CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
A. Issue Background
Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the
psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use,
comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were
largely philosophical or educational schools of thought, due mainly to their
location in departments other than applied sciences (e.g., cohesive data on how the
human brain functioned). Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience,
cognitive science, linguistics, and information science to study how the brain
processes language, and less so the known processes of social sciences, human
development, communication theories and infant development, among others.
There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying
the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become
a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics has roots in education and philosophy, and covers the
"cognitive processes" that make it possible to generate a grammatical and
meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the
processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc.
Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.
Such well-known linguists as G. Pocheptsov, R. Hodge, G. Kress and
others believe that text and discourse can be considered by the analogy with a
sentence and an utterance: A sentence is a usual for us element of a structure. An
utterance combines in itself both sentence and the social context of its usage. On
the higher level the same relations are repeated in the text and discourse.
Drawing a parallel between the notions of text-discourse and sentenceutterance is heuristically convenient, though a kind of simplified analogy. Going
further, it is necessary to point out that the definition of the utterance as a
sentence in the social context grades the difference between the utterance and
discourse, extremely expands its borders. On this basis, it is better to adhere to the
traditional interpretation: utterance = sentence + actual division + intonation,

regarding the context, after T. van Dijk, the determinant characteristic feature of
discourse.
From the point of view of Psycholinguistics text is a product of such
kinds of speech activities as speaking, writing the whole complex of
psychological conditions of activity and individual-psychological peculiarities of
the subject are objectified in text through an utterance.

CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 Discourse Versus Text
The modern scientific approach considers discourse as the major form of
daily vital practice of a human being and defines it as the complex communicative
phenomenon, including apart form the text, extralinguistic factors (knowledge of
the world, opinions, settings, aims of the addresser), necessary for understanding
the text.
The definition of the notion discourse creates certain difficulties as it
appeared to be on the joint of an array of disciplines, such as Linguistics,
Anthropology, Literary Criticism, Ethnography, Sociology, Sociolinguistics,
Philosophy, Psycholinguistics, Cognitive Psychology and others. Nevertheless,
one can assert, that owing to the efforts of many scientists in different spheres, the
theory of discourse is being developed nowadays in the independent
interdisciplinary area, reflecting the general tendency to the integration in the
progress of modern science.
The modern discourse theory goes back to the antique rhetoric; however, it
began developing into an independent science only in the middle of the sixties of
the XX century in the course of numerous researches, which received the name
Linguistics of Text. The interest in studying the text had been caused by the
aspiration to explain language as an integral means of communication, to study in
a more profound way language connections with various spheres of human
activity, expressed through the text. Originally the term linguistics of text was
considered by many scientists not a suitable one, and it was then, that in the works
of some linguists the term discourse appeared.
At those times, as well as nowadays, this term is unfortunately not
explicitly defined. In English there are general definitions of the term, which
mean to speak about or to hold forth on a topic .Within linguistics, discourse
is used to refer to language and linguistic structures above the level of the
sentence. In discourse analysis, discourse is used to refer to those elements which
are seen to be rule-governed and systematic, but which do not occur at the level of
the word or the phrase. For example, in discourse analysis it is possible to analyze

the opening or the closing places in a conversation - these may consist of several
sentences, and constitute a larger unit of the analysis than the sentence. The term
discourse is also used when linguists refer to a piece of the extended text or
conversation which has some form of internal coherence. Many linguists and
literary theoreticians use a slightly simplified definition of discourse to refer to a
group of statements, which are concerned with a particular subject area; for
example, a discourse of femininity or a discourse of racism. Other linguists also
use discourse in a similar way to the word register and refer to a discourse of
advertising or a legal discourse, where discourse becomes defined as the language
which occurs within a particular context. Even in these definitions of discourse, it
is clear that there is a concern with some extended texts and the use of language
and structures above the level of the sentence.
As we see, the range of discourse definitions is really wide. In the course
of linguistic research they have been changing constantly and every time the
appearance of a new interpretation did not eliminate the previous one, and
nowadays they coexist and are used parallelly. But according to M. SushkoBezdenezhnuh, there can be distinguished three main approaches to the definition
of discourse:
1. The earliest interpretation, based, first of all, on the Anglo-Saxon linguistic
tradition (D. Schifrin, D. Cristal, G. Cook): discourse - is actually a
dialogue, an interaction between the speaker and the listener; an authentic
daily communication, mainly oral, included in the wide communicative
context.
2. The second approach is based on the T. van Dijk's conception of the
communicative

