BBMP1103 Mathematics For Management

BBMP1103
MATHEMATICS
FOR MANAGEMENT
Assoc Prof Dr Zurni Omar
Noraziah Haji Man
Hawa Ibrahim
Fatinah Zainon
Azizan Saaban
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Project Directors:
Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil

Prof Dr Wardah Mohamad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers:

Noraziah Haji Man
Hawa Ibrahim
Fatinah Zainon
Encik Azizan Saaban
Universiti Utara Malaysia
Moderators:
Fatinah Zainon
Noraziah Haji Man
Hawa Ibrahim
Universiti Utara Malaysia
Raziana Che Aziz
Developed by:
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by:
Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, November 2007

Second Edition, October 2011
Third Edition, April 2013 (rs)
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, BBMP1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Table of Contents
Course Guide
Topic 1
ix-xiii
Matrix
1.1 Classifications/Types of Matrices
1.1.1 Row Matrix (Row Vector)
1.1.2 Column Matrix (Column Vector)
1.1.3 Square Matrix
1.1.4 Diagonal Matrix
1.1.5 Special Matrix
1.2 Matrix Operations
1.2.1 Equality of Matrix
1.2.2 Transpose
1.2.3 Matrix Addition
1.2.4 Matrix Subtraction
1.2.5 Scalar Multiplication
1.2.6 Matrix Multiplication
1.3 Determinant
1.3.1 Minor of Element aij
1.3.2
Topic 2
Cofactor of Element aij
1
3
3
3
4
4
6
6
7
7
8
9
9
12
13
15
1.4
1.5
Inverse Matrix
Solving Linear Equation System Using Matrices
1.5.1 Matrix Equation
1.5.2 Inverse Matrix Method
1.5.3 Cramer's Rule
Summary
Key Terms
17
18
19
20
23
28
28
Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.1 Linear Equations and Graphs Sketching
2.1.1 Linear Equations
2.1.2 Slope
2.1.3 Types of Straight Lines
2.1.4 Graphs Sketching
2.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
2.3 Quadratic Equations and Graphs Sketching
2.4 Intersection Point
29
30
30
31
32
33
35
39
46
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary
Key Terms
51
51
Topic 3
Application of Linear and Quadratic Functions

3.1 The Demand and Supply Function
3.1.1 The Market Equilibrium Point
3.2 Cost and Revenue Functions
3.2.1 Break-even Point Analysis
3.3 Maximum and Minimum
Summary
Key Terms
52
52
53
57
59
60
63
64
Topic 4
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

4.1 Properties of Exponentials
4.2 Equations and Graphs
4.3 Logarithmic Functions
4.4 Properties of Logarithms
4.5 Equations and Graphs
4.5.1 Application on Growth and Decay Processes
4.5.2 Investment with Compound Interest
Summary
Key Terms
65
65
68
71
72
75
77
79
82
83
Topic 5
Differentiation
5.1 Constant Rule
5.2 Power Rule
5.3 Constant Times a Function Rule
5.4 The Rules of Sums and Differences of Functions
5.5 Product Rule
5.6 Quotient Rule
5.7 Chain Rule
5.8 Power Rule (Special Case of Chain Rule)
Summary
Key Terms
84
85
85
86
87
90
91
93
95
99
99
Topic 6
Application of Differentiation
6.1 Second and Third Degree Differentiation
6.2 Total Cost Function (C )
6.3
6.2.1 Average Total Cost Function ( C )

6.2.2 Marginal or Ultimate Total Cost Function (C )
6.2.3 Minimising Total Cost
Total Revenue Function (R )
6.3.1 Average Total Revenue Function ( R )
100
101
102
103
104
105
108
108
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
6.3.2 Marginal or Ultimate Total Revenue Function (R )

6.3.3 Maximising Revenue Functions
6.4 Total Profit Function ()
6.4.1 Average Total Profit Function ( )
6.4.2 Ultimate Total Profit Function ()
6.4.3 Maximising Total Profit
Summary
Key Terms
108
109
112
113
114
115
119
119
Topic 7
Integration
7.1 Anti-derivatives
7.2 Definite Integrals
7.3 Integration by Substitution
Summary
Key Terms
120
120
125
128
132
132
Topic 8
Application of Integration
8.1 Finding Area Under a Graph
8.2 Application of Integration in Economics and Business
8.2.1 Consumers and Producers Surpluses
8.2.2 Finding Function from Its Marginal Function
Summary
Key Terms
133
134
138
138
142
147
147
Topic 9
Partial Differentiation
9.1 Functions of Multi-variable
9.2 Partial Derivatives
9.3 Higher order Partial Derivatives
Summary
Key Terms
148
149
153
156
159
159
Topic 10
Application of Partial Differentiation

10.1 Maximum and Minimum for Functions of Two Variables
10.2 Lagrange Multiplier
Summary
Key Terms
160
161
167
172
173
Answers
174
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE GUIDE
ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
BBMP1103 Mathematics for Management is one of the courses offered by Faculty
of Business and Management at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth three credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for all students undertaking Bachelor Degree Business
Admin and Bachelor Degree Business Accounting programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning
independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities
Study
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion
Study the module
60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions
10
Online participation
12
Revision
15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s)
20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED
120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1.
Apply the basic mathematical concepts;
2.
Construct mathematical formulae;
3.
Assess mathematical concepts in their specific course; and
4.
Apply the usage of mathematics in daily life.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 discusses the classification of matrices, matrix operation and
determinants. These will be followed by solutions to the simultaneous linear
equations detail using the method of matrix inverse and Cramers rule.
Topic 2 discusses linear and quadratic functions, solves equations and sketch
graphs.
Topic 3 discusses the applications of linear and quadratic functions mainly in
Economics.
COURSE GUIDE
xi
Topic 4 discusses both exponential and logarithm functions and how these two
functions associate with one another.
Topic 5 discusses the rules of differentiation which make the process of obtaining
the derivatives for various functions simpler.
Topic 6 discusses the process of deriving higher level differentiation and the
function of total cost, total revenue and total profit in order to arrive at the
minimum cost as well as maximum revenue and profit.
Topic 7 will introduce integration as reversal process of differentiation. Further
discussion will be on indefinite integrals, and definite integrals, followed by
integration on algebra, and exponential and logarithm functions. The method
which will be introduced is integration by substitution.
Topic 8 discusses the application of integration i.e. finding area under a curve
and its application in Economics and Business. Marginal functions, producers
surplus and consumers surplus are the functions that will be discussed in detail.
Topic 9 discusses multi-variable functions with its derivatives which is known as
partial derivatives. This topic explains the first and second degree of partial
derivatives.
Topic 10 discusses the application of partial differentiation i.e. how to determine
the maximum and minimum points of functions of two variables as well as
applications of the business optimising functions with constraints.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few subsections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
xii
COURSE GUIDE
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prerequisite requirement for this course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
COURSE GUIDE
xiii
REFERENCES
Abdul Razak Yaakub. (2002). Pengenalan kepada matematik untuk pengurusan.
(Edisi Kedua). Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Bittinger, M. L. & Ellenbogen, D. J. (2007). Calculus and its applications (9th ed).
Boston: Pearson International Edition
Haeussler, E. F., Richards, S. P., & Wood, R. J. (2004). Introductory mathematical
analysis for business, economics, and the life and social sciences (11th ed.).
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kamran Sa'yan, & Ku Ruhana Ku Muhamud. (2002). Matematik untuk
pengurusan, ekonomi & sains sosial. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Lial/Miller (1980). Essential calculus with application (2nd ed.). England: Scott,
Foresman and Company.
Malim, M. Rozi, Maidinshah, H., Ishak, F., & Jamal, M. (1999). Business calculus.
Shah Alam: ITM.
Margaret, L. L., Charles, D. M., & Raymond, N. G. (1992). Finite mathematics and
calculus with applications (4th ed.). Harper Collins College Publishers.
Rahela, R., Fatinah, Z., & Hawa, I. (2005). Penyelesaian soalan-soalan dalam
matematik untuk pengurusan. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.
xiv
COURSE GUIDE
Topic Matrix
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Explain the concept of matrix and the classification of matrices;
2.
Define matrix addition, scalar multiplication and multiplication of

matrices and the properties related to these operations;
3.
Calculate the determinant for square matrix using the cross

multiplication method and the cofactor expansion method;
4.
Determine the inverse of an invertible matrix and use inverses to

solve the linear equation system; and
5.
Apply Cramer's rule to find the solution of a two-linear equation

system.
INTRODUCTION
Data is an important source of information. Therefore, it is necessary for the data

to be arranged in the most comprehensible and straightforward form. Matrix is
one method which is frequently used. In economics, matrix is used in
formulating problems and displaying data. For example, a manufacturer who
produces products D, E and F could represent the units of labour and material
involved in one weeks production of these items as shown in the table below:
Labour
Material
D
10
5
Product
E
12
9
F
16
7
10 12 16
5 9 7
More simply, the data can be represented by the matrix A
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Matrices can be categorised into several classes or types. Later on, this topic will
discuss matrix operations each with its own properties which differ from the
operations of real numbers. The application of matrix is to solve simultaneous
equation systems. Two methods will be employed to solve the simultaneous
equation system, which are the inverse matrix method and the Cramer's rule. The
knowledge on finding the determinant of a given matrix is essential in order to
apply these methods.
Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers consisting of m horizontal rows and n
vertical columns,
a11
a
21
.
.
.
am1
a12 ... a1n

a22 ... a2 n
.
...
.
.
...
.
.
...
.
am 2 ... amn
This matrix is called an m x n (read as m by n) matrix or a matrix of order m x n.

For any matrices, the data has to be placed in a rectangular table form, as shown
below:
2 0 1
0 1 3
The above matrix consists of two rows and three columns. Hence, the dimension,
order, size or degree of the above matrix is 2 3. The dimension of a matrix is the
number of rows first, followed by the number of columns. The elements or
entries of the above matrix in the first row are 2, 0 and 1. While, the elements for
the second rows are 0, 1 and 3.
Generally, a matrix is denoted by a capital letter. On the other hand, every
element of the matrix will be denoted by smaller capitals with subscripts as
shown below:
a11
A a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Based on the matrix A above, we can conclude that A is a matrix with the
dimension of 3 3, where its elements or entries:
a11 lies in the first row and the first column
a21 lies in the second row and the first column
a32 lies in the third row and the second column
The dimension of the matrix A can be written at the lower right side of the letter,
in a form of a subscript, i.e. A33.
In general, a matrix A with the dimension of m n (matrix A with m rows and n
columns) is often written as Amxn. The elements of matrix A are denoted by aij ,
where i = 1, 2, , m and j = 1, 2, , n.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
If numbers are arranged in a non-rectangular form, can that still be
called a matrix? Explain.
1.1
CLASSIFICATIONS/TYPES OF MATRICES
Matrices can be categorised into several types based on its dimensions and
elements. Let us find out more.
1.1.1
Row Matrix (Row Vector)
Row matrix or row vector is a matrix with only one row, as illustrated by the
following matrices:
(a)
B13 1 0 1
1.1.2
(b)
B14 1 3 2 1
Column Matrix (Column Vector)
A matrix with only one column is called column matrix or column vector. The
following are samples of column matrices:
(a)
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
1
L31 0
3
1.1.3
(b)
3
2
L41
1

0
Square Matrix
A matrix with equal numbers of rows and columns is called square matrix. The
m x n matrix is square, if and only if, m = n . The examples of square matrices are
as follows:
3 2 1
1 2
(b) S33 3 1 0
(a) S 22
4
0
2 1 4
The elements on the main diagonal of any given square matrix are all the elements
which lie from the upper left corner to the lower right corner. The main diagonal
elements for matrix S22 above are 1 and 0. While, the main diagonal of matrix
S33 are 3, 1 and 4 .
1.1.4
Diagonal Matrix
If a square matrix has at least one non-zero element on its main diagonal and all the
other elements are zero, the matrix is known as diagonal matrix or aij = 0 for i j.
Below are samples of such matrices:
(a)
P22
1.1.5
1 0
0 1
(b)
P33
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 3
Special Matrix
Identity Matrix, denoted by I is the diagonal matrix whose main diagonal entries
are 1s. Let us now look at examples of identity matrices.
(a)
I 22
1 0
0 1
(b)
I 33
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Zero matrix or null matrix, denoted by 0 is the matrix when all the elements of a
matrix are set to zero. Examples are as shown below:
(a)
032
0 0
0 0
0 0
(b)
0 0 0
023
0 0 0
SELF-CHECK 1.2
If there exists only one element in a matrix, can the matrix be
called square matrix? Explain.
EXERCISE 1.1
1.
Given:
(a)
3 1
B 6 2
1 0
(b)
C 1 5 8
(c)
6
D 9
4
State the order of each matrix.

2.
3.
4.
a 0 0
Find the value(s) of a, that make 0 0 0 a diagonal matrix.
0 0 0
1 0 0
Is the matrix
an identity matrix? Clarify your answer.
0 1 0
Determine the classes for each of the matrices below:
(a)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(b)
0
0

2
(c)
2 1 0
TOPIC 1
1.2
MATRIX
MATRIX OPERATIONS
In this subtopic, you will learn about the following matrix operations:
Equality of matrix
Transpose
Matrix addition
Matrix subtraction
Scalar multiplication
Matrix multiplication
1.2.1
Equality of Matrix
Matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are equal if and only if they have the same order
and
aij= bij for each i and j. Thus,

1
5 2 5 0.5
3
0 1 1 0
2
but 1 2 1 2 0
A matrix equation can be defined as a system of equation. For example, suppose that
q
3
q 1 2r
q 1 3 q
p 1 r 2r
5
q 4
By equating corresponding entries, we must have
a13 q 1, b13 5 . Therefore a13 b13 , then
q 1 5
q 5 1
q4
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
a21 q 1, b21 r . Therefore b21 a21 , then

r q 1
r 4 1
r 3
a23 p 1, b23 q 4 . Therefore a23 b23 , then

p 1 q 4
p q 4 1
p q 5
p 4 5 1
1.2.2
Transpose
Given a matrix Amn, with elements aij, where i = 1, 2, , m and j = 1, 2, , n.

The transpose matrix for Amn, which is denoted by AT nm, is a matrix with
elements aij, where i = 1, 2, , n and j = 1, 2, , m. In other words, we just
reverse the order of the row and column elements of matrix Amn so that the
rows turn into columns and columns into rows.
Examples:
(a)
2 3 1
2 1 0
T
If A = 1 2 0 , then A 3 2 1
0 1 3
1 0 3
(b)
1 3
1 0 1
T
If B = 3 2 0 , then B 0 2
1 0
T
The transpose operation has the property: AT A .
1.2.3
Matrix Addition
Adding two or more matrices is only feasible if all the matrices are of the same
dimension. The sum is obtained by adding the corresponding elements (i.e. the
elements that lie on the same position). The addition operation cannot be done if
the matrices have different dimensions.
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Examples:
(a)
1 0 2 4 1 4
2 2 1 3 1 5
(b)
2 2 0 1 2 0 3 4 0
4 1 3 3 2 0 7 1 3
(c)
2 3 7 1 3
1 5 3 1 3 , cannot be performed because the two matrices have
different dimension.
1.2.4
Matrix Subtraction
Two or more matrices can be deducted from another, as long as they have the
same dimension. To perform the subtraction operation, the corresponding
elements that lie on the same position of the respective matrices are subtracted
from the other. This subraction operation also cannot be performed if the
dimensions of the matrices are different.
Examples:
(a)
(b)
3 0 1 0 2 5 3 2 4
2 1 3 1 3 2 1 4 1
1 4 1 2 1 2 1 3 3
2 3 7 1 3
1 5 3 1 3 , the subraction cannot be carried out because the two
matrices have different dimension.
Properties of matrix addition and matrix subtraction are:
A B B A
A B B A
A B C A B C
A B C A B C
A O O A A
A O O A
TOPIC 1
1.2.5
MATRIX
Scalar Multiplication
Scalar multiplication is obtained by multiplying each entry of the matrix by the

scalar.
For example:
(a)
(b)
If A =
1 0
2 3
5A
1 0 5(1) 5(0) 5 0
5
2 3 5(2) 5(3) 10 15
3 0 1
If B 2 1 3
1 4 1
3 0 1 1(3) 1(0) 1(1) 3 0 1
B (1) 2 1 5 1(2) 1(1) 1(5) 2 1 5
6 4 7 1(6) 1(4) 1(7) 6 4 7
1.2.6
Matrix Multiplication
Multiplication of two matrices is possible only if the number of columns of the

first matrix is the same as the number of the row of the second matrix. Suppose
the first matrix is denoted by Amn and the second matrix is Bst. The
multiplication of Amn Bst can be done if and only if n = s. The product of this
multiplication is another matrix (say C) with m rows and t columns. If AB
exists, then
AB Am n B s t C m t
Generally, suppose
a
AB 11
a21
a12
a22
c 11 c 12
c 21 c 22
b
b
a13 11 12
b
b
a23 21 22
b31 b32
b13
b23
b33
c 13
c 23
10
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
where;
c11 a11 b11 a12 b21 a13 b31

c12 a11 b12 a12 b22 a13 b32
c13 a11 b13 a12 b23 a13 b33
c21 a21 b11 a22 b21 a23 b31
c22 a21 b12 a22 b22 a23 b32
c12 a21 b13 a22 b23 a23 b33
For example:
Given A32
(a)
1 1
0 2 ,
1 0
1 0 2
B 2 2
, and C 23 0 1 1
1 0
(1)(1) (1)( 1) (1)(1) (1)(0)

AB = A32 B22 = (0)(1) (2)(1) (0)(1) (2)(0)
(1)(1) (0)(1) (1)(1) (0)(0)
2 1
= 2 0
1 1 32
(b) BA= B22 A32 is not possible because the number of columns of matrix
B22 is not the same as the number of the rows of matrix A32.
(c)
AC33
(1)(1) ( 1)(0) (1)(0) ( 1)(1) (1)(2) (1)(1)

= A32 C23 = (0)(1) (2)(0) (0)(0) (2)(1) (0)(2) (2)(1)
(1)(1) (0)(0) (1)(0) (0)(1) (1)(2) (0)(1)
1 1 1
= 0 2 2
1 0 2
Properties of matrix multiplication are:
A BC AB C
A B C AB AC and A B C AC BC
AB BA
AI IA A
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
11
There are cases where the multiplication of two matrices is the matrix itself, i.e.
A A = A. This matrix A is known as idempotent matrix.

