Project in Chemistry Final

Lyceum of the Philippines University - Manila
College of Arts and Sciences
PROJECT IN
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
(NSCL13A)
Submitted by:
Group 5
Dinong, Vernis Marie M.
Godoy, Alyssa Nichole M.
Velarde, Renelyn G.
A-401
July 26, 2016
Lyceum of the Philippines University - Manila

College of Arts and Sciences
PROJECT IN
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
(NSCL13A)
Submitted by:
Group 5
Dinong, Vernis Marie M.
Godoy, Alyssa Nichole M.
Velarde, Renelyn G.
July 26, 2016
LANTHANIDE
The lanthanide series is a series of metallic elements, included in the rare-earth metals, in
Group 3 of the periodic table. It consists of the 14 elements, with atomic numbers 58 through 71,
which follow lanthanum on the periodic table of elements. These 14, along with the actinides
atomic numbers 90 through 103 are set aside from the periodic table due to similarities in
properties that define each group.
Specifically, the lanthanides and actinides are the only elements that fill the f-orbitals.
The lanthanides and actinides are actually "branches" of the larger family known as transition
metals. The latter appear in groups 3 through 12 on the IUPAC version of the periodic table,
though they are not numbered on the North American version.
The lanthanide series is usually combined with lanthanum, which has an atomic number
of 57, under the general heading of lanthanides. As their name indicates, members of the
lanthanide series share certain characteristics with lanthanum; hence the collective term
"lanthanides." These 15 elements, along with their chemical symbols, are: Lanthanum (La),
Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), Neodymium (Nd), Promethium (Pm), Samarium (Sm),
Europium (Eu), Gadolinium (Gd), Terbium (Tb), Dysprosium (Dy), Holmium (Ho), Erbium (Er),
Thulium (Tm), Ytterbium (Yb), Lutetium (Lu).
PROPERTIES OF LANTHANIDES
Bright and silvery in appearance, many of the lanthanides though they are metals, they
are so soft and can be cut with a knife. Lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, and
europium are highly reactive. When exposed to oxygen, they form an oxide coating. (An oxide is
a compound formed by metal with an oxygen.) To prevent this result, which tarnishes the metal,
these five lanthanides are kept stored in mineral oil.
The reactive tendencies of the other lanthanides vary: for instance, gadolinium and
lutetium do not oxidize until they have been exposed to air for a very long time. Nonetheless,
lanthanides tend to be rather "temperamental" as a class. If contaminated with other metals, such
as calcium, they corrode easily, and if contaminated with nonmetals, such as nitrogen or oxygen,
they become brittle. Contamination also alters their boiling points, which range from 1,506.2F
(819C) for ytterbium to 3,025.4F (1,663C) for lutetium.
Lanthanides react rapidly with hot water, or more slowly with cold water, to form
hydrogen gas. As noted earlier, they also are quite reactive with oxygen, and they experience
combustion readily in air. When a lanthanide reacts with another element to form a compound, it
usually loses three of its outer electrons to form what are called tripositive ions, or atoms with an
electric charge of +3. This is the most stable ion for lanthanides, which sometimes develop less
stable +2 or +4 ions. Lanthanides tend to form ionic compounds, or compounds containing either
positive or negative ions, with other substances in particular, fluorine.
Though they were once known as the rare earth metals, lanthanides were so termed
because, as we shall see, they are difficult to extract from compounds containing other
substances including other lanthanides. As for rarity, the scarcest of the lanthanides, thulium, is
more abundant than either arsenic or mercury, and certainly no one thinks of those as rare
substances. In terms of parts per million (ppm), thulium has a presence in Earth's crust equivalent
to 0.2 ppm. The most plentiful of the lanthanides, cerium, has an abundance of 46 ppm, greater
than that of tin.
On the other hand, rarity is understood not in terms of scarcity, but with regard to
difficulty in obtaining an element in its pure form, then indeed the lanthanides are rare. Because
their properties are so similar, and because they are inclined to congregate in the same
