drum pressure = 1.2116 bar

Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect I (reference temperature 108 C)

(8000)(1)(40-108)

+ ms(506) = (8000-ms1)(0) + ms1(530)

ms = 1.047ms1 + 1075

(Ref.A.2)
(A.17)

Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect II (reference temperature 60 C)

(8000 - ms1)(0.94)(108-60) + ms1(530) = (8000-ms1- ms2)(0) + ms2(563)

ms2 = 0.8612ms1 +641

Solving eqs. A.14, A.17 and A.18:

Areas: A1

(ref.A.3)
(A.18)

ms= 4652
ms1= 3417 and
ms2 = 3583 kg/h

ms s
(4652)(506)
m
(3417)(530)

107 m 2 and A2 s1 s1
102 m 2
U D1T1
(550)(40)
U D 2 T2
(370)(48)

Areas are fairly close, use A1 = A2 = 104 m2 plus overdesign. About 10% excess
area will provide a reasonable overdesign

Tube details:
Let us select 1 inch nominal diameter, 80 schedule, brass tubes of 12 ft in length
Outer tube diameter (do) = 42.16 mm
Inner tube diameter (di) = 32.46 mm

Tube length (L) = 12 ft = 3.6576 m

Surface area of each tube (a) = do L = 42.16410-3 3.6576 = 0.4845 m2
Number of tubes required providing 10% overdesign (Nt) = A /a = (115/0.4845) 238

Tube pitch (triangular), PT = 1.25 do = 1.25 42.164 = 52.71 mm

Total area occupied by tubes = Nt (1/2) PT PT sin

(where = 60)

= 238 0.5 (5310-3)2 0.866

= 0.2894 m2
This area is generally divided by a factor varying from 0.8 to 1 to find out the actual
area. It allows space for adjustment of peripheral tubes as those cant be too close to
tube sheet edge

 Actual area required = 0.2894/ 0.9

(0.9 is taken)
= 0.3216 m2
Central downcomer area is generally taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross sectional
area of tubes. Consider 50% of the total tube cross-sectional area
Therefore, downcomer area = 0.5 [Nt (/4) do2]
= 0.5 [238 (/4) (0.04216)2]
= 0.1661 m2
Downcomer diameter = [(4 0.1661)/]
= 0.460 m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downcomer area + area occupied by tubes
= 0.1661+ 0.3216 m2
= 0.4877 m2
Tube sheet diameter = [(4 0.4877)/ ]
= 0.788 m

Thank You