Example:
Given A = 0
0
1
2
1
2
1
, then AA =
2
1
0
1
2
1
2
0 1
1
0
2
1
0
2
0
1
2
1
2

0 1

1
0
2
1
0
2
0
1
2
1
2
1
A
2
1
Hence, A is an idempotent matrix.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
List several examples of idempotent matrices.
EXERCISE 1.2
1.
Suppose:
4 2
2 1
2 1 3
4 1 2
A=
, B 5 1 3 , C 0 6 and D 3 5
4
0
1
1 3
3 2
Find:
2.
(a)
(d)
3A
(g)
(AT)A
(b)
(e)
AB
A+B
(2A)(5C)
(c)
(f)
CD
(2A B)D
Determine matrix A that satisfies the following equation.

1
1 3
6
1 3 3
12
TOPIC 1
1.3
MATRIX
DETERMINANT
Determinant is defined only for square matrices. The determinant of matrix A is

denoted by A and has a scalar value. This section will only emphasise on
obtaining the determinants for square matrices with the dimensions until 3 3.
Determinants are used to find the invertible matrices which are then used to
explicitly describe the solution to the linear equation system.
If A = a11 is a square matrix of order 1, then A a11

a12
a
Given matrix A22 = 11
. The determinant of a matrix can be obtained by
a21 a22
taking the difference between the multiplication of the elements on main
diagonal (a11 and a22) and that of opposite diagonal ( a12 and a21 ). The determinant
of the matrix A22 is given by:
A22 a11 a22 a12 a21
Example:
0 1
If A =
and B =
2 4
1 2 , determine
0 1
(a)
|A|
(b)
|B|
(c)
|AB|
(d)
|BA|
(e)
|A||B|
(f)
|B||A|
Solutions:
(a)
|A| = 0(4) (1)(2) = 2
(b)
|B| = 1(1) 2(0) = 1
(c)
AB =
(d)
BA =
0 1
. Therefore, AB =
2 8
(0)(8) (1)(2) = 2
4 7
. Therefore, BA
2 4
(4)(4) (7)(2)
=
=
16 14
2
TOPIC 1
(e)
| A|| B| = (2)(1) = 2
(f)
| B|| A| = (1) (2) = 2
The determinant of matrix A33
a11
a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
MATRIX
13
a13
a23 , is obtained by:
a33
For entry a11 , we delete the entries in row 1 and column 1, as shown below:
a11
a
21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
a
This leaves the matrix 22
a32
called the minor of a11 .
a23
of order 2. The determinant of this matrix is
a33
Similarly, the minor of a12 is
a21
a31
a23
a
, and for a13 is 21
a33
a31
a22
.
a32
So, to find the determinant of any square matrix A of order 3 is given by:
A a11
a22
a32
a23
a
a12 21
a33
a31
a23
a
a13 21
a33
a31
a22
a32
a11 a22 a33 a23 a32 a12 a21a33 a23 a31 a13 a21a32 a22 a31
1.3.1
Minor of Element aij
The minor of element aij is the determinant of the sub-matrix left after omitting
the i th row and j th column. For instance, suppose
1 4 1
A = 0 2 0
2 3 3
14
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Then, element of minor is:

1
2 0
2 0
= (2)(3) (0)( 3) = 6
3 3
2 3 3
m11 (i.e. 1) = 0
0 0
2 0
= (0)(3) (0)(2) = 0
2 3
2 3 3
m12 (i.e. 4) = 0
0 2
2 0
= (0)(3) (2)(2) = 4
2 3
2 3 3
m13 (i.e. 1) = 0
4 1
2 0
= (4)(3) (1)( 3) = 15
3 3
2 3 3
m21 (i.e. 0) = 0
1 1
2 0
= (1)(3) (1)(2) = 1
2 3
2 3 3
m22 (i.e. 2) = 0
1 4
2 0
= (1)( 3) (4)(2) = 11
2 3
2 3 3
m23 (i.e. 0) = 0
1 4 1
m31 (i.e. 2) = 0 2 0
2 3 3
1
4 1
2 0
= (4)(0) (1)(2) = 2
1 1
2 0
= (1)(0) (1)(0) = 0
0 0
2 3 3
m32 (i.e. -3) = 0
1 4
2 0
= (1)(2) (4)(0) = 2
0 2
2 3 3
m33 (i.e. ) = 0
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
15
6 0 4
The minor matrix A is Minor A = 15 1 11
2 0 2
1.3.2
Cofactor of Element aij
The cofactor of element cij is the minor of element mij multiplied by (-1)i+j. Hence,
the cofactor of element:
c11 = (1)1+1 m11 = 1 6 = 6

c12 = (1)1+2 m12 = 1 0 = 0
c13 = (1)1+3 m13 = 1 ( 4) = 4
c21 = (1)2+1 m21 = 1 15 = 15
c22 = (1)2+2 m22 = 1 1 = 1
c23 = (1)2+3 m23 = 1 (11) = 11
c31 = (1)3+1 m31 = 1 (2) = 2
c32 = (1)3+2 m32 = 1 0 = 0
c33 = (1)3+3 m33 = 1 2 = 2
6 0 4
The cofactor matrix is Cofactor A = 15 1 11
2 0 2
The following steps are required to compute the determinant of a matrix using
the cofactor expansion method :
Step 1:
Select one row or column to perform cofactor expansion. In general, we

choose the row or column with many zeroes. In matrix A, the second
row has many zeroes. Therefore, choose the second row of matrix A to
perform the cofactor expansion.
Step 2:
Perform cofactor expansion by multiplying each element in the selected

row or column with its coresponding cofactor. Hence, the determinant
of matrix A is.
16
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Determinant A = |A|
Note:
= a21c21 + a22 c22 + a23c23

= 0(15) + 2(1) + 0(11)
= 0 + 2(1) + 0
=2
The same value of determinant will be obtained although cofactor

expansion is performed on a different row or column.
The transpose of a cofactor matrix is an adjoint matrix.

Adjoint A = [Cofactor A]T
6
15
2
6
0
4
0 4
1 11
0 2
15 2
1
0
11 2
EXERCISE 1.3
1.
2.
Find the determinant for the following matrices:

(a)
2 5
1 3
(c)
1 2 3
2 3 0
3 0 0
(a)
(b)
(b)
a b
b a
(d)
3 2 1
0 3 2
0 0 3
1 a
Calculate the value for a, given the determinant for
is 6.
2 4
a b
Find the determinant for 1 0 ?
2 4
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
17
INVERSE MATRIX
1.4
Inverse matrix is defined for square matrix only. However, not all the square
matrices have an inverse. If the determinant of a square matrix is equal to zero,
then the matrix has no inverse. A matrix without an inverse is known as singular
matrix.
Inverse matrix of A is denoted by A1.

a
1 a
Let A 11 12 and A a11a22 a12 a21 . Therefore, A1 22

A a21
a21 a22
If A is a square matrix of order 3, then A1
a12
a11
1
Adjoint A
A
In the above example:
3
6 15 2
1
1
1
0 0
A 0
2
4 11 2
2
15
2
1
2
11
2
When a matrix A is multiplied by its inverse A-1, the following properties are
then true:
(a)
A A1 = I
(b)
A1 A = I
18
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
EXERCISE 1.4
1.
2.
Find the inverse (if there exist any) for the following matrices.
Then, prove that your answers are correct.
(a)
3 4
2 2
(c)
4 2 2
1 3 4
3 1 6
(b)
2 3 4
0 0 1
1 2 1
(d)
1 4 1
2 3 2
1 2 3
Given:
2 3
. Find A1 and show that (A1) 1 = A.
A
4 5
3.
Suppose:
a b
B
c d
1.5
(a)
Determine B 1 .
(b)
State the properties required for the existence of B 1 .
(c)
Verify BB 1 = B 1 B = I.
SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION SYSTEM

USING MATRICES
In this section, we shall illustrate methods by which matrices can be used to solve
a system of linear equations. The two methods are Matrix Inverse method and
Cramer's rule.
TOPIC 1
1.5.1
MATRIX
19
Matrix Equation
Systems of linear equations can be represented by using matrix multiplication.

For example, consider the matrix equation:
x
1 4 2 4
2 3 1 y 3
z

x 4 y 2z 4
2 x 3 y z 3

By equality of matrices, corresponding entries must be equal, so we obtain the
system:
x 4 y 2z 4
2 x 3 y z 3
Hence, this system of linear equations can be expressed in the form of matrix
equation system AX = B. Where A is the matrix obtained from the coefficients of
the variables, X is a column matrix obtained from the variables, and B is a
column matrix obtained from the constants.
Example: Given a two-linear equation system:
x + 2y = 0
2x y = 5
1 2 x 0
It can be expressed as:

2 1 y 5
1 2
where: A
,
2 1
x
0
X and B as a matrix equation system.
y
5
Example: Given a three-linear equation system:

2x y + 3z = 3
x + 2y z = 4
2x 2z
=0
20
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
The matrix form is:
2 1 3
A 1 2 1 ,
2 0 2
1.5.2
2 1 3 x 3
1 2 1 y 4 ,where

2 0 2 z 0
x
X y and
z
3
B 4 .
0
Inverse Matrix Method
A system of linear equations can be written in matrix form, AX=B, where A is the
coefficient matrix. If we can determine the values of the entries in the unknown
matrix X, we have a solution of the system. An inverse of matrix A, A1 is use to
solve an equation of AX = B. Multiply both sides of equation AX=B by A1,
A1 ( AX ) A1 B
( A1 A) X A1 B
IX A1 B where I is an identity matrix. Then,

X A1 B , is called method of inverse to solve a system of linear equations.
Example:
Solve
x + 2y = 3
2x y = 5
using the inverse matrix method.

Solution:
Step 1:
Convert the equation into a matrix equation form, which is

1 2 x 0
1 2
2 1 y 5 where A 2 1 ,
Step 2:
x
0
X and B
y
5
Determine the inverse of matrix A, i.e. A1 .

A 1 1 2 2 5
TOPIC 1
1 1 2
A1
5 2 1
Step 3:
1
5
2
5
MATRIX
21
2
5
Use the formula X = A1B to obtain the solution:

1
x 5
y 2

5
2
5 0
1 5
2

1
Hence, solutions for the above simultaneous linear equations are x = 2,

y = 1.
Example:
Solve 2x y + 3z = 3
x + 2y z = 4
=0
2x 2z
using the method of matrix inverse.
Solution:
Step 1:
Firstly, we have to convert the equation into matrix equation form,

which is
2 1 3 x 3
1 2 1 y 4 , where

2 0 2 z 0
2 1 3
x
3
A 1 2 1 , X y and B 4
2 0 2
z
0
22
TOPIC 1
Step 2:
Determine the inverse of matrix A, i.e. A1. To do this we need to

compute its determinant, i.e.
MATRIX
A 1 1
1 2
1 1
2 2
2 1
2 2
2 2
0 1
3 2
1 1
1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 0
1 0 2 10
20
The minor elements are:
n11 4, n12 = 0, n13 = 4, n21 = 2 and n22 = 10, n23 2

n31 = 5, n32 = 5, n33 = 5.
Therefore,
4 0 4
Minor A = 2 10 2 , Cofactor A =
5 5 5
4 0 4
2 10 2
5 5
5
4 2 5
Adjoint A = 0 10 5
4 2 5
Using the formula:

1
A 1
Adjoint A
A
4 2 5
1
0 10 5
20
4 2
5
1 1
5 10
1
= 0
1 1
5 10
1
4
1

4
TOPIC 1
Step 3:
MATRIX
23
Use the formula X = A1B to obtain the solution for:

1 1
x 5 10
y 0 1

2
z
1
1
5 10
1
4 3 1
1
4 2
4
0 1
1
Thus, the solutions for the given simultaneous equations are x = 1, y = 2 and z = 1.
1.5.3
Cramer's Rule
Another method which can be applied to solve the simultaneous equation AX =

B is Cramer's rule. The following steps have to be taken to solve a system of n
linear equations in n unknowns.
Step 1:
Determine the determinant for coefficient matrix A, that isA. If A=

0, Cramers rule is no longer applicable.
Step 2:
Find Aiwhere Ai is the matrix formed when i th column in matrix A

is substituted by matrix B as shown below:
a11
a
21

Ai

a1n
b1
b2
bn
a1n
a2 n

a2 n
ith column
Step 3:
To obtain xi, we use the following formula:

xi
Ai
A
24
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
Example:
Solve x + 2y = 0
2x y = 5
using the Cramer's rule.
Solution:
Step 1:
1 2 x 0
Determine A for

2 1 y 5
A = (1)(1) (2)(2) = 5
Step 2:
Find A1and A2.

0 2
A1
. Therefore, A1= (0)( 1) (2)(5) = 10
5 1
1 0
A2
. Thus, A2= (1)(5) (0)(2) = 5
2 5
Step 3:
Obtain the value for x and y.

x
A 1 10
2
5
A
A2
5
1
A 5
Example:
Solve 2x y + 3z = 3
x + 2y z = 4
2x 2z
=0
using the Cramers rule method.
Solution:
Step 1:
Determine A for
2 1 3 x 3
1 2 1 y 4

2 0 2 z 0
TOPIC 1
25
MATRIX
by using the cofactor expansion on the third row:

A 2 1
31
2 1
3 3
2 1
1
2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 1
2 5 2 5
20
Step 2:
Find A1,A2 and A3.
1
2
0
3
A1 4
0
A1 2 1
3 3
3 1
4
A2 2 1
31
3
2
1 , A2 1
2
2
2
3
4
0
3
2
1 , A3 1
2
2
1
2
0
2 3 2 1 4 20
3 3
3
31 2
2 1
4 1
1 4
2 3 1 3 4 2 2 4 31
2 15 2 5
40
A3 2 1
Step 3:
31
1 3
2
2 1 4 3 2 20
Obtain the value for x, y and z.

x
A1
A2
A3
20
1
20
40
2
20
20
1
20
3
4
0
26
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
ACTIVITY 1.1
What are the advantages of using matrices to solve linear equation systems
compared to algebra techniques (substitution/elimination)? Compile your
answer and share it with your coursemates during tutorial.
EXERCISE 1.5
1.
Express the following linear equation systems in the form of matrix

equations. Subsequently, solve the equations by using the matrix
inverse method.
(a)
x + 2y = 14
2x y = 5
(b)
x + 2y + z = 7
x+y+z=4
3x + y + z = 2
2.
Solve (1) using the Cramer's rule.
3.
Solve the following equation system by using appropriate method:
3 x 2 y z b1
3 x 2 y z b2
x y z b3
where:
(a)
b 1 2,
b 2 2,
b 3 4.
(b)
b 1 8,
b 2 3,
b 3 6.
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
27
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1.
1 2
4 7
and B
. Find:
3 2.5
3 1
Given A
(a)
A 2B .
8 9
6 2
A.
(b)
7
9
3 0.5
6 3
3 4
9 11
9 4.5
B.
C.
D.
B. 25
C. 17
D. 17
B.
4 3
7 1
A.
2.
3 1 2 4
2 0 4 2 =
8

A. 4

0
3.
B. Does not exist
C. 16
4 0
16

D. 4

0
3 1 1
Given A 6 and its cofactor is 3 1 1 . Find the inverse of A .