substances, the original isolation and identification of the lanthanides was an arduous task that
took well over a century. The progress followed a common pattern.
A chemist identified a new lanthanide; then a few years later, another scientist came
along and extracted another lanthanide from the sample that the first chemist had believed to be a
single element. In this way, the lanthanides emerged over time, each from the one before it,
rather like Russian matryoshka or "nesting" dolls.
Atomic Number: 57
Atomic Weight: 138.90547
Melting Point: 1191 K (918C or 1684F)
Boiling Point: 3737 K (3464C or 6267F)
Density: 6.15 grams per cubic centimeter
Phase at Room Temperature: Solid
Element Classification: Metal
Period Number: 6
Lanthanum (La)
Between 1839 and 1848, Mosander was consumed with extracting various lanthanides
from ytterite, which by then had come to be known as gadolinite. When he first succeeded in
extracting an element, he named it lanthana, meaning "hidden." The material, eventually referred
to as lanthanum, was not prepared in pure form until 1923.
Like a number of other lanthanides, lanthanum is very soft so soft it can be cut with a
knife and silvery-white in color. Among the most reactive of the lanthanides, it decomposes
rapidly in hot water, but more slowly in cold water. Lanthanum also reacts readily with oxygen,
and corrodes quickly in moist air.
As with cerium, lanthanum is used in misch metal. Because lanthanum compounds bring
about special optical qualities in glass, it also used for the manufacture of specialized lenses. In
addition, compounds of lanthanum with fluorine or oxygen are used in making carbon-arc lamps
for the motion picture industry.
Atomic Number: 58
Period Number: 6
Cerium (Ce)
In 1751, Swedish chemist Axel Crnstedt (1722-1765) described what he thought was a
new form of tungsten, which he had found at the Bastns Mine near Riddarhyttan, Sweden.
Later, German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1743-1817) and Swedish chemist Wilhelm
Hisinger (1766-1852) independently analyzed the material Crnstedt had discovered, and both
concluded that this must be a new element. It was named cerium in honor of Ceres, an asteroid
between Mars and Jupiter discovered in 1801. Not until 1875 was cerium actually extracted from
an ore.
Among the applications for cerium is an alloy called misch metal, prepared by fusing the
chlorides of cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium. The resulting alloy ignites at or
below room temperature, and is often used as the "flint" in a cigarette lighter, because it sparks
when friction from a metal wheel is applied.
Cerium is also used in jet engine parts, as a catalyst in making ammonia, and as an antiknock agent in gasoline that is, a chemical that reduces the "knocking" sounds sometimes
produced in an engine by inferior grades of fuel. In cerium (IV) oxide, or CeO 2, it is used to
extract the color from formerly colored glass, and is also applied in enamel and ceramic coatings.
Atomic Number: 59
Period Number: 6
Praseodymium (Pr)
The symbol is one commonly used for the astrological birth sign of Gemini (the twins).
The green colour, together with this symbol, reflects the origin of the elements name, from the
Greek prasinos, meaning green, and didymos, meaning twin.
Praseodymium was discovered by Carl F. Auer von Welsbach, a German chemist, in
1885. He separated praseodymium, as well as the element neodymium, from a material known as
didymium. Today, praseodymium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from
monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements.
Praseodymium's primary use is as an alloying agent with magnesium to create highstrength metals that are used in aircraft engines. Praseodymium also makes up about 5% of
Misch metal, a material that is used to make flints for lighters. Praseodymium forms the core
of carbon arc lights which are used in the motion picture industry for studio lighting and
projector lights. Praseodymium is added to fiber optic cables as a doping agent where it is used
as a signal amplifier. Praseodymium salts are used to give glasses and enamels a yellow color. It
is also a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain types of welder's and glass
blower's goggles.
Atomic Number: 60
Atomic
Weight: 144.242
Melting
Point: 1294 K (1021C or 1870F)
Boiling
Point: 3347 K (3074C or 5565F)
Density:
7.01 grams per cubic centimeter