nature

of

text:

discourse-

is

communicative

phenomenon, which is of procedural character, occurs in a certain out-oflingual context and is fixed in speech as a formal structure - text (written
or oral).
3. The third approach was established in the sixties by the representatives of
French semantic school (A. Grames, G. Curte, G. Lakan, M. Foucault) as
an alloy of Linguistics, Marxist ideology and Psychoanalysis and was
developed by German linguists: discourse is a crosss-point of many

intercorrelated texts; as a whole of texts, which are thematically, culturally

or anyhow connected and function within the certain communicative
sphere and admit the development and supplementation by other texts.
So, the appearance of the theory of discourse led to the quantum leap in
the development of language science and created one of the most complicated
problems - a problem of the linguistic description of discourse. Having arisen in
the course of linguistics of the text, the theory of discourse has never lost the
primary connection with it, but it was consistently getting to the differentiation of
the subject of research, to the delimitation of the concept text and discourse
from the point of view of language realization, the relative length of the
syntagmatic chain, and the formal-substantial parameters in the text of the
coherent speech.
2.2 Context
Context means the setting of a word or event. If your friend is furious at
you for calling her your worst enemy, remind her that the context of those remarks
was Opposite Day.
Context comes from the Latin for how something is made. It was first used to talk
about writing, as in "the beautiful phrase occurs in the context of the concluding
paragraph." We use it now to talk about any circumstance in which something
happens. You might say that you can't understand what happens without looking at
the context. When someone takes your words but makes it sound like you meant
something else, they've taken your words out of context.
Context may refer to:

Context (language use), the relevant constraints of the communicative

situation that influence language use, language variation, and discourse
summary

Archaeological context, an event in time which has been preserved in the

archaeological record

Opaque context, linguistic context in which substitution of co-referential

expressions does not preserve truth

Trama (mycology) (context or flesh), the mass of non-hymenial tissues that

composes the mass of a fungal fruiting body

Coherence means the connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion
means the connection of ideas at the sentence level. Basically, coherence
refers to the rhetorical aspects of your writing, which include developing
and supporting your argument (e.g. thesis statement development),
synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas. The
cohesion of writing focuses on the grammatical aspects of writing.
One of the practical tools that can help improve the coherence of your

writing is to use a concept map. The concept map is also known as reverse
outline since you make an outline of your paper after you have finished the main
ideas of your paper. Write down the main idea of each paragraphwhich is called
a topic sentenceon a blank piece of paper. Check to see if the topic sentences
are connected to the thesis statement of your paper or if you have strayed from
your main argument. As you repeat this process, it will help you become more
aware of how to develop your argument coherently and how to organize your
ideas effectively. Here is a concept map template you can use.

2.3 Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion is also a very important aspect of academic writing, because it
immediately affects the tone of your writing. Although some instructors may say
that you will not lose points because of grammatical errors in your paper, you may
lose points if the tone of your writing is sloppy or too casual (a diary-type of
writing or choppy sentences will make the tone of your writing too casual for
academic writing). But cohesive writing does not mean just grammatically
correct sentences; cohesive writing refers to the connection of your ideas both at
the sentence level and at the paragraph level.
Here are some examples that illustrate the importance of connecting your
ideas more effectively in writing.
The hotel is famous. It is one of the most well-known hotels in the country.
The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel. The hotel spent