6 4 2
3 3 6
A. 1 1 4
1 1 2
3 1 1
1
B.
3 1 1
6
6 4 2
3 3 6
1
C.
1 1 4
6
1 1 2
3 1 1
D. 6 3 1 1
6 4 2
28
4.
TOPIC 1
MATRIX
1 1 1
x
1

Given A 3 2 1 , X y , B 2 , and A 1

z
1
2 5 3
Calculate the value of z.
A. 18
B. 10
C. 7
D. 18
You should realise the significance of matrix in facilitating them to better

understand the data.
You should now be able to perform matrix operations well, to obtain the
determinant and inverse of a matrix.
Ultimately, you are expected to know how to solve simultaneous linear

equation systems using the matrix methods.
Matrix
Scalar Multiplication
Types/Classifications of Matrices
Matrix Multiplication
Equality of Matrix
Determinant
Transpose
Inverse Matrix
Matrix Addition
Cramers Rule
Matrix Substraction
Topic
Linear and
Quadratic
Functions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Identify linear and quadratic functions;
2.
Find the slope of a line;
3.
Determine whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular;
4.
Sketch the graphs of linear and quadratic functions; and
5.
Find intersection point.
INTRODUCTION
In the beginning of the 17th century, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz has introduced the
term function to mathematical vocabulary. This concept has become one of the
most fundamental mathematical concepts. In general, a function is a special type of
input-output relation that expresses how one quantity (the output) depends on
another quantity (the input). A function is a rule that assigns each value of x (input)
to only one value of y (output) which is denoted by symbol f (other symbols such as
g and h are also used). Usually, the symbol x is used to represent independent
variable as it is free to take any value, while the symbol y is used to denote
dependent variable as its value depends on the value taken by x.
y f x
or
read as "y is a function of x"
y g x
30
TOPIC 2
LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
LINEAR EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS

SKETCHING
2.1
A linear function graph is a straight line.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Is a linear equation a function? Explain.
2.1.1
Linear Equations
Linear equation is an equation where the highest power of x is equal to 1.

General form: y = mx + c, where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept.
Examples:
Obtain the slope and y-intercept for each of the linear equations below:
(a)
y = 6 3x
(b)
2y + 6x = 9
Solutions:
Express the following equations in general form, i.e. y = mx + c. Then, calculate
the value for m (scalar for x) and the y-intercept, i.e. the value of c.
(a)
y = 6 3x
y = 3x + 6
(General form)
Therefore, m = 3 and c = 6.
(b)
2y + 6x = 9
2y = 6x + 9
y 3 x
9
2
Therefore, m = 3 and c
(General form)
9
.
2
TOPIC 2
2.1.2
31
Slope
If two points A(x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are given, a slope can be derived by using
the formula below:
m
y2 y1
x2 x1
Examples:
Find the slope for each line that connects the two given points:
(a)
A (1, 4) and B (2, 5)
(b)
C (0, 3) and D (7, 1)
(c)
E (6, 6) and F (1, 6)
Solutions:
54
2 1
1
(a)
(b)
(c)
1 3
70
1 3
7
2
66
1 6
0
7
0
32
TOPIC 2
ACTIVITY 2.1
Why is it necessary to discuss the slope of a line? What is the
significance of a slope? Discuss during your tutorial.
2.1.3
Types of Straight Lines
There are various types of straight lines. Let us now look at each type.
(a)
Horizontal Line
y=a
Parallel to x-axis
Its slope is zero
Graph 2.1
Vertical Line
x= b
Parallel to y-axis
Its slope is undefined
(b)
Graph 2.2
(c)
Ascending-Slant Line
y = mx + c
Ascending line from left to right
Its slope is positive
Graph 2.3
TOPIC 2
(d)
33
Descending-Slant Line
y = mx + c
Descending line from left to right
Its slope is negative
Graph 2.4
2.1.4
Graphs Sketching
The followings are steps for sketching a linear function graph:

(a)
Find two different points that are on the line and plot them.
(In general, these are the y-intercept and x-intercept)
The y-intercept can be obtained by substituting x = 0 into the equation and
calculating the corresponding value for y. The x-intercept can be obtained
by substituting y = 0 into the equation and calculating the corresponding
value for x.
(b)
Connect the two points to form a straight line.
Examples:
Sketch graph for each of the following linear functions:
(a)
y = 2x 1
(b)
y = 4x
Solutions:
(a)
y = 2x 1
(i)
The first point: Find the y-intercept

Let x = 0, y = 2(0) 1
y = 1
Hence, the first point is (0, 1).
34
TOPIC 2
(ii)
The second point: Find the x-intercept

Let y = 0, 2x 1 = 0
2x = 1
1
x =
2
1
Hence, the second point is ( , 0).
2
Graph 2.5
(b)
y = 4x
(i)
The first point: Find the y-intercept

Let x = 0, y = 4(0)
y=0
Hence, the first point is (0,0).
(b)
The second point: Find any other point besides the x-intercept (as it is
the same as the y-intercept)
Let x = 2, y = 4(2)
y = 8
Hence, the second point is (2, 8).
TOPIC 2
35
Graph 2.6
2.2
PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
Parallel lines are distinct lines lying in the same plane, never intersecting each
other. Parallel lines have the same slope.
Perpendicular lines, on the other hand, are lines that intersect each other at right
angles.
Two lines are said to be parallel if and only if they have the same slope.
.
Graph 2.7
Example:
Is line 2y 3x + 6 = 0 parallel to another line 4y = 6x + 3 ?
Solution:
Find the slope of each line:
36
TOPIC 2
2 y 3x 6 0
2 y 3x 6
3x
3
y
2
3
m1
2
4 y 6x 3
6
3
x
4
4
3
3
y x
2
4
3
m2
2
y
Since they have the same slope, these two lines are parallel.
Example:
Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point (2, 10) and parallel
to another straight line 5x y = 0.
Solution:
Determine the slope for line 5x y = 0.
5x y 0
y 5 x
y 5x
m5
The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c. (The slope for this equation is also 5
since the slope of the two lines are the same)
Now, substitute m = 5 into equation y = mx + c, i.e. y = 5x + c.
This line passes through point (2, 10). So, substitute x = 2 and y = 10 into
y = 5x + c.
10 = 10 c
10 + 10 = c
c = 20
The equation of a straight line that we are looking for is y = 5x + 20.
So, now we know when two lines are said to be parallel. How about
perpendicular? Let us see.
Two lines are said to be perpendicular if and only if the product of the
two slopes is 1.
TOPIC 2
37
Graph 2.8
Example:
Determine whether a straight line, y 2x = 1 is perpendicular to 2y + x = 2 or not.
Solution:
Calculate the slope for each line and multiply them.
2y x 2
y 2x 1
y 2x 1
m1 2
2 y x 2
x
y
1
2
1
m2
2
Since the multiplication of the two slopes is equal to 1, therefore the two lines
are perpendicular.
Example:
Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point (1, 2) and
perpendicular to a straight line x + 5y = 2.
Solution:
Determine the slope for line x + 5y = 2.
38
TOPIC 2
x 5y 2
5y x 2
x 2
y
5 5
1
m1
5
Find the slope of the required line, which is m2 .

1
m2 1
5
m2 5
(The multiplication of the two slopes is 1 as the two

lines are perpendicular)
Now, substitute m = 5 into equation y = mx + c, i.e. y = 5x + c.

This line passes through point (1, 2). So, we substitute x = 1 and y = 2 into y = 5x + c.
2
2
25
3
= 5(1) + c
=5+c
=c
=c
The equation of the straight line that we are looking for is y = 5x 3.
ACTIVITY 2.2
If the product of two slopes is equal to 1, are the lines perpendicular?
Explain.
TOPIC 2
39
EXERCISE 2.1
1.
For each of the following equations, determine the slope and
y - intercept:
x
1
2
(a)
(c)
y = 3x
(b)
y = 5 5x
(d)
3y = 5 2x
2.
Find the equation of a straight line with slope 1 that passes through
point (3, 2).
3.
Given two points A (2, 4) and B (5, 12). Determine the equation of a
straight line that passes through them.
4.
Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point (2, 1)

and is parallel to line 2y + x = 5.
5.
Obtain an equation of a straight line that passes through point (3, 2)

and is perpendicular to line 3x y + 3 = 0.
EXERCISE 2.2
Sketch a graph for each of the linear functions below:
2.3
(a)
y = 3x + 2
(c)
3y + 2x = 2
(b)
x
2
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS

SKETCHING
The general form of a quadratic equation is y = ax 2 + bx + c , where a, b and c

are real numbers and a 0. The highest degree for x in a quadratic equation is 2.
40
TOPIC 2
The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The direction of which the

parabola opens depends on the value of a. If a is positive, then the parabola
opens upward and the function has a minimum value.
Graph 2.9
Meanwhile, if a is negative, then the parabola opens downward and the function
has a maximum value.
Graph 2.10
The followings are steps for sketching graph of quadratic function f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c .

(a)
Determine the direction of which the parabola opens by observing the

value of a.
(b)
Find the turning point (x, y) using the formula below:

x
b
,
2a
4ac b 2
4a
TOPIC 2
(c)
41
Find the y-intercept, at which x = 0.

Substitute x = 0 into the quadratic function.
f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c
f (0 ) = a (0)2 + b (0) + c
=c
Hence, (0, c) is the y-intercept.
(d)
Find the x-intercept (if it exists).

The graph crosses x-axis when y = 0, that is when ax2 + bx + c = 0.
This equation can be solved by factoring or using quadratic formula.
Quadratic Formula: x
b b 2 4ac
2a
The graph crosses the x-axis or not, depends on the value of b 2 4ac.
(i)
When b 2 4ac > 0, the graph crosses the x-axis at two points.
(ii)
When b 2 4ac = 0, the graph crosses the x-axis at only one point.
(iii) When b 2 4ac < 0, the graph does not cross the x-axis.
(e)
Plot all the predetermined points from steps (a) to (d). Draw a smooth
curve passing through the points.
Examples:
Sketch graphs for each of the following quadratic functions:
(i)
f (x ) = x 2 4x
(ii)
f ( x ) = 3 2x x
(iii)
f (x ) = 2x 2 + 2x + 1
Solutions:
(i)
Determine the values of a, b and c from the function.

f ( x ) = x 2 4 x , where a = 1, b = 4, c = 0.
The value of a is positive, hence the parabola opens upward.

42
TOPIC 2
The turning point (x, y)

b
4ac b 2
x
, y
2a
4a
4
2 1
4
2
2
4 1 0 4
4 1
0 16
4
4
Therefore, the turning point is (2, 4).
The y-intercept is the value of c.
c=0
Then, the y-intercept is (0, 0).
The x-intercept is when f (x) = 0.
x (x 4) = 0
The factored method gives:
x (x 4) = 0
x = 0,
x=4
or
The quadratic formula:

x
b b 2 4ac
2a
b 2 4ac 4 4 1 0
2
16 0
16
x
4 16
2 1
44
2
44
44
, x
x
0
2
x 4, x 0
x
TOPIC 2
43
Thus, there are two x-intercepts, i.e. (0, 0) and (4, 0).
Therefore. The graph is:
Graph 2.11
(ii)
f ( x ) = 3 2 x x , where a = 1, b = 2, c = 3.
The value of a is negative, thus the parabola opens downward.
The turning point (x, y)

x
x
b
2a
2
2 1
2
2
x 1
4ac b 2
4a
4 1 3 2
4 1
12 4
4
16
y
4
y4
y
Hence, the turning point is (1, 4).

c=3

3 2x x 2 = 0
44
TOPIC 2
The factored method gives:

(3 + x)(1 x) = 0
3 + x = 0, 1 x = 4
x = 3, x = 1
Therefore, the graph is:
Graph 2.12
(iii) f (x) = 2x 2 + 2x + 1, where a = 2, b = 2, c = 1.
The value of a is positive, thus the parabola opens upward.
The vertex (x, y)

b
2a
2
x
2 2
x
b
y f
2a
1
Substitute x into the function
2
2
4
1
x
2
1
y f
2
2
1
1
y 2 2 1
2
2
1
y 2 1 1
4
1
y
2
TOPIC 2
1 1
Hence, the turning point is , .
2 2

c=1
Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 1).

2x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
Use the quadratic formula method.
b b 2 4ac
2a
2
2
b 4ac 2 4 2 1
x
48
4
b 2 4ac < 0, so the graph has no x-intercept.
Therefore, the graph is:
Graph 2.13
45
46
TOPIC 2
ACTIVITY 2.3
Why do you think quadratic equation has a parabola shape? Share your
answer during tutorial.
EXERCISE 2.3
Sketch graphs for each of the quadratic functions below:
(a)
f(x) = x2 6x + 5
(b)
f(x) = x2 + 4
(c)
f(x) = x2 2x 3
(d)
f(x) = x2 16
(e)
f(x) = (x 1)(3 x)
2.4
INTERSECTION POINT
The point of intersection between two graphs can be obtained by solving the
equations simultaneously.
Example:
Find the intersection point for lines 2x + y = 4 and x y = 2.
Solution:
Solve the two equations simultaneously. Add the two equations together to
eliminate y.
(+)
2x + y = 4
xy = 2
3x = 6
x = 2
Now, substitute x = 2 into equation x y = 2.

2y = 2
y = 0
TOPIC 2
47
Therefore, the point of intersection is (2, 0).

Example:
Find the intersection point for lines 2x + 4y = 6 and 6x + 3y = 18.
Solution:
Equate the scalar of x in both equations by multiplying each term in equation
2x + 4y = 6 by 3.
Thus, we have 6x + 12y = 18.
Then, subtract this equation from the other to eliminate the variable x.
(-)
6x + 12y = 18
6x + 3y = 18
9y = 0
y = 0
Substituting y = 0 into equation 2x + 4y = 6.

2x + 4(0) = 6
2x = 6
x = 3
Hence, the point of intersection is (3, 0).
Example:
Find the intersection point for curves y = 4 x x 2 and y = x 2 6.
Solution:
Solve the equations y = 4 x x 2 and y = x 2 6.
4x x 2 = x 2 6
4x x 2 x 2 + 6 = 0
4x 2x 2 + 6 = 0
(Divide each term by 2)
2
2x x + 3 = 0
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
(Apply the quadratic formula)
48
TOPIC 2
2 4 4 1 3
2 1
2 16
2
2 4
x
2
2 4
x
2
2
x
2
x 1
x
,
,
,
2 4
2
6
x
2
x 3
x
Hence, the intersection points are (1, 5) and (3, 3).

Example:
Find the intersection point for curves x 2 + y 3 = 0 and 2x + y = 0.
Solution:
Solve the equations x 2 + y 3 = 0 and 2x + y = 0.
Substitute 2x + y = 0, that is y = 2x into x 2 + y 3 = 0
x2 + y 3 = 0
x 2 2x 3 = 0
(Factorise the equation)
(x 3)(x + 1) = 0
x = 3, x = 1
Insert x = 3 and x = 1 into y = 2x.
When x = 3,
y = 2(3)
y = 6
When x = 1, y = 2(1)
y=2
Thus, the intersection points are (3, 6) and (1, 2).
Further discussions on function can be found in the following website:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Function.html
TOPIC 2
49
ACTIVITY 2.4
When two graphs cross each other, what can we say about their respective
value of x and y at the intersection point?
EXERCISE 2.4
Find the intersection points for each of the following equations:
(a)
2x + y = 10 and 6x + y = 14
(b)
3x + y 2 = 0 and 3x 4y + 8 = 0
(c)
2x 3y = 7 and 3x + 2y = 4
(d)
y = 8 x2 and 4x y + 11 = 0
(e)
y = 2x2 3x and y = x2 2
(f)
y = x2 + 6x + 2 and y = 2x2 + 2x + 5

1.
2.
Form the linear equation for a line that passes through point
3, 1 and having slope 7.
A. y 7 x 21
B. y 7 x 22
C. y 7 x 20
D. y 3 x 7
Which pair of lines are parallel?

A. L1 : 2 y 3 x 13 , L2 : 3 y 2 x 3
B. L1 : 2 x 2 y 1
, L2 : y x 9
C. L1 : y 3 x 7 , L2 : y 3 x 7
D. L1 : 3 x y 7 0 , L2 : x y 1 0
50
TOPIC 2
3.
Determine the graph that represents a line having slope 3.
4.
Let y = f(x) be a quadratic function.