Period Number: 6
Neodymium (Nd)
Named from the Greek words neos and didymos, which together mean "new twin."
Neodymium was discovered by Carl F. Auer von Welsbach, a German chemist, in 1885. He
separated neodymium, as well as the element praseodymium, from a material known as
didymium. Today, neodymium is primarily obtained from through an ion exchange process
monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements.
Neodymium makes up about 18% of Misch metal, a material that is used to make flints
for lighters. Neodymium is also a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain
types of welder's and glass blower's goggles. Neodymium is added to glass to remove the green
color caused by iron contaminants. It can also be added to glass to create violet, red or gray
colors. Some types of glass containing neodymium are used by astronomers to calibrate devices
called spectrometers and other types are used to create artificial rubies for lasers. Some
neodymium salts are used to color enamels and glazes.
Atomic Number: 61
Atomic Weight: 145
Boiling
Point: 3273 K (3000C or 5432F)
Density: 7.26
Phase at Room
grams per cubic centimeter

Temperature: Solid
Element
Classification: Metal
Period Number: 6
Promethium has been identified in the spectrum

of star HR 465 in the Andromeda galaxy.(Photo:NASA)
Promethium (Pm)
The existence of promethium was predicted by Bohuslav Brauner, a Czech chemist, in
1902. Several groups claimed to have produced the element, but they could not confirm their
discoveries because of the difficulty of separating promethium from other elements. Proof of the
existence of promethium was obtained by Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin and
Charles D. Coryell in 1944. Too busy with defense related research in World War II, they did not
claim their discovery until 1946. They discovered promethium while analyzing the byproducts
of uranium fission that were produced in a nuclear reactor located at Clinton Laboratories in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee. Today, Clinton Laboratories is known as Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Today, promethium is still recovered from the byproducts of uranium fission. It can also
be produced by bombardingneodymium-146 with neutrons. Neodymium-146 becomes
neodymium-147 when it captures a neutron. Neodymium-147, with a half-life of 11 days, decays
into promethium-147 through beta decay. Promethium does not occur naturally on earth,
although it has been detected in the spectrum of a star in the constellation Andromeda.
Promethium could also be used as a portable X-ray source, in radioisotope thermoelectric
generators to provide electricity for space probes and satellites, as a source of radioactivity for
gauges that measure thickness and to make lasers that can be used to communicate with
submerged submarines
Atomic Number: 62
Period Number: 6
Samarium (Sm)
While analyzing an oxide formed from lanthanide in 1841, Mosander decided that he had
a new element on his hands, which he called didymium. Four decades later, Boisbaudran took
another look at didynium, and concluded that it was not an element; rather, it contained an
element, which he named samarium after the mineral samarskite, in which it is found. Still later,
Marignac was studying samarskite when he discovered what came to be known as gadolinium.
But the story did not end there. Even later, in 1901, French chemist Eugne-Anatole Demaray
(1852-1903) found yet another element, europium, in samarskite.
Samarium is applied today in nuclear power plant control rods, in carbon-arc lamps, and
in optical masers and lasers. In alloys with cobalt, it is used in manufacturing the most permanent
electromagnets available. Samarium is also utilized in the manufacture of optical glass, and as a
catalyst in the production of ethyl alcohol.
Atomic Number: 63
Period Number: 6
Europium (Eu)
Whereas many other lanthanides are named for regions in northern Europe, the name for
europium refers to the European continent as a whole. Demaray found europium in samarskite,
a discovery he made in 1901.
Most reactive of the lanthanides, europium responds both to cold water and to air. In
addition, it is capable of catching fire spontaneously. Among the most efficient elements for the
capture of neutrons, it is applied in the control systems of nuclear reactors. In addition, its
compounds are utilized in the manufacture of phosphors for TV sets: one such compound, for
instance, emits a reddish glow. Yet another europium compound is added to the glue on postage
stamps, making possible the electronic scanning of stamps.
Atomic Number: 64
Period Number: 6
Gadolinium (Gd)