a lot of money to advertise the event. Because the hotel wanted to gain
international reputation. But not many people attended the event. (The connection
of ideas is not very good.)
The hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region, wanted
to promote its image around the world by hosting the latest international dancing
competition. Although the event was widely advertised, not many people
participated in the competition. (The connection of ideas is better than in the first
example.)
The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel, which is
one of the most well-known hotels in this region. The hotel spent a lot of money
on advertising the event since it wanted to enhance its international reputation;
however, it failed to attract many people. (The connection of ideas is better than
in the first example.)
cohesion is a formal feature of texts (it gives them their texture), while
coherence is "in the eye of the beholder" - that is to say, it is the extent to which
the reader (or listener) is able to infer the writer's (or speaker's) communicative
intentions. Thus, cohesion is objectively verifiable, while coherence is more
subjective. A text may be coherent to you, but incoherent to me.
The exact relationship between cohesion and coherence is a matter of
contention, however. While it is true that a sequence of unlinked utterances can
make sense, it is often the case that some form of linking, e.g. with cohesive
devices such as and, but, so, can make it easier for the reader (or listener) to
process and to make sense of what they read (or hear). Nevertheless, a text which
is basically poorly organised is not going to be made more coherent simply by
peppering it with moreover, however and notwithstanding. The following text
(devised by the writer on writing, Ann Raimes) is an example of a text that is
"over-egged" with cohesive markers, and which is typical of the kind of texts that
many students produce as a result of an over-emphasis on linking devices at the
expense of other ways of making texts cohesive (of which probably the most
important is lexis):
The way that textual cohesion is achieved is best learned through paying
close attention to the way sentences are linked in texts. There are a variety of

cohesive devices, both lexical and grammatical, of which linkers (and, so ,but) are
just one. (For a comprehensive list, see the entry under cohesion in An A-Z of ELT,
Macmillan, 2006). Cutting (short) texts up and asking learners to order them is a
good way of drawing attention to the way that they are linked. I am fond of using
short articles from children's encyclopedias. Identifying lexical chains in texts that is, repetitions, the use of synonyms and hyponyms, and words from the same
lexical field - is also a useful way of alerting learners to the key role that lexis has
in binding a text together.
Coherence is more elusive but it has a lot to do with the way that the
propositional content of texts is organised. If the content of a (written) text is
organised in such a way that it fulfills the reader's expectations, it is more likely to
achieve its communicative effect. This means that learners can be helped to write
coherent texts through the analysis of the generic features of particular text types.
This has long been the approach to teaching business, technical, and academic
writing. More important still, is second-guessing the intended reader's questions,
and then answering them. This means that it is important that, when doing writing
tasks, students have a clear idea both of the purpose of the text, and of the
intended readership. Good writers are able to "keep their reader in mind". Keeping
your reader in mind does not guarantee coherence, but it would seem to be a
prerequisite. (For more ideas on how to teach both cohesion and coherence, see
Chapters 2 and 3 of Beyond the Sentence, Macmillan, 2005).
2.4 Turn-taking
Individuals involved in a conversation take turns speaking.
Turn-taking refers to the process by which people in a conversation decide
who is to speak next. It depends on both cultural factors and subtle cues.
Overview
The steps involved in the conversational process occur in order to maintain
two important elements of conversation: one person speaking at a time and the
space in which one person stops talking and another begins. Turn-taking is a part
of the structure and systematic organization of conversation. Turn-taking in
conversation is not stereotypical of any type of person, conversation, or language.

Turn-taking is done in most settings, by any type of person and is not reliant on a
set amount of participants. Turn-taking is not optimized for fairness or efficiency,
resulting in variations in how turn-taking occurs.
Turn-taking and gender
Turn-taking in male-female interactions is highly salient. Male
interlocutors systematically interrupt females and tend to dominate conversations,
and women are frequently treated in much the same way as children are in
conversations. This interruption, however, is not due to female interlocutors
failure to pursue the floor. Deep interruption, or interruption at least two
syllables before a potential utterance boundary, is perpetuated more frequently by
men, towards women, regardless of ways that women negotiate them.
Cultural variation
Turn-taking is developed from very early on the first instances of it in a
persons life are the interactions between parent and child but it can still be
thought of as a skill, rather than an attribute. The way in which turn-taking occurs
is greatly affected by culture. For instance, Japanese culture is group-oriented, and
highly focused on the importance of social structure and ritual harmony in
interaction. This is reflected in the negotiation of turns in Japanese discourse.
During a news interview, Japanese moderators incorporate many backchannels
(listener responses) and reactive tokens (aizuchi), whereas US interlocutors use
hardly any.
This demonstrates culturally different floor management strategies. In
Japan, interlocutors invite backchannels in order to legitimize their right to speak,
and in the US, interlocutors rush through completion points in order to maintain
the floor. Difference in use of backchannels could also be explained by the
syntactic structures of the two languages. English word order is subject-verbobject (SVO), whereas Japanese is subject-object-verb (SOV).
Additionally, turn-taking can vary in aspects such as time, overlap, and
perception of silence in different cultures, but can however, have universal
similarities as well. Stivers et al. (2009) cross-examined ten various languages
across the globe to see if there were any similar underlying foundation in turntaking. In analyzing these languages, it was discovered that all the languages had