Which of the following is false?
5.
A.
Parabola opens downward when the scalar of x is negative.
B.
The y-intercept is obtained by evaluating f(0).
C.
The turning point is maximum when the parabola opens

downward.
D.
The highest power of an independent variable for a quadratic

function is two.
2
Which graph represents f(x) = 6 + 5x + x ?

A.
B.
TOPIC 2
C.
51
D.
If y is a function of x and is written as y = f(x), then there exists a unique

value for y for every value of x.
A linear function is of the first degree polynomial function, hence it is also

known as polynomial linear.
A quadratic function is of the second degree polynomial function.
Function
Parabola
Intersection Point
Quadratic Function
Linear Function
Topic
Application of
Linear and
Quadratic
Functions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Identify demand and supply functions;
2.
Calculate the market equilibrium point;
3.
Identify Cost, Revenue and Profit functions;
4.
Analyse the break-even point; and
5.
Find the maximum and minimum value of a function.
INTRODUCTION
There are many applications of linear and quadratic functions in our daily lives.
However, in this topic only its application in economic field will be discussed.
The discussion of market equilibrium point involves the demand and supply
functions and their intersection point. Likewise, the discussion of break-even
point analysis involves the cost, revenue and profit functions. The shape of
quadratic function graph is a parabola. So, the maximum or minimum value of a
quadratic function can be obtained from its turning point.
3.1
THE DEMAND AND SUPPLY FUNCTION
For every price level of a product, there exists a matched quantity of the product
which is demanded by consumers over a certain period of time. In general, the
higher the price is, the lower the quantity desired and when the price goes down,
the quantity demanded will go back up. Suppose the price for a unit of a product
TOPIC 3
APPLICATION OF LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
53
is p and the matching demanded quantity is q, then the equation which links p
and q is called demand equation. This demand function has a negative slope.
Graph 3.1
Generally, the higher the unit price of a product is, the more quantity offered by
the producer. When the price goes down, the supplied quantity will be reduced.
If the price for a unit of a product is p and the matching supplied quantity is q,
then the equation which links p and q is known as supply equation. This supply
function has a positive slope.
Graph 3.2
3.1.1
The Market Equilibrium Point
The market reaches its equilibrium level when supply and demand are equal.
The equilibrium point can be derived by obtaining the intersection point between
the demand and supply equations.
54
TOPIC 3
Graph 3.3
Example:
Determine which of the following equations are the demand and supply
equations. Then, obtain the market equilibrium point.
(a)
p + 2q = 100
(b)
3p = q + 125
Solution:
Determine the slope for each equation.
(a)
p + 2q = 100
p = 2q + 100
The slope is 2 (negative).
Thus, the equation p + 2q = 100 is a demand equation.
(b)
3 p q 125
q
3
125
3
1
(positive).
3
Thus, the equation 3p = q + 125 is a supply equation.
The slope is
TOPIC 3
55
Solve both equations to obtain the market equilibrium point.
p + 2q
3p + 6q
() 3p q
7q
= 100
= 300
= 125
= 175
q = 25
(multiply each term by 3)

(subtract this equation from the other to eliminate p)
Insert q = 25 into equation p + 2q = 100
p + 2(25) = 100
p + 50 = 100
p = 50
The market equilibrium point is (25, 50).
Example:
Given a demand function, q d = p 2 100 p + 2500 and a supply function qs = 0.5 p 2 50.
(a)
Determine the price at market equilibrium point if the price domain is 5 p 50.
(b)
Find the quantity for such price.
Solution:
(a)
Equating the demand and supply functions to find the value for p.
2
p 100p + 2500 = 0.5p 50

2
p 0.5p 100p + 2500 + 50 = 0
0.5p 2 100p + 2550 = 0

a = 0.5, b = 100, c = 2550
b b 2 4ac
2a
b 2 4ac = (100) 2 4(0.5)(2550)
= 10000 5100
= 4900
56
TOPIC 3
100 4900
2 0.5
100 70
1
p 100 70
p 100 70
p 170
p 30
p = 170 does not lie in the given price domain, hence it is not the solution.
Therefore, the price at the market equilibrium point is RM30.
(b)
Substitute p = 30 into the supply function.

q = 0.5p 2 50
= 0.5(30) 2 50
= 0.5(900) 50
= 450 50
= 400
The corresponding supply quantity is 400.
ACTIVITY 3.1
If you are an entrepreneur, would you be satisfied if the
equilibrium point is met? Elaborate your reason(s).
EXERCISE 3.1
1.
Find the equilibrium point if the supply and demand equations of a

product are p
2.
1
1
q 8 and p
q 12 , respectively.
300
180
Suppose the demand function is
p 2 400 and the supply
function is given as p 2 40p + 2600. Determine the price and

quantity at which the market reaches its equilibrium point.
TOPIC 3
3.2
57
COST AND REVENUE FUNCTIONS
Fixed costs are costs that are independent of the production level such as
insurance cost.
Total Cost = Fixed Costs + Variable Costs
Total revenue is the money received from products sold.
Total Revenue = (Unit Price) (Total Quantity Sold)
Profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost.
Profit = Total Revenue Total Cost
Example:
A factory produces a certain type of product worth RM200. The costs of its raw
material and labour are RM30 and RM15 per unit, respectively. Fixed costs are
RM100,000.
(a)
Obtain the function for profit.
(b)
Find the profit if 10,000 units are sold.
Solution:
(a)
Suppose q is the quantity of products sold.

Total Revenue= (Unit Price) (Total Quantity Sold)
= 200q
Total Cost = Variable Costs + Fixed Costs
= 30q +15q + 100,000
Hence, Profit = Total Revenue Total Cost
= 200q (30q +15q + 100,000)
= 200q 30q 15q 100,000
= 155q 100,000
TOPIC 3
58
(b)
Substitute q = 10,000 into 155q 100,000

Profit
= 155(10,000) 100,000
= 1,550,000 100,000
= 1,450,000
Example:
Assuming the cost of producing 10 units of a given product is RM40, while that
of 20 units is RM70. If the cost C is linearly related to production quantity q, find:
(a)
The linear equation that links C to q.
(b)
The costs required to produce 35 units of the product.
Solution:
Linear equation: C = mq + k (1)
Substitute q = 10, C = 40 and q = 20, C = 70 into equation (1) to form two
equations, i.e.
40 = 10m + k and 70 = 20m + k.
Subtract one equation from the other to eliminate k and then obtain the value for m.
()
(a)
70
40
30
3
= 20m + k
= 10m + k
= 10m
=m
Substitute m = 3 into 40 = 10m + k to derive the value of k.

40 = 10(3) + k
40 = 30 + k
10 = k
So, the linear equation becomes C = 3q + 10
(b)
Substitute q = 35 into C = 3q + 10.
C = 3q + 10
= 105 + 10
= 115
TOPIC 3
3.2.1
59
Break-even Point Analysis
Break-even point of a product is the level of production at which there is no profit

made or loss incurred. It is the point where total revenue equals to total cost.
Graph 3.4
TR = TC : Break-even point
TR < TC : Business suffering loss
TR > TC : Business generating profit
Example:
A company is selling a product at the price of RM45 per unit. Variable costs per
unit is RM33, while fixed costs is RM450,000. How many units have to be sold to
break even?
Solution:
Break-even point: Total Revenue = Total Cost
= 45q
Total Cost = Variable Costs + Fixed Costs
= 33q + 450,000
Therefore, 45q = 33q + 450,000
45q 33q = 450,000
12q = 450,000
q = 37,500
Hence, 37,500 units have to be sold to reach the break-even point.
60
TOPIC 3
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Which part of the graph in Graph 3.4 should be avoided by an
entrepreneur? Explain.
EXERCISE 3.2
1.
2.
3.3
Identify each of the following equations as a demand or supply

equation. Then, find their corresponding price and quantity at
which they break even.
(a)
2p = 100q 600
(b)
p = 50q + 600
A company is producing a type of product with a selling price of

RM50 per unit. To produce one unit of the product, the company
has to use raw material, at a cost of RM40. Fixed costs are
RM5,000. If q represents the quantity of products sold, determine:
(a)
Revenue function;
(b)
Cost function;
(c)
Profit function; and
(d)
Quantity to be sold to obtain break-even point.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
Maximum value can be obtained from the turning point on the parabola which
opens downward and minimum value can be obtained from the turning point on
the parabola which opens upward.
Example:
A company learnt that the demand function for its product is p = 48 3q, where
p represents the unit price and q is the quantity demanded for the product.
(a)
Derive the revenue function.
(b)
Determine the quantity for which the revenue is maximised.
(c)
What is the maximum value of the generated revenue?

TOPIC 3
61
Solution:
(a)
(b)
pq
(48 3q) q
48q 3q 2
The revenue function is a quadratic, therefore its turning point (x,y) will be
used as it provides the maximum point. The x-coordinate is the quantity
which the revenue is maximised.
R = 48q 3q 2
where a = 3, b = 48, c = 0
Therefore:
b
2a
48
2 3
48
6
8
The quantity that will maximise the revenue is 8.

(c)
Substitute q = 8 into the revenue function.
R = 48q 3q 2
= 48(8) 3(64)
= 384 192
= 192
Thus, the maximum revenue is RM192.
Example:
Given a cost function, C = q 2 6q + 16.
(a)
(b)
Determine the quantity for which the cost is minimised.

What is the minimum value of the cost?
62
TOPIC 3
Solution:
(a)
The cost function is a quadratic, therefore its turning point (x, y) will be
used as it provides minimum point. The x-coordinate is the quantity which
the cost is minimised.
C q q 2 6q 16 where a 1, b 6, c 16
q
q
b
2a
6
2 1
q3
The quantity which the cost is minimised is 3.

(b)
Substitute q = 3 into the cost function.
C (q) = q 2 6q + 16
= 3 2 6(3) + 16
= 9 18 + 16
= 7
Hence, the minimum cost is RM7.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Is it possible for a quadratic function to have both minimum and
maximum values? Explain your answer.
EXERCISE 3.3
Company BC learnt that the demand function for its product is
q = 1850 5p, where p represents the unit price and q is the quantity
demanded for the product.
(a)
(b)
Find the revenue, given the unit price is RM5.
(c)
Determine the price for which the revenue is maximised.
(d)
What is the maximum value of the revenue?
TOPIC 3
63

1.
A manufacturer sells a product at RM200 per unit. The labour cost

is RM15 per unit and the material cost is RM50 per unit. The rent of
the building is RM10,800 per month. Find the break-even quantity.
A. 5
2.
B. 8
C. 46
D. 80
Given the demand function is p 2 200 and the supply function is

p2 20p + 1,400. What is the equilibrium price?
A. RM80
B. RM100
C. RM800
D. RM6,200
For questions 3, 4 and 5 refer to the following information:

The demand equation for a certain product is given as p = 2,750 5q.
3.
4.
Find the total revenue function.
A. 2,750q 5
B. 2,750p 5pq
C. 2,750q 5q2
D. 2,750p 5p2
Determine the quantity that will maximise the total revenue.
A. 0
5.
B. 25
C. 50
D. 275
What is the maximum total revenue?

A. 0
B. RM2,750
C. RM378,125
D. RM753,500
The two applications of the intersection point discussed are determining

market equilibrium point and break-even point.
The market equilibrium point is obtained by solving the demand and supply
equations simultaneously.
The break-even point is obtained by solving the revenue and cost equations
simultaneously.
64
TOPIC 3
In this topic, we have covered the maximum value for the revenue function
as well as the minimum value for the cost function by using the turning point
method.
This is feasible as the two functions are quadratic and that the method only
works for quadratic functions, while differentiation method can be used to
determine maximum or minimum values for any type of functions.
Break-even point
Minimum value
Cost function
Profit function
Demand function
Revenue function
Equilibrium point
Supply function
Maximum value
Topic Exponential
and
Logarithmic
Functions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Identify exponential and logarithmic functions;
2.
Identify the graph of an exponential and a logarithmic function;
3.
Calculate equations using properties of exponentials;
4.
Calculate equations using properties of logarithms; and
5.
Solve application problems.
INTRODUCTION
Logarithmic functions are related to exponential functions. Each logarithmic

function is called the inverse of its corresponding exponential function, and that
exponential function is the inverse of its corresponding logarithmic function.
This topic will discuss the relation between these two functions and their
applications.
4.1
PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIALS
A function f is called an exponential function if it has a form f (x) = ax where the

base a is positive, with a 0 and its exponent x is any real number.
66
TOPIC 4
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
(1)
axa y ax a y
(2)
a x b x ( ab) x
(3)
ax
a x y
ay
(4)
ax a

bx b
(5)
(a x ) y a x y
(6)
a x
(7)
a0 1
(8)
a1 a
(9)
ay
1
ax
a
y
Examples:
Find the values of
(a)
(d)
32 33
2
(b)
(22 )3
(e)
1

2
(b)
(c)
42
(f)
3

2
(c)
42
Solutions:
(a)
32 33
32 3
2 3
26
64
3
3
(d)
1
32
1
32
223
(e)
1
1 3
2
2
23
8
23
8
(f)
32
3

22
2
1 1

9 4
4
TOPIC 4
67
Examples:
Solve
(a)
82 x = 2
(c)
2 x 2 x1
1
8
1
e
(b)
e 2 x 1
(d)
3 x 9 4- x = 0
Solutions:
(a)
82 x 2
3 2x
2 2
6x
(c)
(b)
(Equate the base)
(Compare the exponent)
6x 1
1
x
6
1
2 x 2 x 1
8
2 x x 1 23
2 x 1 3
2 x 2
x 1
1
e
2 x 1
e
e 1
2 x 1 1
2 x 2
x 1
e 2 x 1
3x 9 4 x 0
2
(d)
3x 32
2
4 x
x2 8 2 x
x2 2 x 8 0
x 2 x 4 0
x 2, x 4
ACTIVITY 4.1
Between linear and exponential functions, which one has the most
rapid change in its values? Explain.
68
TOPIC 4
EXERCISE 4.1
Find the values of
(a)
3 3 4
(d)
1 3

8
(b)
23 8
(e)
1

5
(c)
27 3
(f)
42 21
EXERCISE 4.2
Solve
x
4.2
(a)
1
16
4
(b)
e x 3 1
(d)
2x8x = 2
(e)
5x
1
25
(c)
4x 2x+1 = 0
(f)
e e
x2
x 2
1
e
EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS
There are two general shapes of exponentials graphs. The shapes depend on the
base value of the exponential functions.
(a)
y a x where a > 1
y ax
Graph 4.1
TOPIC 4
(b)
69
y a x where 0 < a < 1
y ax
Graph 4.2
x
Following are the properties of the graph of exponential function f ( x) a
(i)
The y-intercept on the exponential graph is (0,1).
(ii)
There is no x-intercept.
(iii) If a > 1, the graph is increasing from left to right.

(iv) If 0 < a < 1, the graph is decreasing from left to right.
Example:
Sketch a graph of y = 2x.
Solution:
(i)
Construct a table consisting several values of x and y.
(ii)
Plot the points on a plane.
(iii) Draw a smooth curve through all the plotted points.