In 1794, seven years after the discovery of ytterite, Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin (17601852) concluded that ytterite contained a new element, which was later named gadolinite in his
honor. A very similar name would be applied to an element extracted from ytterite, and the years
between Gadolin's discovery and the identification of this element spanned the period of the
most fruitful activity in lanthanide identification.
During the next century, all the other lanthanides were discovered within the composition
of gadolinite; then, in 1880, Swiss chemist Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817-1894)
found yet another element hiding in it. French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran (18381912) rediscovered the same element six years later, and proposed that it be called gadolinium.
Silvery in color, but with a sometimes yellowish cast, gadolinium has a high tendency to
oxidize in dry air. Because it is highly efficient for capturing neutrons, it could be useful in
nuclear power reactors. However, two of its seven isotopes are in such low abundance that it has
had little nuclear application. Used in phosphors for color television sets, among other things,
gadolinium shows some promise for ultra-high-tech applications: at very low temperatures it
becomes highly magnetic, and may function as a superconductor.
Atomic Number: 65
Period Number: 6
Terbium (Tb)
Named for the village of Ytterby, Sweden. The mineral gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)
2FeBe2Si2O10), discovered in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden, has been the source of
a great number of rare earth elements. In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, was
able to separate gadolinite into three materials, which he named yttria, erbia and terbia. As might
be expected considering the similarities between their names and properties, scientists soon
confused erbia and terbia and, by 1877, had reversed their names. What Mosander called erbia is
now called terbia and vice versa. From these two substances, Mosander discovered two new
elements, terbium and erbium. Today, terbium can be obtained from the minerals xenotime
(YPO4) and euxenite ((Y, Ca, Er, La, Ce, U, Th)(Nb, Ta, Ti)2O6), but is primarily obtained
through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), a material rich
in rare earth elements that typically contains as much as 0.03% terbium.
Terbium is used to dope some types of solid-state devices and, along with zirconium
dioxide (ZrO2), as a crystal stabilizer in fuel cells that operate at high temperatures.
Terbia, the renamed material that Mosander discovered in 1843, is terbium oxide
(Tb2O3), one of terbium's compounds. Terbia can potentially be used as an activator for green
phosphors in television tubes. Sodium terbium borate, another terbium compound, is used to
make laser light.
Atomic Number: 66
Period Number: 6
Dysprosium (Dy)
Named for the Greek word dysprositos, or "hard to get at," dysprosium was discovered by
Boisbaudran. Separating ytterite in 1886, he found gallium (atomic number 31not a
lanthanide); samarium (discussed above); and dysprosium. Yet again, a mineral extracted from
ytterite had been named after a previously discovered element, and, yet again, it turned out to
contain several elements.
Because dysprosium has a high affinity for neutrons, it is sometimes used in control rods
for nuclear reactors, "soaking up" neutrons rather as a sponge soaks up water. Soft, with a
lustrous silver color like other lanthanides, dysprosium is also applied in lasers, but otherwise it
has few uses.
Atomic Number: 67
Period Number: 6
Holmium (Ho)
From the Latin word for the city of Stockholm, Holmia. Holmium was discovered by Per
Theodor Cleve, a Swedish chemist, in 1879. Cleve used the same method Carl Gustaf Mosander
used to discover lanthanum, erbium and terbium, he looked for impurities in the oxides of other
rare earth elements. He started with erbia, the oxide of erbium (Er2O3), and removed all of the
known contaminants. After further processing, he obtained two new materials, one brown and the
other green. Cleve named the brown material holmia and the green material thulia. Holmia is the
oxide of the element holmium and thulia is the oxide of the element thulium. Holmium's
absorption spectrum was observed earlier that year by J. L. Soret and M. Delafontaine, Swiss
chemists.
Today, holmium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite
sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements that can contain as much as
0.05% holmium.
Holmium has no commercial applications, although it has unusual magnetic properties
that could be exploited in the future.
Holmium forms no commercially important compounds. Some of holmium's compounds