the same avoidance of wanting to overlap in conversation and wanting to

minimize the silence between turn-taking. However, depending on the culture,
there was variation in the amount of time taken between turns. Stivers claims that
their evidence from examining these languages suggests that there is an
underlying universal aspect to turn-taking.
Overlapping talk while turn-taking
When more than one person is engaging in a conversation, there is
potential for overlapping or interruption while both or many parties are speaking
at the same time. Overlapping in turn-taking can be problematic for the people
involved. There are four types of overlap including terminal overlaps, continuers,
conditional access to the turn, and chordal. Terminal overlaps occur when a
speaker assumes the other speaker has or is about to finish their turn and begins to
speak, thus creating overlap.
Cultural variation of overlap and timing
Harvey Sacks, one of the first to study conversation, found a correlation
between keeping only one person speaking at a time and controlling the amount of
silences between speakers. Although there is no limit or specific requirement for
the number of speakers in a given conversation, the number of conversations will
rise as the number of participants rise. This is in order to maintain speech and
silences more adequately. This correlation between speech and silence in
conversation differs across languages and cultures as shown by Jack Sidnells
findings in Caribbean Creole.
Eye contact and turn-taking
During a conversation, turn-taking may involve a cued gaze that prompts
the listener that it is their turn or that the speaker is finished talking. There are two
gazes that have been identified and associated with turn-taking. The two patterns
associated with turn-taking are mutual-break and mutual-hold. Mutual-break is
when there is a pause in the conversation and both participants use a momentary
break with mutual gaze toward each other and then breaking the gaze, then
continuing conversation again. This type is correlated with a perceived
smoothness due to a decrease in the taking of turns. Mutual-hold is when the
speaker also takes a pause in the conversation with mutual gaze, but then still

10

holds the gaze as he/she starts to speak again. Mutual-hold is associated with less
successful turn-taking process, because there are more turns taken, thus more
turns required to complete.[12]
Timing and turn-taking
Another cue associated with turn-taking is that of timing. Within turntaking, timing may cue the hearer to know that they have a turn to speak or make
an utterance. Due to the very nature of turn-taking and that it is dependent on the
context, timing varies within a turn and may be subjective within the
conversation. Vocal patterns, such as pitch, specific to the individual also cue the
hearer to know how the timing will play out in turn-taking.[14]
2.5 Psycholinguistic Evidence
The current discussion of psycholinguistics contains a near concensus on
the idea that it is wrong for a linguist to accept evidence from psycholinguistic
experimentation only when it supports his/her theory. The appropriate anecdote
here concerns the apocryphal student who objected to a professor's theory by
shouting.
All in all, the professor had, I think, the right attitude. If we had some
psycholinguistic paradigm P whose interpretation in terms of property-of-humanlanguage-use L were not in doubt, then it would be irresponsible of a linguist
presenting a theory about L to ignore data from P. But I don't know of any such
paradigm at the moment. Instead, we have the more usual situation in science,
where results from a variety of domains are converging in various places (in a
quite exciting fashion), but without an absolutely perfect fit. One valid program of
research is to continue to work on results in the individual areas, taking comfort
from convergence when it is evident, and putting aside divergence when it looks
irrelevant to present tasks. That's what we always do when we have more data
floating around us than we can handle with our theories -- internal to traditional
linguistics or in the broader world of language sciences. Another valid program of
Research is to study the divergences directly, and perhaps ultimately develop the
Holy Grail P described above.