(i)
x
1
4
1
2
70
TOPIC 4
(ii)
Graph 4.3
Example:
x
1
Sketch a graph of y .
2
Solution:
(i)
x
1
2
1
4
(ii)
Graph 4.4
TOPIC 4
4.3
71
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
A logarithmic function with base a, is written as loga where a > 0, a 1. y is the

logarithm for x with base a, denoted by y = log a x.
y = log a x
Logarithmic Form
ay = x
Exponential Form
Example:
Convert the following equations, from logarithmic to exponential forms:
(a)
log 3 9 = 2
(b)
log 10 y = 4
(c)
log 2 8 = 3
Solution:
(a)
32 = 9
(b)
104 = y
(c)
23 = 8
Example:
Convert the following equations, from exponential to logarithmic forms:
(a)
25 = 32
(b)
100 = 1
(c)
53 = y
Solution:
(a)
log 2 32 = 5
(b)
log 10 1 = 0
(c)
log 5 y = 3
Logarithm with base 10 is known as common logarithm, and is written as

log 10 x = log x = lg x.
72
TOPIC 4
While, logarithm with base e, is called natural logarithm and is denoted by

log e x = ln x.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Is logarithmic function a reciprocal operation for exponential
function? Why? Explain.
4.4
PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS
1.
log a a = 1
2.
log a mx = xlog a m
3.
log a m =
4.
log a M + log a N = log a MN
5.
log a M log a N log a
6.
If log a M = log a N then M = N
log b m
(Logarithm base interchangeable formula)
log b a
M
N
Examples:
Using the above properties, find the value for:
1
(a)
log 3 81
(b)
ln
(d)
log 4 2
(e)
log 4 2 log 4 8
(c)
loga 1
(f)
log 6 54 log 6 9
TOPIC 4
73
Solutions:
(a)
log 3 81 log 3 34
(b)
4log 3 3
4 1
1
1
ln log e
e
e
log e e 1
(c)
log a 1 log a a 0
0 log a a
1log e e
11
1
(d)
log 4 2 log 4 4
(e)
log 4 2 log 4 8 log 4 16
(f)
log 4 42
log 4 4 2
2log 4 4
1
log 4 4
2
1
54
9
log 6 6
log 6 54 log 6 9 log 6
2 1
Examples:
Find the value of x.
(a)
log (2x + 1) = log (x + 6)
(b)
logx (6 x) = 2
(c)
log3 x = 2
(d)
log x = 1
(e)
log2 x 4 + log 2 4x = 12
(f)
log x log (x 1) = log 4
Solutions:
(a)
log 2 x 1 log x 6
(b)
2x 1 x 6
2x x 6 1
x5
log x 6 x 2
x2 6 x
x2 x 6 0
x 3 x 2 0
x 3, x 2
x 3 will be ignored as the base x 0
So, x 2
(c)
log 3 x 2
x3
x9
(d)
log x 1
log10 x 1
x 101
74
(e)
TOPIC 4
log 2 x 4 log 2 4 x 12
(f)
log x log x 1 log 4
log 2 x 4 4 x 12
x
log
log 4
x 1
x
4
x 1
x 4x 4
3 x 4
4
x
3
4
x
3
log 2 4 x 12
5
4 x5 212
212
22
x5 210
x5
x 210 5
x 22
x4
EXERCISE 4.3
1.
Convert the following equations, from logarithmic to exponential

forms.
(a)
2.
4.
(b)
log2 y = x
(c)
log10 0.1 = 1
Convert the following equations, from exponential to logarithmic

forms.
(a)
3.
log5 25 = 2
102 = 100
(b)
a0 = 1
(c)
23 =
1
8
Using the properties of logarithm, find the values below:

(a)
log2 16
(b)
log8 2
(c)
ln e
(d)
log4 1
4
(e)
ln 1 +1g 100
(f)
log2 1 log2 4
4
(c)
log8 64 = x 1

(a)
log2 x = 0
(b)
logx 1 1
3
(d)
logx (2x + 8) = 2
(e)
logx + log (x 15) = 2
(f)
log3 (x + 1) = log3 (x 1) + 1
TOPIC 4
75
ACTIVITY 4.3
4.5
1.
What is the value for e? What is the significance of e?
2.
How does a logarithmic function simplify the calculations

involving exponential function?
EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS
There are two general shapes of logarithmic graphs. They depend on the base
value of the logarithmic functions.
(a)
y = log a x, where a > 1
Graph 4.5
(b)
y = log a x, where 0 < a < 1
Graph 4.6
76
TOPIC 4
The following are the properties of the graph of logarithmic function f (x) = log a x.
(a)
There is no y-intercept.
(b)
The x-intercept on the logarithm graph is (1,0).
(c)
If a > 1, the graph is increasing from left to right.
(d)
If 0 < a < 1, the graph is decreasing from left to right.
Example:
Sketch a graph of y = log 2 x.
Solution:
Convert the equation, from logarithmic to exponential form.
Construct a table consisting several values of x and y.
Draw a smooth curve through all the points.
(a)
y = log2 x
2y = x
(b)
y
1
4
1
2
(c)
Graph 4.7
TOPIC 4
77
Example:
Sketch a graph of y = log 1/2 x
Solution:
y
(a)
1
x
2
(b)
y
1
2
1
4
(c)
Graph 4.8
4.5.1
Application on Growth and Decay Processes
Exponential functions can be applied in growth and decay processes. The

formula for total growth is:
P = P0 ert
where
P
P0
r
t
= Number of residents after t years.

= Number of original residents.
= Percentage (rate) of growth
= Time period
78
TOPIC 4
Example:
Suppose the total number of residents in a given town is 20,000 and the rate of
growth of the residents is 5% per year.
(a)
Determine the total number of residents in this town in the period of 6

years from now.
(b)
How many years will it take for the number of residents to double?
Solution:
(a)
Substitute all the given values into the formula to find the value of P.
P = P0 e rt , where P0 = 20,000, r = 5% and t = 6.

= 5/100
= 0.05
P = 20,000e 0.05(6)
= 20,000e 0.3
= 26,997
Hence, the number of the town residents after six more years is 26,997.
(b)
Doubling the number of residents implies P = 2Po.

Substitute P with 2Po and r = 0.05 into the formula to find the value for t.
P Po e rt
2 Po Po e0.05t
2 Po
e0.05t
Po
2 e0.05t
log e 2 0.05t
ln 2 0.05t
ln 2
t
0.05
t 13.863
The numbers of residents will double in about 14 years.
TOPIC 4
79
The formula for decay process is
P = P0 e -rt
Example:
Suppose a radioactive element is going through power decay after t days based
on exponential function P = 100 e 0.075t. How much of the quantity is left after 20
days?
Solution:
Substitute t = 20 into the formula to find the value for P.
P = 100 e 0.075(20)
= 100 e 1.5
= 100 (0.22313)
= 22.313
4.5.2
Investment with Compound Interest
The total amount of money, denoted by S is the compound amount for a sum of
money P compounding after n-th year, where the interest is payable k times at
the rate of r% per annum, is given by the formula below:
S P 1
k
nk
where:
S = Compound amount or the prospective value
P = Initial investment or the principal value
r = Interest rate per annum
k = Number of interest paid (compound) in a year
n = Number of year/s
Example:
If RM1,000 is invested at the rate of 6% per annum, compounding (payable)
every quarterly, what would the total amount be in the account after 10 years?
Solution:
S = ?, P = 1000,
r = 6% = 0.06,
k = Every quarterly = 4 a year,
n = 10
80
TOPIC 4
Then
S P 1
k
nk
0.06
S 1000 1
S 1000 1.015
10 4
40
S 1000 1.81402
S 1814.02
Example:
Determine the principal amount of a loan, given that the prospective amount
payable after 10 years is RM21,589.20 and the compound rate of 8% per annum,
compounding (payable) on a yearly basis.
Solution:
S = 21,589.20,
P = ?,
r = 8% = 0.08,
k = Every year = 1 a year,
n = 10
Then
S P 1
k
nk
0.08
21589.20 P 1
10 1
21589.20 P 1.08
10
21589.20 P 2.15892
21589.20
2.15892
P 10000
P
Visit the following website:

http://webmath.amherst.edu/qcenter/logarithms/index.html
regarding logarithms.
for
questions
TOPIC 4
81
EXERCISE 4.4
1.
2.
3.
(a)
Given that the price of one acre of land is increasing at the

rate of 2% per year. How long will it take for the price to
increase to RM30,000, if its current value is RM10,000?
(b)
Due to the economic downfall, the total number of residents in a

township drops at the rate of 1% per year. The initial population
was 100,000 residents. What is the population after 3 years?
Determine the compound amount, given the following principal

values, compound interest rates and time period:
(a)
RM5,500; 6% per annum compounding on monthly basis; 18

months.
(b)
RM10,000; 8% per annum compounding yearly; 5 years.
(c)
RM7,600; 7.26% per annum compounding on quarterly basis;

5 years and 8 months.
(d)
RM2,300; 5.75% per annum compounding daily; 150 days.

(assume 1 year = 365 days)
Determine the principal amount, given the following compound

values, compound interest rates and time period:
(a)
RM16,084.82; 6% per annum compounding monthly; 14

months.
(b)
RM10,197.02; 5.3% per annum compounding daily; 135 days.

(assume 1 year = 365 days)
(c)
RM6,657.02; 12.6% per annum compounding every 2 months;

10 months.
(d)
RM36,361.63; 7.2% per annum compounding every 3 months;

5 years and 3 months.
82
TOPIC 4

1.
Is x
1
2
1
x2
A. Yes
2.
Given 2x 8x = 4. Solve x.
A.
3.
1
2
5.
B. 0
Calculate 1 lg
A. 10
4.
B. No
C.
1
4
D.
1
2
1
.
10
B. 1
C. 1
D. 10
Suppose RM5,000 is invested for 10 years at 6% per annum,

compounded every four months. Find the compound amount.
A. 5000(1.02)30
B. 5000(1.02)40
C. 5000(1.015)30
D. 5000(1.015)40
The population P of a city after two years starting from year 1990
0.06
. What is the growth rate?
is given by P = 100 000e
A. 1%
B. 2%
C. 3%
D. 6%
Exponential function and its inverse, i.e. logarithm function, form graphs
reflection upon a line y = x.
The properties of exponentials and logarithms have to be grasped when

tackling problem solving questions.
In addition, the skills to convert equations in the form of exponential to

logarithm form, and vice versa are equally significant.
TOPIC 4
Exponential Function
Logarithm Function
Growth
Compound Interest
Decay
83
Topic
Differentiation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Develop basic differentiation rules i.e. formula for the derivative of

a constant, of x n, of a constant times a function, and of sums and
differences of functions;
2.
Find the derivative by applying the product and quotient rules;
3.
Apply the chain rule; and
4.
Derive the power rule as a special case of a chain rule.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will be exposed to the process of obtaining derivatives for
functions which can be differentiated. The process of finding the derivative is
called differentiation. Differentiating a function by direct use of the definition of
a derivative can be tedious, i.e. applying the limit definition. Thus, a set of
differentiation rules has been derived from the limit method to simplify the
process. The rules are completely mechanical and efficient procedures for
differentiation. Nevertheless, for those who are interested in the proofs of the
rules, they may refer to Calculus books for verification.
The common notation used to denote differentiation of a function, with respect to
dy
a variable x, is f ( x) and is pronounced as f prime x and
(pronounced dee y,
dx
dee x).
If f ( x) can be found, f is said to be differentiable, and f ( x) is called the
derivative of function f with respect to variable x or differentiation of f over x.
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
CONSTANT RULE
5.1
RULE I: CONSTANT RULE
If f (x) = c, where c is a constant, then f (x) = 0.

Example:
(a)
If f (x) = 15, then f (x) = 0.
(b)
If g (x) = 1.4, then g (x) = 0.
(c)
If y = 3x 0 , then y
(d)
If y = e 5 , then y = 0, when e 5 is a constant.
(e)
If y = log 7, then y = 0.
dy
0 , as x 0 = 1.
dx
POWER RULE
5.2
RULE II: POWER RULE
If f (x) = x n where n is a constant, then f (x) = nx n1

Example:
(a)
If f (x)
= x 6 , then
dy
dx
= 6 x 6 1
= 6x
(b)
If h w
1
3
, then h w w
3
5
w5
3
Hence, h w w
5
3
1
5
3 8
w 5
5
85
86
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
If y 3 x 4 , then
(c)
d
x
dx
4
x
3
4
x
3
4
3
4
1
3
1
3
CONSTANT TIMES A FUNCTION RULE
5.3
RULE III: CONSTANT TIMES A FUNCTION RULE

If f (x) = c ( g ( x )) , where c is a constant and g (x) exists, then f (x) = c(g (x))
Example:
Suppose y = 9 x 4 then
dy
d
9
x 4
dx
dx
9 4 x 4 1
9 4 x3
36 x 3
Example:
Given f x 4 x 3 . Find f (x).
Solution:
Convert f (x) into exponential form or power form.
1
f x 4 x3 2
3
4x 2
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
87
Therefore;
f x 4
d 32
x
dx
3 2 1
4 x
2
3 2
4 x
2
1
6 x 2 or 6 x
THE RULES OF SUMS AND DIFFERENCES

OF FUNCTIONS
5.4
RULE IV: RULES OF SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS
(a)
If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), where g (x) and h (x) exist, then f (x) = g (x) + h (x)
(b)
If f (x) = g(x) h(x) , where g(x) and h (x) exist, then f (x) = g (x) - h (x)
Example:
(a)
Suppose f (x) = 3x
+ 5. According to Rule IV, f (x) = g(x) + h(x), where
g(x) = 3x 2 and h(x) = 5.

f (x) = 3 ( 2 x
= 6x
(b)
2 1
) + 0
Suppose f (x) = 10x 5 6x . According to Rule IV, f (x) = g(x) h(x), where
g(x) = 10x 5 and h(x) = 6x. Then;

f ' (x )
= 1 0 (5 x 5 1 ) 6 (1 x 1 1 )
= 1 0 (5 x 4 ) 6 ( x 0 )
= 50x
88
(c)
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
Suppose f (x) = 5x 4 8x 3 + 3x 2 x + 12 .
Differentiation is performed on each expression of f (x).
f '(x)
= 5(4x 41 ) 8(3x 31 ) + 3(2x 21 ) 1 + 0

= 20x 3 24x 2 + 6x 1
Example:
Given f x
5 x 4 3
2
. Find f (x).
Solution:
Simplify f (x):
5 x 4 15
2
4
5 x 15
2
2
5
15
x4
2
2
f x
Therefore, f x
d 5 x 4 d 15

dx 2 dx 2
5
4 x41 0
2
20 x 3
2
10 x 3
Example:
Given f x
7 x3 x
. Find f (x).
2 x
Solution:
Convert f (x) by writing it in exponential form or power form.
TOPIC 5
f x
DIFFERENTIATION
7 x3 x
1
2x 2
x
7 x3
1 1
2x 2 2x 2
7 3 1 1 1 1
x 2 x 2
2
2
5
7
1 1
x2 x2
2
2
7 5 5 1 1 1 1 1
Therefore, f x x 2 x 2
2 2
2 2
3
1
35
1
x2 x 2
4
4
Example:
3
Suppose f x x 5 x 2 7 x 1 . Find f (x).

Solution:
Expand f (x) by applying the exponential rule.
13
5
8
5
f x x 7x x
f x
3
5
8 8 1 3 3 1
13 135 1
7 x5 x5
x
5
5
5
13 85 56 53 3 52
x x x
5
5
5
8
13x 5 56 x 5 3x
2
5
89
90
TOPIC 5
5.5
DIFFERENTIATION
PRODUCT RULE
RULE V: PRODUCT RULE

If
f ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x ), where g' ( x ) and h' ( x ) exist, then
f ( x ) h ( x ) g ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x )
Example:
If f (x) = 2 x (3 x 2 2). Determine the derivative for f (x).
Solution:
Let g(x) = 2x and h(x) = (3x 2 2) .
Then g(x) = 2 and h(x) = 6x
Therefore f (x)
= (3x 2 2)(2) + 2x (6x )
= 6x 2 4 + 12x 2
= 18x 2 4
Example:
If f (x) = (x + 3)( 4x 2 + 2x). Determine the derivative for f (x).
Solution:
Let g(x) = x + 3
g (x) = 1
Therefore f(x)
and h (x) = 4x 2 + 2x, then

and h (x) = 8x + 2
= ( 4x 2 + 2x)(1) + (x + 3)(8x + 2)
= 4x 2 + 2x + 8x 2 + 24x + 2x + 6
= 12x 2 + 28x + 6
Example:
Given s (t ) = (8 7t )(t 2 - 2) . Determine s'( t ) .
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
Solution:
d 2
d
t 2 t 2 2 8 7t
dx
dx
2
8 7t 2t t 2 7
s t 8 7t
16t 14t 2 7t 2 14
21t 2 16t 14
Example:
Given y = ( x 2 + 3x 2)( 2 x 2 x 3)
Solution:
dy
d
d
x 2 3x 2 2 x 2 x 3 2 x 2 x 3 x 2 3 x 2
dx
dx
dx
x 2 3x 2 4 x 1 2 x 2 x 3 2 x 3
4 x3 x 2 12 x 2 3x 8 x 2 4 x3 6 x 2 2 x 2 3x 6 x 9
4 x3 11x 2 11x 2 4 x3 4 x 2 9 x 9
8 x3 15 x 2 20 x 7
5.6
QUOTIENT RULE
RULE VI: QUOTIENT RULE
If y f x
f x
g x
h x
, where g(x) and h(x) exist, then
h x g x g x h x
h x
Example:
Given f x
x
x 1
91
92
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
Solution:
f x
x 1
d
d
x x x 1
dx
dx
2
x 1
x 11 x 1
2
x 1
x 1 x
2
x 1
x 1
Example:
y
2x 3
4x 1
Solution:
dy
dx
4 x 1
d
d
2 x 3 2 x 3 4 x 1
dx
dx
2
4 x 1
4 x 1 2 2 x 3 4
2
4 x 1
8 x 2 8 x 12
4 x 1
14
4 x 1
Example:
y
8x2 2 x 1
x2 5x
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
93
Solution:
dy 8 x 2 2 x 1
dx
x2 5x
x 2 5x dxd 8 x 2 2 x 1 8x2 2 x 1 dxd x 2 5x
2
x2 5x
5 x 16 x 2 8 x 2 2 x 1 2 x 5
16 x
5x
2 x 2 80 x 2 10 x 16 x 3 40 x 2 4 x 2 10 x 2 x 5
5x
16 x 3 82 x 2 10 x 16 x 3 44 x 2 12 x 5
5x
38 x 2 2 x 5
5x
CHAIN RULE
5.7
RULE VII: CHAIN RULE

If y = f(u), where u = g(x), then y x
dy dy du

dx du dx
Example:
Given y = (1 + x ) 4 . Determine
dy
.
dx
Solution:
Step 1:
Introduce one new variable, u, so that
dy
du
and
are easy to calculate.
du
dx
Let u = 1 + x, then y = u 4
Step 2:
Calculate
dy
du
and
.
du
dx
94
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
y = u4 ,
When u = 1 + x, and
du
=1
and
Then
dx
Step 3:
dy
= 4u 3
du
Use the chain rule to calculate

y x
dy
.
dx
dy dy du

dx du dx
4u 3 1
4u 3
Step 4:
dy
into expressions of x.
dx
dy
, gives
Substitute u = 1 + x into
dx
dy
= 4(1 + x) 3.
dx
Calculate
Example:
Determine
dy
, given y = (3 + x 3 )4.
dx
Solution:
(a)
Let u = (3 + x 3 ), hence y = u 4
(b)
Then
(c)
By using chain rule:
du
= 3x 2 and
dx
dy
= 4u 3
du
dy dy du

dx du dx
= 4u3 ( 3x 2 )
(d)
Substitute u = (3 + x 3 ) into
dy
.
dx
3
dy
4 3 x3 3x 2
dx
12 x 2 3 x 3
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
Example:
3
Given y 2 x 2 1 2 , determine y (x).