include: holmium oxide (Ho2O3), holmium fluoride (HoF3) and holmium iodide (HoI3).
Atomic Number: 68
Period Number: 6
Erbium (Er)
The mineral gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y) 2FeBe2Si2O10), discovered in a quarry near the
town of Ytterby, Sweden, has been the source of a great number of rare earth elements. In 1843,
Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, was able to separate gadolinite into three materials,
which he named yttria, erbia and terbia. As might be expected considering the similarities
between their names and properties, scientists soon confused erbia and terbia and, by 1877, had
reversed their names. What Mosander called erbia is now called terbia and vice versa. From
these two substances, Mosander discovered two new elements, terbium and erbium. Today,
erbium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from the minerals xenotime
(YPO4) and euxenite ((Y, Ca, Er, La, Ce, U, Th) (Nb, Ta, Ti)2O6).
Erbium is alloyed with vanadium to make it softer and easier to shape. Erbium is added
to fiber optic cables as a doping agent where it is used as a signal amplifier. Erbium also has
some uses in the nuclear power industry.
Erbia, the renamed material that Mosander discovered in 1843, is erbium oxide (Er2O3),
one of erbium's compounds. Erbia has a pink color and is used to color glass and glazes. Other
erbium compounds include: erbium fluoride (ErF3, erbium chloride (ErCl3 and erbium iodide
(ErI3).
Atomic Number: 69
Period Number: 6
Thulium (Tm)
Thulium was discovered by Per Theodor Cleve, a Swedish chemist, in 1879. Cleve used
the same method Carl Gustaf Mosander used to discover lanthanum, erbium and terbium, he
looked for impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements. He started with erbia, the oxide
of erbium (Er2O3), and removed all of the known contaminants. After further processing, he
obtained two new materials, one brown and the other green. Cleve named the brown material
holmia and the green material thulia. Holmia is the oxide of the element holmium and thulia is
the oxide of the element thulium. Today, thulium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange
process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements that
can contain as much as 0.007% thulium.
Thulium is the least abundant of the naturally occurring rare earth elements. Metallic
thulium is relatively expensive and has only recently become available. It currently has no
commercial applications, although one of its isotopes, thulium-169, could be used as a radiation
source for portable X-ray machines. Thulium forms no commercially important compounds.
Some of thulium's compounds include: thulium oxide (Tm2O3), thulium fluoride (TmF3) and
thulium iodide (TmI3).
Atomic Number: 70
Period Number: 6
Ytterbium (Yb)
Named for the village of Ytterby, Sweden. Marignac believed that ytterbia was a
compound of a new element, which he named ytterbium. Other chemists produced and
experimented with ytterbium in an attempt to determine some of its properties. Unfortunately,
different scientists obtained different results from the same experiments. While some scientists
believed that these inconsistent results were caused by poor procedures or faulty equipment,
Georges Urbain, a French chemist, believed that ytterbium wasn't an element at all, but a mixture
of two elements. In 1907, Urbain was able to separate ytterbium into two elements. Urbain
named one of the elements neoytterbium (new ytterbium) and the other element lutecium.
Chemists eventually changed the name neoytterbium back to ytterbium and changed the
spelling of lutecium to lutetium. Due to his original belief of the composition of ytterbia,
Marignac is credited with the discovery of ytterbium. Today, ytterbium is primarily obtained
through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich
in rare earth elements.
Ytterbium has few uses. It can be alloyed with stainless steel to improve some of its
mechanical properties and used as a doping agent in fiber optic cable where it can be used as an
amplifier. One of ytterbium's isotopes is being considered as a radiation source for portable Xray machines.
Atomic Number: 71
Period Number: 6
Lutetium (Lu)
From an ancient name for the city of Paris, Lutetia. Marignac believed that ytterbia was
a compound of a new element, which he named ytterbium. Other chemists produced and
experimented with ytterbium in an attempt to determine some of its properties. Unfortunately,
different scientists obtained different results from the same experiments. While some scientists
believed that these inconsistent results were caused by poor procedures or faulty equipment,
Georges Urbain, a French chemist, believed that ytterbium wasn't an element at all, but a mixture
of two elements. In 1907, Urbain was able to separate ytterbium into two elements. Urbain
named one of the elements neoytterbium (new ytterbium) and the other element lutecium.
Carl Auer von Welsbach, a German chemist working independently of Urbain, reached
the same conclusions at nearly the same time. Welsbach chose the names albebaranium and
cassiopium for these elements. Urbain was eventually credited with the discovery of the elements
and won the right to name them, although chemists later changed the name neoytterbium back to
ytterbium and changed the spelling of lutecium to lutetium. Today, lutetium is primarily obtained
through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) PO4), a material rich
in rare earth elements.
Lutetium is one of the most difficult elements to prepare and has no large scale practical
uses, although some of its radioactive isotopes can be used as a catalyst in the cracking of
petroleum products and a catalyst in some hydrogenation and polymerization processes.

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Lyceum of the Philippines University - Manila

College of Arts and Sciences

July 26, 2016

Lyceum of the Philippines University - Manila

July 26, 2016

Point: 1294 K (1021C or 1870F)

Point: 3347 K (3074C or 5565F)

7.01 grams per cubic centimeter

Point: 3273 K (3000C or 5432F)

grams per cubic centimeter

Promethium has been identified in the spectrum

Holmium forms no commercially important compounds. Some of holmium's compounds

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