11

2.6 acquisition Language acquisition

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to
perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and
sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential
human traits,[1] because non-humans do not communicate by using language.[2]
Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies
infants' acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from secondlanguage acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and
adults) of additional languages.
The capacity to successfully use language requires one to acquire a range
of tools including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and an extensive
vocabulary. Language can be vocalized as in speech, or manual as in sign. The
human language capacity is represented in the brain. Even though the human
language capacity is finite, one can say and understand an infinite number of
sentences, which is based on a syntactic principle called recursion. Evidence
suggests that every individual has three recursive mechanisms that allow
sentences to go indeterminately. These three mechanisms are: relativization,
complementation and coordination. Furthermore, there are actually two main
guiding principles in first-language acquisition, that is, speech perception always
precedes speech production and the gradually evolving system by which a child
learns a language is built up one step at a time, beginning with the distinction
between individual phonemes.[4]
2.7 Speech production
Speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into
speech. This includes the selection of words, the organization of relevant
grammatical forms, and then the articulation of the resulting sounds by the motor
system using the vocal apparatus. Speech production can be spontaneous such as
when a person creates the words of a conversation, reactive such as when they
name a picture or read aloud a written word, or imitative, such as in speech

12

repetition. Speech production is not the same as language production since

language can also be produced manually by signs.
In ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce roughly four syllables,
ten or twelve phonemes and two to three words out of their vocabulary (that can
contain 10 to 100 thousand words) each second. Errors in speech production are
relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous
speech. Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily
imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life, or are
abstract.
Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs
that generates sound by phonation through the glottis in the larynx that then is
modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However speech
production can occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech
by using the upper parts of the vocal tract. An example of such alaryngeal speech
is Donald Duck talk.
The vocal production of speech may be associated with the production of hand
gestures that act to enhance the comprehensibility of what is being said.
Three stages
The production of spoken language involves three major levels of processing:
conceptualization, formulation, and articulation.
The first is the processes of conceptualization or conceptual preparation, in which
the intention to create speech links a desired concept to the particular spoken
words to be expressed. Here the preverbal intended messages are formulated that
specify the concepts to be expressed.
The second stage is formulation in which the linguistic form required for the
expression of the desired message is created. Formulation includes grammatical
encoding, morpho-phonological encoding, and phonetic encoding. Grammatical
encoding is the process of selecting the appropriate syntactic word or lemma.
2.8 Language And The Brain
Language and the brain are intricately related and in order to gain a deeper
understanding of Psycholinguistics we must examine this relationship. It is the

13

goal of this page to describe the various brain regions/structures, language

processes and the intricate connection between them. The structural anatomy of
the brain will be discussed, as it is the fundamental basis of the relationship
between language and the brain. In order to understand the nature and dynamics
of language we must understand how it relates to the brain. Language is a function
of the structure of the human brain and several brain regions have been identified
with linguistic capabilities.
1. Brain Structure and Function
Handedness (left or right-handed) is directly related to the structure and
development of the brain. From the top of the spine upwards are the medulla
oblongata, the pons Varolii, the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex (cerebrum) in
that order. The cerebral cortex is characterized by a division into halves, termed
hemispheres, which are connected by tissue called the corpus collosum. It is not
evident exactly how important the actual size and weight of the brain are, perhaps
the ratio of brain to body size and weight which is important.
2. Hemispheric Dominance and Lateralization
The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, including the right hand,
the right arm and the right side of the face, while the right hemisphere controls the
left side of the body. For right-handed persons, the left hemisphere generally
dominate the right hemisphere, with the result that those people tend to prefer
their right hands. The majority have left-brain dominance but their dominance is
much less marked than in naturally right-handed persons.
3. Language Areas and Functioning
Language areas :
1. The front part of the parietal lobe, along the fissure of Rolando, is
primarily involved in the processing of sensation, and may be connected
with the speech and auditory areas at a deeper level.
2. The area in front of the fissure of Rolando is mainly involved in motor
functioning, and is thus relevant to the study of speaking and writing.
3. An area in the upper back part of the temporal lobe, extending upwards
into the parietal lobe, plays a major part in the comprehension of speech.
This is Wernickes area.