Solution:
3
(a)
Let u = ( 2x 2 + 1), hence y u 2
(b)
Then
(c)
(d)
du
dy 3 12
u
= 4x and
du 2
dx
dy dy du

dx du dx
3 1
u 2 4x
2
dy
Substitute u = ( 2x 2 + 1) into
.
dx
By using chain rule:
1
dy 3
2 x 2 1 2 4 x
dx 2
1
6 x 2 x 2 1 2
5.8
POWER RULE
(SPECIAL CASE OF CHAIN RULE)
RULE VIII: POWER RULE (SPECIAL CASE OF CHAIN RULE)

If y g x , then y n g x
n
n 1
g x .
Example:
Given y = (3x + 4)7. Find y(x).
Solution:
Let g(x) = 3x + 4, then g(x) = 3 and n = 7.
Therefore y(x) = 7(3x + 4)71(3)
= 21(3x + 4)6
95
96
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
Example:
Given y = (13 x 4 )5 . Find y ' ( x) .
Solution:
Let g(x) = (13 x 4 ), then g(x) = 4x 3 and n = 5.
Therefore y(x) = 5(13 x 4 ) 51 ( 4x 3 )
= 20 x 3 (13 x 4 ) 4
Example:
Differentiate function y = (3x 2 2x + 1)1/2 .
Solution:
1
1 d
dy 1
3 x 2 2 x 1 2
3x2 2 x 1
dx 2
dx
1
1
3 x 2 2 x 1 2 6 x 2
2
3x 2 2 x 1
1
2
3x 1
Example:
2x 2
Differentiate function f x 3
x3
Solution:
2x 2
f x 3
x3
31
d 2x 2
dx x 3
d
d
2 x 3
2 x 2 2 x 2 x 3
2x 2
dx
dx
3

2
x3
x 3
2x 2
3
x3
x 3 2 2 x 2 1
x 3
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
2x 6 2x 2
x 3
2
4
2x 2
3

2
x 3 x 3
2x 2
3
x3
EXERCISE 5.1
Find the first degree differentiation for the following functions:
(a)
f (x) = 15
(b)
f (x ) = 5x 0
(c)
y = 6e 3
(d)
y = 81n 2
(e)
y = x 3 (x 4 )
(f)
h (s ) = x 5
(g)
p(r ) r
(h)
s (t )
2
3
1
3
t5
(i)
y 4 x5
(j)
y x5
(k)
y 4 8 x2
(l)
f ( x) 5 x 2
(n)
f ( x) 2
(p)
f ( x)
(r)
y = (1 + x ) (1 2x )4
(t)
(v)
y = (2x 1)2
(x)
y 3x 2 2 x 1
(z)
2x 2
f ( x)
x3
(m) f (x) = 3x + 7
(o)
(q)
y = x 2 + 4x + 8
f ( x)
4 x3 7 x 4
x
(s)
y = (2x 1) (x + 1)4
(u)
4 x3 1
x2 1
(w) y = ( x 2 + 4)5
(y)
f ( x) x 5 x
2
3
4
x
x
4
5( x 4 3)
2
x 1
x2 2
97
98
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
ACTIVITY 5.1
Join the discussion on rules of differentiation at:
http://www.maths.fsnet.co.uk/Maths%20A.htm
1.
If f ( x) x 4 5 x, then f (1) is
A. 0
2.
B. 4
3.
4.
If y
3
2
D. 12x3 x
3
2
8(9 3x)5
, then y =
5
8(9 3 x)5
25
A. 24(9 3 x) 4
B.
8(9 3x)5
C.
25
D. 24(9 3 x) 4
If y
A.
5.
B. 3x 3 x
C. 12x
D. 9
2
, then g ( x)
x
If g ( x) 3 x 4
A. 3 +
C. 5
3 2x 2
, then y =
x2
3
2
x2
B.
6
x3
C.
4
x3
D.
3 4x
x4
Given y 5 x 3 x 8, then y (2) y (1) .

A. 14
B. 34
C. 46
D. 60
TOPIC 5
DIFFERENTIATION
99
You are required to understand and comprehend the following rules of

differentiation:
If f (x) = c, where c is a constant, then f (x) = 0.
If f (x) = x n where n is a constant, then f (x) = nx n 1
If f (x) = c (g (x )) , where c is a constant and g(x) exists, then f (x) = c(g(x))
If f (x) = g(x) h(x), where g(x) and h(x) exist, then f (x) = g(x) h(x)
If f (x) = g(x) h(x), where g(x) and h(x) exist, then f (x) = h(x) g(x) + g(x)
h(x)
If y f x
f x
g x
h x
, where g(x) and h(x) exist, then
h x g x g x h x
h x
dy dy du
If y = f (u), where u = g(x), then y x

dx du dx
If y g x , then y n g x
n
n 1
g x .
Chain Rule
Product Rule
Constant Rule
Quotient Rule
Constant Times a Function Rule
Sums and Differences of Functions Rule
Power Rule
Topic
Application of
Differentiation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Apply the rules of differentiation when deriving higher degree

derivatives of various functions;
2.
Solve the functions of total costs, total revenue and total profit in
economic and business world;
3.
Calculate the average functions of total costs, total revenue and

total profit in economic and business world;
4.
Derive the marginal or ultimate function of total costs, total

revenue and total profit in economic and business world; and
5.
Minimise the total costs function while maximising the total

revenue and total profit functions, by using differentiation.
INTRODUCTION
The derivative or differentiation of function y = f (x ) , is denoted by:

dy
y = f ' ( x) =
is the first degree differentiation function with respect to x.
dx
When differentiation is performed on y', then:
d 2 y
y f x 2 is the second derivative of function with respect to x, which is
dx
read as f double prime of x.
Similarly when differentiation is performed on y, the third derivative is
d 3 y
y f x 3 is the third degree differentiation function with respect to x.
dx
TOPIC 6
APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION
101
And subsequently, the higher-order derivative is;

d n y
y n f n x n is the n-th degree differentiation function with respect to x.
dx
Comprehensive understanding and ability in applying the rules of differentiation
together with the knowledge on demand and supply functions, will assist the
students in realising the applications of differentiation.
The students are expected to appreciate the applications of differentiation in
economic and business field, which involve calculating the functions of total
costs, total revenue and total profit. Differentiation method will determine how
to minimise the total costs function while the total revenue function and total
profit function are maximised.
6.1
SECOND AND THIRD DEGREE

DIFFERENTIATION
This topic will cover differentiation up to the third degree only. Application of
the rules of differentiation repeatedly will support the process of obtaining the
required level or degree of differentiation.
Example:
Given y = 4x 3 12 x 2 + 6x + 2.
Derive y .
Solution:
y 4 3x 2 12 2 x 6
12 x 2 24 x 6
y 12 2 x 24 1
24 x 24
102
TOPIC 6
Example:
Determine
d 3 y
dx
given y 2 x 1 x 2 1
Solution:
dy
2 1x 2 2 x
dx
2 x 2 2 x
d 2 y
dx
2 2 x 3 2
4 x 3 2
d 3 y
dx
4 3x 4
12 x 4
EXERCISE 6.1
1.
Find the second degree differentiation for the given functions:

(a)
2.
6.2
y 4 x3 12 x 2 6 x 2
(b)
2
x2
Find the third degree differentiation for the following

functions:
(a)
y 4 x2
(c)
y 2 x 1 x 2 1
(b) y 4 x3 12 x 2 6 x 24
TOTAL COST FUNCTION (C)
Total cost function is the total cost required to produce x units of a product. In
short, it is the cost required to conduct a business.
TOPIC 6
103
There are two types of costs:

(a)
Fixed Costs
Unchanged or unvaried costs, i.e. flat although the

number of units of a product being produced varies.
For example, monthly rental of building.
(b)
Variable Costs
The costs which depend on the number of units of a

product produced. For example, raw material and
part-time workers.
In general, the function for costs can be written as:
C (x) = Fixed Costs + Variable Costs

=
Fixed Costs + (Number of units) (Cost per unit)
Example:
If the production costs for one unit of a children toy are RM5 while its fixed costs
are RM7,000,
(a)
Determine the cost function.
(b)
What is the total cost for producing 100 units of the above toy?
Solution:
(a)
The cost function, C (x) = Fixed Costs + x (Per Unit Cost)

= 7000 + 5x
(b)
When x = 100, C (x)
= 7000 + 5(100)
= 7000 + 500
= 7500
Therefore, the total cost for producing 100 units is RM7,500.
6.2.1
Average Total Cost Function ( C )
The average total cost function, C ( x) is the total cost for producing one unit of a
product.
C x
C x
x
104
TOPIC 6
Example:
Given the total cost function, C (q) = 2q + 40. What is the average total cost function?
Solution:
The average total cost function, C q
C q
q
2q 40
q
40
2
q
6.2.2
Marginal or Ultimate Total Cost Function (C')
In business, the rate of change for a function is known as marginal function.

Marginal or ultimate total cost function, denoted by C (x) is the rate of change
for total cost function over quantity.
Example:
Given, the average cost function, C x
1
3
x
x
10
(a)
What is the total cost function?
(b)
What is the ultimate total cost function?
(c)
Calculate the rate of change for cost (assuming the cost is in RM) when 4
units of product are produced.
Solution:
(a)
Total cost function, C ( x) C ( x)( x)

3
1
x x
x
10
1
x2 3
10
(b)
The ultimate cost, C x
1
2x 0
10
1
x
5
TOPIC 6
105
The rate of change for cost is the ultimate cost, C '(x).
(c)
1
C '(4) (4)
5
If four units of product are produced, i.e. x = 4, then
4
5
Hence, the rate of change for cost when 4 units of product are produced is
RM0.80 per unit.
6.2.3
Minimising Total Cost
In business and economic, the cost is usually reduced (minimised) to obtain the
highest (maximised) production revenue and total profit.
Steps to minimise the cost function, C (x):
1.
Find C '(x) and C ( x)
2.
Let C '(x) = 0 and solve for x. Suppose x = a and a has to be positive.
3.
If C (a ) 0 , then x = a is the quantity or level of production which

minimises the cost.
Example:
If C (q ) = 0.01q 2 + 5q + 100 is the cost function.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Obtain the average cost function.

Determine the production level, q which minimises the average cost.
What is the minimum value for the average cost?
Solution:
(a)
Average cost function, C q
C q
q
0.01q 2 5q 100
q
100
0.01q 5
q
(b)
(i)
Find C (q) and C (q ) .
106
TOPIC 6
C q
dC
0.01 100q 2
dq
and C q
(ii)
d 2C
200q 3
dq 2
200
3
q
dC
0
dq
When
0.01
100
0
q2
100
0.01
q2
q 2 10000
q 100
(iii) Will q = 100 minimise the cost?
d 2 C 200
d 2C 200
,
when
q
=
100,
dq 2
q3
dq 2 1003
Therefore
(c)
d 2C
0 , then C ( x) will have a minimum value when q = 100.
dq 2
When q = 100, C q 0.01q 5
100
q
C 100 0.01100 5
100
100
TOPIC 6
107
EXERCISE 6.2
1.
If the production costs for one unit of a product are RM10 while its
fixed costs are RM5,000.
(a) Find the cost function.
(b) What is the total cost for producing 200 units of the above product?
(c) Derive the average cost function.
(d) Determine the ultimate total cost function.
2.
Suppose the average total cost function is C q
100000
1500 0.2q
q
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
Obtain the total cost function.

Derive the marginal total cost function.
Determine the rate of change for cost of producing 10 units of
the product.
q2
Given the total cost function is C q
3q 400
4
(a) Find the average cost function.
(b) Derive the ultimate total cost function.
(c) What is the quantity which has to be produced so that the
average total cost is minimised?
4.
Elyna Trading supplies sports attire to the supermarkets in North

Peninsula. The company's annual cost is given by a function
15
C 0.15q 200 , where q is the quantity (in dozen) and C is the
q
total cost in a year (in thousands Malaysian Ringgit).
(a) What is the quantity which minimises the total cost?
(b) What is that minimum total cost?
5.
The total production cost of a cosmetic product is C 2500 75q 0.25q 2

(a)
(b)
(c)
Find the average total cost function.

What is the quantity which has to be produced so that the
average total cost is minimised?
What is total cost at the production level which minimises the
average total cost?
108
6.3
TOPIC 6
TOTAL REVENUE FUNCTION (R )
Total revenue function, R(x) is the revenue received from production and sales of
x unit of the product.
If p is the unit price and x is the quantity of the product, then
Total Revenue Function, R(x) = Price Quantity
= px
6.3.1
Average Total Revenue Function ( R )
The average total revenue function, R ( x) is the revenue received from selling
one unit of a product, i.e. R x
6.3.2
R x
x
Marginal or Ultimate Total Revenue Function (R' )
Ultimate total revenue function is the rate of change of total revenue over
quantity of a product:
Ultimate Total Revenue Function = R(x)
Example:
The demand function of a product is given by p = 200q + 500.
(d)
What is the total revenue function?
(e)
Determine the ultimate total cost function.
Solution:
(a)
Total revenue function, R(x) = Quantity Price

= qp
= q (200q + 500)
= 200q 2 + 500q
TOPIC 6
109
(b) Ultimate total revenue function, R (x) = 200q 2 + 500q

= 400q + 500
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What are the definitions for ultimate and marginal? What is the
significance of these two terms?
6.3.3
Maximising Revenue Functions
In business and economy, the total revenue is usually maximised to achieve the
maximum profit.
Steps to maximise the revenue function, R(x):
1. Find R( x) and R( x) .
2. Let R(x) = 0 and solve for x. Suppose x = b and b has to be
positive.
3. If R(b) 0 , then x = b is the quantity or level of production
which maximises the revenue.
Example:
80 q
.
4
Determine the quantity which maximises the total revenue.
Obtain the price which maximises the total revenue.
The demand function of a product is given by p q

(a)
(b)
Solution:
(a)
Total revenue function, R(q) = Quantity Price

q p
80 q
q
4
q2
20q
4
110
TOPIC 6
To maximise the total revenue, the ultimate total revenue function has to be
zero and R q 0 .
Ultimate total revenue function, R q 20
q
2
and R q
1
2
q
0
2
q
20
2
q 40
When R(q) = 0, then 20
Does the value q = 40 maximise the revenue? Substitute q = 40 into R q .

1
1
Observe that R q , therefore R 40 0 .
2
2
Therefore q = 40 is the quantity which maximises the total revenue.
(b)
80 q
. At the quantity of q = 40,
4
80 40
p 40
4
10
Given p q
Hence, the price has to be fixed at RM10 in order to maximise the revenue.
Example:
A research has been conducted to determine the import tax of a unit of electronic
item made in a foreign country. The demand on that particular item is given by a
function D(t) = 8000 20t, where D denote the demand quantity (in hundreds
units) and t represent the import tax (in RM unit)
(a)
Determine the revenue function for tax, R(t).
(b)
Calculate the import tax which needs to be imposed to maximise the tax revenue.
(c)
What is the maximum tax revenue?
(d)
Obtain the quantity of the required electronic item at the tax level which
maximises its revenue.
Solution:
(a)
R (t ) ( D )(t )
(8000 20t)t
8000t 20t 2
TOPIC 6
(b)
R (t )
111
= 8000t 20t 2
dR
8000 40t
dt
dR
0 , then 8000 40t = 0
When
dt
40t = 8000
t = 200
R(t ) = 40
When t = 200, R(200) 0 then the total import tax which need to be
imposed is RM200 to maximise the tax revenue.
(c)
R (a ) = 8000t 20t 2
= 8000(200) 20(200) 2
= 1600000 800000
= 800000
Therefore, the maximum tax revenue is RM800,000.
(d)
D (t ) = 8000 20t
= 8000 20(200)
= 4,000
To reach the level of tax which maximises its revenue, 4,000 units of
electronic item have to be imported.
112
TOPIC 6
EXERCISE 6.3
1.
The demand function of a health product is given by a function
p = 0.001q 2 + 840.
2.
3.
6.4
(a)
Obtain the total revenue function.
(b)
Derive the average total revenue function.
(c)
Determine the marginal total revenue function.
Given the total demand function, p (x) = 2 0.01 p, where p is the

unit price in thousand RM and x is the quantity of the item.
(a)
Find the total revenue function.
(b)
Determine the price which maximises the total revenue.
Given the total revenue function, p (x) = 2 0.01 p, where p is the

unit price in RM.
(a)
Determine the price which will maximise the total revenue.
(b)
Calculate the maximum total revenue.
TOTAL PROFIT FUNCTION ()
The total profit or loss function, (x), is obtained from the production of a single
unit product. In general:
= Total Revenue Function Total Cost Function

= R(x) C (x)
Example:
The demand function for vehicle spare parts items at ATSAS Enterprise is given
by p = 400 2q and the average total cost per unit producing the item is given by
2000
a function C q q 160
. Determine the total profit function for ATSAS
q
Enterprise.
TOPIC 6
113
Solution:
Given p = 400 2q and C q q 160
2000
q
Total cost function, C q C q q
2000
q 160
q
q
q 2 160q 2000
Total Profit = Total Revenue Total Cost
= R (q) C (q)
= pq C ( q)
= (400 2q ) q (q 2 160q 2000)
= 3q 2 + 240q 2000
6.4.1
Average Total Profit Function ( )
The average total profit is the profit obtained from the production of a single unit
product.
x
x
Example:
Given the demand function for a product is p ( x) 8 0.025 x and the total
cost function is C ( x) 500 7 x. Find
(a)
Total revenue function;
(b)
Total profit function; and
(c)
Functions for the average total cost, average total revenue and average total
profit.
Solution:
(a)
Total revenue function, R (x) = xp (x)

= x (8 0.025x )
= 8x 0.025x 2
114
(b)
TOPIC 6
Total profit function, ( x) R( x) C ( x)
8 x 0.025 x 2 500 7 x
0.025 x 2 x 500
(c)
Average total cost function, C x
C x
x
500 7 x
x
500
7
x
R x
Average total revenue,
R x
x
8 x 0.025 x 2
x
8 0.025 x
The demand function is also the average total revenue function.

Average total profit, x
x
0.025 x 2 x 500
x
500
0.025 x 1
x
6.4.2
Ultimate Total Profit Function ()
It is the rate of change of total profit over the quantity of a product.
x R x C x
Example:
Suppose the total cost function, C (x ) = 0.05x 2 3x + 500 and the function for total
revenue is R (x ) = 3x 0.01x 2 . Obtain:
(a)
Total profit function; and
TOPIC 6
(b)
115
Functions for the average total cost, average total revenue and average total
profit.
Solution:
(a)
Total profit function, (x) = R (x ) C (x)

= (3x 0.01x 2 ) (0.05x 2 3x + 500)
= 0.06x 2 + 6x 500
(b)
Ultimate total cost function, C ' (x) = 0.05(2x) 3

= 0.10x 3
Ultimate total revenue function, R '(x) = 3 0.01(2x)
= 3 0.02x
Ultimate total profit function, '(x)
= 0.06(2x) + 6
= 0.12x + 6
Or
'(x)
6.4.3
= R '(x) C '(x)
= (3 0.02x) (0.10x 3)
= 0.12x + 6
Maximising Total Profit
As we all know, the purpose of having a business as well as of any economy is to

obtain the maximum profit.
Steps to maximise the profit:
1. Find ( x) and ( x) .
2. Let ( x) = 0 and solve for x. Suppose x = c and c has to be
positive.
3. If (c) 0 , then x = c is the quantity or level of production
Example:
The demand equation for a travel agency company is p = 40 2q and its function
100
for average cost is given by C q 4
.
q
(a)
Determine the total revenue function, R(q).

116
TOPIC 6
(b)
Determine the total cost function, C (q).
(c)
Determine the total profit function, (q).
(d)
Calculate the price which will maximise the profit. Show that the profit is
maximised.
Solution:
(a)
R(q) = pq
= (40 2q) q
= 40q 2q 2
(b)
C q
C q
q
=> C q q C q
100
q4
4q 100
(c)
(q) = R (q) C (q)

= 40q 2q 2 (4q + 100)
= 2q 2 + 36q 100
(d)
d
4q 36
dq
d
When
0
dq
4q + 36 = 0
4q = 36
q =9
When q = 9,
d2
4 0.
dq 2
Substitute q = 9 into p, p (9) = 40 2(9)
= 22
Therefore, p = RM22 will maximise the profit.
TOPIC 6
117
EXERCISE 6.4
1.
2.
3.
A company has an average total cost function of K 4 100q 1 . The

demand equation for the company is given by function p = 54 q,
where p is the unit price (in RM) and q is the quantity.
(a)
(b)
Determine the cost function.
(c)
Obtain the profit function.
(d)
Find the price for which the company will maximise its profit,
by using differentiation method.
The demand function of a local product is p = 300 x and the cost

function is C (x ) = 0.1x 2 + 14x + 100 .
(a)
(b)
Derive the total profit function.
(c)
Determine the quantity which maximises the profit.
(d)
Calculate the price at which the profit is maximised.
(e)
Find the value of the maximum profit.
The demand function for a product based on recycle material is

2
given by p x 2 5 x 16 and the average total cost function is
3
1
5
C x x2 2 x
x
3
(a)
(b)
Derive the total revenue function.
(c)
Determine the total profit function.
(d)
Calculate the quantity which maximises the profit.
(e)
Find the value of the maximum profit.
118
TOPIC 6
ACTIVITY 6.1
Can fixed cost be a variable? Why?

1.
Given f ( x) 3x 2 12 x 9 .
(a)
Find its critical point.

A. (-6, -189)
(b)
2.
C. (2,0)
D. (2, 3)
Determine the nature of its critical point.

A. Minimum point
B. Maximum point
C. Inflection point
D. No conclusion
Given C ( x) 0.05 x 2 3x 500 and R ( x) 3x 0.01x 2 . Find:

(a)
(b)
3.
B. (-6,-24)
The total profit function.

A. 0.06 x 2 6 x 500
B. 3 x 0.01x 2
C. 0.05 x 2 3 x 500
D. 0.06 x 2 500
The marginal profit function.

A. 0.10 x 3
B. 3 0.02x
C. 0.12 x 6
D. 0.06 x 2 6 x 500
The quantity that will maximise the profit.

A. 0.5
B. 6
C. 12
D. 50
TOPIC 6
119
Differentiation can be applied to minimise or maximise a quantity. We can

minimise cost and maximise revenue and profit. Some of the significant
differentiation formulae which are often used in economic and business world
are:
total cost
C
, C .
Average Cost =
quantity
q
dC
Ultimate/Marginal Cost = Rate of change for cost, C
.
dq
total revenue
R
, R .
quantity
q
Average Revenue =
Ultimate/Marginal Revenue = Rate of change, R
Average Profit =
Ultimate/Marginal Profit = Rate of change for profit,
dR
.
dq
total profit
, .
quantity
q
d
.
dq
Average Total Cost Function
Marginal/Ultimate Total Profit Function
Average Total Profit Function
Marginal/Ultimate Total Revenue

Function
Average Total Revenue Function

Marginal/Ultimate Total Cost
Function
Second and Third Degree Differentation

Test
Topic
Integration
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Apply the rules of integration to solve integration problems;
2.
Calculate the definite integrals; and
3.
Apply the substitution technique for a complex problem.
INTRODUCTION
Calculus is divided into two broad areas-differential calculus, which was

discussed in the previous topic, and integral calculus which will be discussed in
this topic. Derivative is a rate of change of a function with respect to an
independent variable. Therefore, if given a derivative of a function, then the
function itself can be determined. The process of obtaining the original function
is an inverse process of differentiation, known as integration. Geometrically, a
definite integral refers to the area under a curve.
7.1
ANTI-DERIVATIVES
d
F x f x then the integration of a function f (x) is F (x), because of their
dx
inverse relationship.
If
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
121
The notation for integration:
f x dx F x c
where
: The constant of integral
f (x) : Integrand
F'(x)
: Anti-derivative
dx
F'(x) = f(x)
: Integral sign
: With respect to variable x
Consider the following derivatives:

(a)
d 2
x 2x
dx
(b)
d 2
x 4 2x
dx
(c)
d 2
x 100 2 x
dx
Therefore, 2x is not the only derivative of x 2 , but also a derivative of x 2 4

and x 2 100 . Thus, having an arbitrary number c representing all the different
numbers, x 2 c is the anti-derivative of 2x and is written as 2 x dx x 2 c.
Integration of a function f (x) is therefore F (x) + c and the process of finding
F ( x) is called integration.
The following rules are derived from reversing the process and can be applied
to solve integration problems.
Integration Rules
1.
k dx kx c, k is a constant.
2.
n
x dx
x n 1
c , n 1 .
n 1
Special case ( when n = 1 )

1
1
x dx x dx ln x c
3.
f ( x) dx k
f ( x) dx , k is a constant.
122
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
4.
f ( x) g ( x) dx f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
5.
f ( x) g ( x) dx f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
6.
dx e x c
kx
e dx
7.
ek x
c
k
,
k is a constant.
Example: Applying Rule 1

(a)
1dx =
(b)
5dx = 5 x c
(c)
100 dx = 100 x c
(d)
dx x c
(e)
e dx ex c
xc
Example: Applying Rule 2

(a)
1
x dx x dx
(b)
3
x dx
x2
c
2
x 31
x4
c
c
3 1
4
3
1
2
x 2 2 32
x dx x dx
x c
3
3
2
(c)
(d)
1
x 2
1
3
c
c
dx
x
dx
x3
2
2 x 2
(e)
x dx ln x c
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
123
Example: Applying Rule 3, 4 and 5

(a)
3x dx 3 x dx (Take the constant out as stated in Rule 3)

3
x 31
x4
3
c 3 c
3 1
4
1
1 1
(b)
5 xdx 5 xdx 5 ln x c
(c)
3x
(Take the constant out as stated in Rule 3)
1 dx 3x 3 dx 1dx (Applying Rule 4)
3 4
x xc
4
(d)
2x
x 2 dx 2 x 5 dx x 2 dx (Applying Rule 5)
2 6 1 3
1
1
x x c x 6 x3 c
6
3
3
3
(e)
2 x x x 1 dx
2x
x 1 dx (Expand first as there is no rule for product integration)
= 2 x 2 dx x dx 1dx (Expand using Rule 3 and 4)

2
(e)
x3 x 2
x c (Integrate one at a time)
3
2
x x
1 dx
1
1
5
x 2 x 2 1 dx = x 2 x 2 (dx Expand first)
x 2 dx x 2 dx
5
x2
x2
c (Integrate one at a time)

5
1
1
1
2
2
124
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
x2 x2
2x 2 2x 2
c
7
3
7
3
2
2
x4 x2
x 4 dx
(f)
1
dx (Simplify the expression, as there is no rule for division integration)
x2
= 1dx x 2 dx (Need to be expressed in the form of n )

x 2 1
c
2 1
x 1
1
x
c x c
x
1
x
Example: Applying Rule 6 and 7

x
(a)
e dx e
(b)
e dx
2x
100 x
(c)
e2 x
c
2
e100 x
dx
c
100
(d)
e 2 dx
(e)
4e
2 4 x
x
2
x
e
c 2e 2 c
1
2
dx
4e2 4 x
c e 2 4 x c
4
ACTIVITY 7.1
An inverse of differentiation is integration. Is there a mathematical process
which does not have an inverse?
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
125
EXERCISE 7.1
Integrate each of the following:
3.
dx
8 p dx
4.
5.
6.
7.
x 1 x dx
1.
9.
2.
3u 2 du
3
8.
e dt
1 x 2 x dx
x
0.07 t
7.2
1
3
x 2 dx
x
x
3
x
5
2
x 2x 1
x 4 dx
10.
12.
x 4 e
11.
e dx
ex dx
3s 4
ds
dx
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Suppose f (x) is a function which is defined between interval [a, b]

and F (x) is the anti-differentiation for f (x). The definite integrals for
f (x) between interval [a, b] is given by:
f x dx F x
b
F b F a
where a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit of the integration.
Example:
1 x
3
dx
Solution :
3
x4
34 14
x dx

4 1
4 4
80
81 1

20
4
4 4
3
126
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
Example:
1
0
e 2 x dx
Solution:
e2 x
e 21 e 2 0
e
dx

0
2
2
2 0
1
2x
e 2 e0 e2 1

2 2
2 2
Example:
1
dx
x
Solution:
ln x 1 ln e ln1 1 0 1
e
RULES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Suppose
f dx
and
g dx
are defined between interval (a, b), where
a, b and c are constants. Hence,

b
cf x dx c f x dx ;
b
1.
2.
f x g x dx f x dx g x dx; and
3.
f x g x dx f x dx g x dx
Example:
3
1
3x3 dx
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
127
Solution:
3
x4
34 1
81 1
3
x
dx
3
3
3

1
4 4
4 1
4 4
80
3 3 20 60
4
3
Example:
e
1
2 x dx
x
Solution :
e
1
e1
e
1
2 x dx 1 dx 1 2 x dx
x
x
ln x 1 x 2
1
e
ln e ln1 e 2 1
1 0 e 2 1
2 e2
ACTIVITY 7.2
What is the term given to the values of a and b for the interval [a, b]?
EXERCISE 7.2
Find the values of the following integrations:
x3 dx
2.
x 1 x dx
(t 2 2t 8)dt
4.
2 y y dy
6.
4
y dy

8.
1.
3.
5.
7.
8
1
2
1
4
1
4
1
2
1
4
x 3 x 2 x dx
e5 dx
x 1
dx
x
128
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
7.3
Integration by substitution is one of the techniques used to integrate more

complex functions. It will change the basic variable (usually x) to another
variable (usually u). The relationship between these two variables must be
specified. Once there is changing of the variable, the integration will be easier to
handle.
Example:
2x
x 2 1 dx
Solution:
Identify u and du,
u = g(x), u is assumed without power. Therefore, u = x2 + 1 and hence,
du = 2x dx.
Step 1:
Step 2: Substitute the integration from x to u.