14

4. In the upper part of temporal lobe is the main area involved in auditory
reception, known as Heschls gyri, after the Austrian pathologist R.L.
Heschl (1824-1881).
5. The lower back part of the frontal lobe is primarily involved in the
encoding of speech. This is Brochas area.
6. Another area towards the back of the frontal lobe may be involved in the
motor control of writing. It is known as Exners centre, after the German
neurologist Sigmund Exner (1846-1926).
7. Part of the left parietal region, close to Wernickes area, is involved with
the control of manual singing.
8. The area at the back of the occipital lobe is used mainly for the processing
of visual input.
Wernicke observed that Brocas area was near that part of the brain which
involves the muscles which control speech while the area which he identified,
later called Wernickes area, was near the part of the brain which receives auditory
stimuli. Based on these observations, Wernicke hypothesized that the two areas
must in some way be connected. Later research showed that they are indeed
connected, being connected by the arcuate fasciculus.
Some of the neural pathways that are considered to be involved in the processing
of spoken language.
1. Speech production. The basic structure of the utterance is thought to be
generated in Wernicles area and is sent to Brocas area for encoding. The
motor programme is then passed on to the adjacent motor area, which
governs the articulatory organs.
2. Reading aloud. The written form is first received by the visual cortex, then
transmitted via the angular gyrus to Wernicles area, where it is thought to
be associated with the auditory representation. The utterance structure is
then sent on to Brocas area.
3. Speech comprehension. The signals arrive in the auditory cortex from the
ear, and are transferred to the adjacent Wernicles area, where they are
interpreted.

15

4. Brain Maturation and Critical Age for Learning Language

Five years could not be a critical age because it is a commonplace
observation that children learn a second language easily until about 12 years of
age and that almost everyone can learn some or most of a second language after
that age.
5. Language Disorders
Language disorders, known as aphasias, are presumed to have as their
cause some form of damage to some specific site in the hemisphere where
language is located. Such damage causes characteristic problems in spontaneous
speech, as well as in the understanding of speech and writing.
1. Brocas Aphasia
Brocas aphasia is characterized by meaningful but shortened speech and
also occurs in writing..
2. Wernickes Aphasia
This condition is characterized by speech with often resembles what is
called nonsense speech or double-talk. It sounds right and is grammatical but it is
meaningless.
3. Other Speech-related Aphasias
Damage to the area which leads into wernickes area from the auditory
cortex may result in pure word deafness, where one cannot recognize the sounds
of words as speech but can hear other types of sounds.
4. Reading and Writing Aphasias : Dyslexias
The type of aphasia which involves disorders in reading and writing is
called dyslexia. It may be subdivided into two basic categories: alexia, which
involves disorders in reading, and agraphia, which involves disorders in writing.
5. Localism and Holism
The localist model is the particular model of looking at the structure and
function of language by relating specific aspects of language to certain localized
areas of the brain.

16

6. Sign Language Aphasia

Native signers of American Sign Language who have suffered trauma such
as a stroke (cerebral infarction) to the left hemisphere will produce sign language
equivalents of Brocas aphasia or Wernickes aphasia.

17

CHAPTER III
CLOSING
3.1 Knot
1. The definition of the notion discourse creates certain difficulties as it
appeared to be on the joint of an array of disciplines, such as Linguistics,
Anthropology,

Literary

Criticism,

Ethnography,

Sociology,

Sociolinguistics, Philosophy, Psycholinguistics, Cognitive Psychology and

others.
2. Context means the setting of a word or event. If your friend is furious at
you for calling her your worst enemy, remind her that the context of those
remarks was Opposite Day.
3. Cohesion is also a very important aspect of academic writing, because it
immediately affects the tone of your writing.

18

REFERENCES
Raimes, A. 1983. Anguish as a second language? Remedies for composition
teachers. In Freedman, A., Pringle, I., and Yalden, J. (Eds.), Learning to
write:

First

language/second

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn-taking

19

language.

Longman.