1
2
2
2 x x 1 2 dx x 1 2 2 x dx u 2 du
Integrate with respect to u.
Step 3:
1
2 32
2
u
du
u c
Substitute back the u to x.
Step 4:
3
2 2
x 1 2 c
Example:
x
x2 3
dx
Solution:
Step 1:
Identify u and du,
u x2 3
1
du 2 x dx x dx du
2
TOPIC 7
Step 2:
Substitute the integration from x to u.
Step 3:
1
du
1 1
dx 2 1 u 2 du
2
2
x 3
u2
x
Integrate
1
1 u2

2 1
2
Step 4:
INTEGRATION
1 12
u du with respect to u.
2
c u2 c

1
x 3 3 2 c
Example:
ln x
dx
x
Solution:
u ln x,
du
dx
x
Step 1:
Identify u and du,
Step 2:
ln x
Step 3:
dx
u du
x
u2
c
2
Step 4:
ln x
2
c
129
130
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
Example:
x
dx
1
Solution:
Step 1:
Identify u and du.
u x2 1
Step 2:
du
x dx
2
du 2 x dx
du
x
x dx
1 du
x2 1 dx x2 1 u2 2 u
Step 3:
1
ln u c
2
Step 4:
1
ln x 2 1 c
2
ACTIVITY 7.3
1.
What do you think needs to be done in order to be an expert in

recognising the u and du?
2.
Visit: http://www.sosmath.com/calculus/calculus.html for more

examples on integration by substitution.
TOPIC 7
INTEGRATION
131
EXERCISE 7.3
Integrate the following:
1.
3.
5.
2 t 4 8t 2 dx
e x 2 dx
4.
ds
6.
s
3
3x
2.
1 2s
dx
4x2 5
x2 x
4 3x
2
2 x3
dx
x 1
dx
2x 1

1.
x
dx
x
x2
A.
x
2.
5x
5
3
3 32
D. x c
2
B.
3
e 5 x 1 c
5x 1
3
C. e 5 x c
5
4
D. e 5 x c
5
3x 2
( x3 8)2 dx
1
A.
c
8 x3
4.
2 12
C.
x c
3
dx
A. e 5 x c
3.
2
B. x 2 c
3
3x
x3
c
B.
(8 x3 )3
x3
1
c
C.
c D.
3(8 x3 )3
8 x3
( x 3 5) 20 dx
( x 3 5) 21
A.
c
21
( x 3 5) 21
c
C.
63
x3 ( x3 5) 21
B.
c
21
x 3 ( x 4 5) 21
D.
c
21
132
TOPIC 7
5.
INTEGRATION
6 x 3dx
1
1
15
A.
B. In 6
C.
1
1
15 2
D.
1
ln 6
6
Integration may be applied to determine a function given by its rate of change.
Basic integration rules include the following:
k dx kx c,
n
x dx
k is a constant.
x n 1
c , n 1 .
n 1
A special case when n = 1 is as follows:
dx
1
dx ln x c
x
f ( x) g ( x) dx f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
f ( x) g ( x) dx f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
kx
e dx
f ( x) dx k
f ( x) dx , k is a constant.
dx e x c
ek x
c , k is a constant.
k
Integration by substitution is one of the techniques used to integrate more

complex functions.
Indefinite Integrals
Integration by Substitution
Topic
Application
of Integration
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Calculate the area of a region between a graph and x-axis;
2.
Calculate the area between two graphs;
3.
Apply integration to determine producers surplus and consumers

surplus; and
4.
Apply integration to determine the cost, revenue and profit function

from its marginal functions respectively.
INTRODUCTION
One of the applications of integration is to find the area of a region. This topic
will specifically focus on finding the area between a graph and the x-axis and the
area between two graphs. Later, integration is used to determine consumers and
producers surplus. The applications of integration in economic and business,
includes finding the cost, revenue and profit functions from their respective
marginal functions.
134
TOPIC 8
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION
FINDING AREA UNDER A GRAPH
8.1
Suppose f (x) is continuous and that f (x) 0 in the interval [a, b].
Then, the area under the graph f (x) and above the x-axis, from x
= a to x = b is A f x dx .
b
Graph 8.1
Example:
Find the area under y = 2x from x = 0 to x = 2.
Solution:
Graph 8.2
The sketch shows that the graph y = 2x is always above the x-axis when x is
positive, therefore the area A is:
2
0
2 x dx x 2 4 0 4 unit 2 .
0
TOPIC 8
135
Suppose f (x) and g (x) are continuous in the interval [a, b] where f (x) g
(x), i.e. f (x) is always above g (x). Then, the area between the graphs f (x)
and g (x) in the interval [a, b] is given by:
A f x g x dx
a
b
Graph 8.3
Example:
Find the area between graphs y = x 2 and
y = x.
Solution:
Step 1:
Sketch the graphs to determine which one is above and which is below.
Graph 8.4
Step 2:
Obtain the intersection points between graphs y = x 2 and y = x.
x2 x
x2 x 0
x x 1 0
x 0 and 1
(0,0) and (1,1) are the intersection points.

136
Step 3:
TOPIC 8
Determine the function above and function below.
f a = Function above
fb = Function below
Function above minus function below:
Step 4:
x x2
Determine the integration and obtain its value.

1
x 2 x3
2
x
x
dx
2 3 12 13 16 unit 2
0
0
1
Example:
Find the area between graphs y = 2 x 2 and y = 2x 1.
Solution:
Step 1:
Sketch the two graphs.
Graph 8.5
Step 2:
Obtain the intersection points between graphs y = 2 x 2 and y = 2x 1.
2 x 2 2 x 1
x2 2 x 3 0
x 3 x 1 0
x 3, 1
(1, 1) and (3, 7) are the intersection points.

Step 3:
Graph above minus graph below (2 x ) ( 2x 1) = 3 + 2x x 2 .

2
TOPIC 8
Step 4:
137
Determine the integration and obtain its value.

3
x3
2
3
2
x
x
dx
3
x
x
1
3 1
1
2
9 9 9 3 1 10
3
3
ACTIVITY 8.1
1.
What is the purpose of finding an area under a graph? Explain.
2.
What will you get if you integrate in the interval [-3,3] the
function y= 1? Explain.
EXERCISE 8.1
Find the area above or below for the following graphs:
1.
y = x 2 1; x = 1 to x = 1
2. y = 3 x 2 + 1; x = 1 to x = 2
3.
y = 9 x 2 ; between [2, 1]
4. y = 2x + x 2 ; between [0, 3]
Find the area between the followings two curves:

5.
y = 2x + 4 and y = x 2 + 2x + 3.
6.
y = 2x 5 and y = x 2 + 6x 5.
7.
y + x = 6 and y = x 2 + 4.
8.
y=
x and y = x.
138
TOPIC 8
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION IN
ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS
8.2
In economics and business, integration may be applied in the following areas:

(a)
Consumers and producers surpluses
(b)
Finding function from its marginal function
Let us discuss each of these areas in detail.
8.2.1
Consumers and Producers Surpluses
Recall the demand function, p = D (q) and the supply function, p = S (q).
The intersection point of the two equations is called the market equilibrium
(qe, pe), which exists in an ideal competition market.
ACTIVITY 8.2
What is meant by ideal competition? Does a competition which is not
ideal exist?
(a)
Consumers Surplus
There are consumers who are willing to pay more than the equilibrium
price, so they benefit from the lower equilibrium price. The area of A
represents the consumers surplus. It is the total profit gained from the
consumers willingness to pay more than the market equilibrium price.
Graph 8.6
TOPIC 8
139
From Subtopic 8.1 we noticed this area can be found by finding areas
between two graphs.
Consumers surplus,
D(q )
qe
The graph below
The above graph

qe
A D ( q)dq Pe qe
or, in simpler form
Area under
curve D ( q )
(b)
Pe dq
Area of
the rectangle
Producers Surplus
On the other hand, some suppliers would have offered the product at a
price below the equilibrium price, so they too can gain from the equilibrium
price. The total of the suppliers gain is called the producers surplus and is
represented by the area B.
Producers surplus,
p S (q ) dq
qe
graph above
straigh tline
or, in simpler form
graph below
pq
ee
Area of the rectangle
qe
S (q) dq
Area under the below graph
Example:
Given that the demand function and the supply function for a company are
p = 200 q 2 and p = 6q + 160, respectively.
Determine the consumers and producers surpluses for the company.
Solution:
Sketch the graph in the first quadrant only. Obtain the market equilibrium point.
140
TOPIC 8
Graph 8.7
6q 160 200 q 2
p 200 q 2
200 16
184
q 2 6q 40 0
q 10 q 4 0
q 10 and q 4
Hence, (4, 184) is the market equilibrium point.
Consumers Surplus: CS
4
0
200 q dq 4184
2
q3
200q 736
3 0
736
200q
3
0
128
Producers Surplus: PS 4 184 6q 600 dq

4
736 3q 2 160q
736 48 640
4
0
48
ACTIVITY 8.3
Why would a consumer be willing to pay a higher price than the
market equilibrium?
TOPIC 8
141
Example:
The demand and supply functions for a company are ps = 1 + q and
pd 49 6q , respectively. Determine the consumers and producers surpluses
for the company.
Solution:
Obtain the market equilibrium point.
pd ps
49 6q 1 q
49 6q 1 q
49 6q 1 2q q 2
0 q 2 2q 1 49 6q
0 q 2 8q 48
0 q 4 q 12
We will consider only the point q = 4. P = 1 + q= 1 + 4 = 5
(4,5) is the market equilibrium point.
Note: The value q = 4 is the integration limit.
Consumers Surplus:
D q dq 4 5
4
Graph 8.8
142
TOPIC 8
4
0
49 6q dq 20
u 49 6q
u 49 6(4) 25
du 6 dq
du
dq
6
u 49 0 49
49
3
49
49
du
1
1 u2
25 u 6 20 6 25 u du 20 6 3 20

2 25
3
3
1 3
1
49 25 20 73 53 20
6 2
9
218
38
20
9
9
1
2
1
2
Producers Surplus: pe qe S q dq
4 5 1 q dq
4
q2
16
20 q 20 4 20 12 8
2 0
2
ACTIVITY 8.4
Which is better, a situation where there is consumers surplus or
producers surplus?
8.2.2
Finding Function From Its Marginal Function
Previously, if given cost, revenue and profit function, we were asked to find the
marginal functions namely marginal cost, marginal revenue and marginal profit
function respectively. Now , in this topic, given a marginal function, we will be
asked to find the cost, the revenue and the profit function. This can be done by
integrating their corresponding marginal functions.
Example:
Suppose the marginal cost function for a company which produces x thousand
50
units of books, is given by C x
, while its fixed cost is RM25,000.
x
TOPIC 8
143
(a)
Find the cost function.
(b)
Determine the increment in total cost for an increase in production from 100
to 121 units.
Solution:
(a)
Given marginal cost function, we need to integrate the marginal cost

function to obtain the cost function.
C x C x dx
1
1
1
1
50
x2
dx 50 x 2 dx 50 c 50 2 x 2 c 100 x 2 c
1
x
2
Given that the fixed cost is RM25,000. Cost when x 0

Solve C (0) = 25000.
1
Therefore, 100x 2 + c = 25000

100(0) + c = 25000
c = 25000
1
Hence, C (x) = 100x 2 + 25000

(b)
121
100
C x dx
C 121 C 100
100 121 25000 100 100 25000
100 11 25000 100 10 25000
100
Thus, the required cost increment is RM100.
Example:
Suppose that a companys marginal cost function is given by C (x) =
2x 3 + 6x 5 , and its fixed cost is RM8,000. Find the companys cost function.
144
TOPIC 8
Solution:
Given the marginal cost function C (x) = 2x 3 + 6x 5 , we integrate to get its cost
function.
C x C ' x dx
2 x 3 6 x 5 dx
2 x4 6 x2
5x c
4
2
x4
C x
3 x 2 5 x c since C(0)=8000
2
C 0 0 0 0 c
8000 c
Therefore, the cost function is
C x
x4
3x 2 5 x 8000
2
Example:
A furniture factory has a marginal cost function, C ' ( x ) 3 x 15 and marginal
revenue function R ' ( x ) 150 3 x with x is the quantity produced. Fixed cost for
the factory is RM8,000. Determine:
(a)
Revenue function
(b)
Demand function
(c)
Total cost function
(d)
Profit function
Solution:
(a) R ( x) R( x) dx (150 3 x)dx
3x 2
C
2
3x 2
R (0) 0
=150x
2
150 x
(b)
The demand function is p f ( x) and can be obtained from the revenue

function. R p.x
TOPIC 8
Therefore
145
R
x
3x 2
150 x
R
2 150 3x
p
x
x
2
3x
The demand function is p= 150
2
(c)
C ( x) C ( x)dx 3 x 15dx
3x 2
15 x C
2
3x 2
=
15 x 8000 C (0) 8000
2
(d)
P ( x) R( x) C ( x)
3x 2 3x 2
150 x
15 x 8000)
(
2
2
165 x 3x 2 8000
EXERCISE 8.2
1.
2.
The marginal cost function for a company producing school bags

is given by C '(q ) = 0.003q 2 0.03q , where q is the number of school
bags produced. The companys fixed cost is RM176.
(a)
Find the cost function.
(b)
Determine the increment in total cost when the production

increased from 260 to 400 units.
1000
. If R is
100q
the revenue in RM, determine the change/increment in revenues
when the sales increased from 400 to 900 units.
The marginal revenue function of a factory is R =
146
TOPIC 8
A furniture factory has a marginal cost function, C ' ( x ) 3 x 15 and

marginal revenue function R ' ( x ) 150 3 x with x is the quantity
produced. Fixed cost for the factory is RM8,000.
3.
Determine:
(a)
Total cost function.
(b)
Profit function.
4.
The demand and supply functions for a company are p = 400 q and
p = q + 100, respectively. Determine the consumers and producers
surpluses for the company.
5.
The marginal cost function for a company is given by c(q) = 0.001 q 2
0.02q, where q is in units. Fixed cost is RM1,000. Determine the cost

function.
6.
The demand and supply functions for a particular product are

p = 100 0.05q and p = 10 + 0.1q, respectively. Determine the
consumers and producers surpluses of the product.
7.
The demand and supply functions for a company are

p = 0. 01 q 2 1.1q + 30 and p = 0.01 q 2 + 8, respectively. Determine
the consumers and producers surpluses.

1.
Find the area of the region enclosed by y 4 x 2 , xaxis, x = 4 and

x = 6.
1
B. 370
C. 333
D. 333.3
A. 373
3
2.
If a marginal revenue function is R '( x) 10 9 x x 2 , find the total

revenue function.
A. TR = 9 + 2x
B. TR = 9+2x+c
9 2 x3
C. TR= 10 x x
2
3
9 2 x3
D. TR = 10 x x
+C
2
3
TOPIC 8
147
The following information is for Q3, Q4 and Q5.

For the demand function D ( x) 200 x 2 , and supply function
S ( x ) 6 x 160 .
3.
4.
Determine the equilibrium point.

A. x = 4, y = 184
B. x = 184, y = 4
C. x = 4, y = 184
D. x =184, y = -4
Determine the consumers surplus.

A. 872
5.
B. 48
C. 128/3
D. 248
Determine the producers surplus.

A. 48
B. 248
C. 148
D. 872
You should now realise that integration is an inverse of differentiation.
The applications of integration are not limited to only finding the area of a
region, but can also be applied to many business and economic problems.
Consumers Surplus
Producers Surplus
Topic
Partial
Differentiation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Identify functions of one, two, three or more variables;
2.
Calculate values for multi-variable functions;
3.
Perform the first order partial differentiation on z = f (x , y ) ; and
4.
Perform the second order partial differentiation.
INTRODUCTION
Up to this point, we have discussed functions of only one independent variable

y f ( x) . We have discussed cost functions, which depend only on quantity, i.e
C C (q) and population functions, which depend only on time, i.e. P = P (t ) .
However, in real life, many mathematical models depend on more than one
variable.
For example, cost function for a company depends on labour and material cost,
while wolves' population in the forest depends on the population of rabbits,
squirrels and other food resources.
In this topic, we will look into the mathematics of functions of multi-variable. We
will see that ideas applied to single variable functions, will also apply to
functions of multi-variable, for instance, the idea of differentiation.
Previously we have seen functions of one variable, y depends on x, written as
y f ( x) . In this topic, we will see functions of two variables, z depends on two
variables x and y and hence written as z = f (x, y). We will also encounter
TOPIC 9
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
149
function of three variables, where w depends on x , y , and z , therefore the

function can be written as w f ( x, y, z ) .
9.1
FUNCTIONS OF MULTI-VARIABLE
Suppose z depends on the values of x and y, based on the following relationship:
z = 3x + 3xy + 3y
Since the function of z depends on two variables, hence it can be written as
z = f (x ,y )
For every selected pair of x and y, there is only one value of z. For example, if x =
1 and y = 4, then
= 3x + 3xy + 3y
= 3(1) + 3(1)( 4) + 3( 4)
= 3 12 12
= 21
Therefore, if x = 1 and y = 4, then z = 21, which can be written as f (1, 4) = 21 .

To obtain f (3,2) , we let x = 3 and y = 2, then
f (x,y )
= 3x + 3xy + 3y
f (3,2) = 3(3) + 3(3)(2) + 3(2)

= 9 18 6
= 15
In general, z = f (x ,y ) is a function of two variables and each pair of x and y

produced only one value of z. Therefore, x and y are called independent
variables while z is said to be a dependent variable.
Similarly, if w = f (x,y , z ) is a function of three variables and each triple of x and y
z produced only one value of w . Therefore, x , y and z are called independent

variables, while z is said to be a dependent variable.
150
TOPIC 9
Example:
4x
Suppose g x, y
(a)
g (3,0)
(b)
g ( 4,3)
x2 y 2
. Find the value for:
Solution:
(a)
g (3,0)
Now, x = 3 and y = 0.
g 3,0
(b)
4 3
3 0
g ( 4,3)
g 4, 3
12
9
12
4
3
4 4
16
16 16
16 9
25 5
Example:
Suppose h x, y x 2 2 y 2 . Find the values of:
(a)
h(5, 3)
(b)
h(2, 4)
(c)
h(1, 3)
Solution:
(a)
h (5, 3)
Then, x = 5 and y = 3.
h 5,3 52 2 3 25 2(9) 43
2
(b)
h(2, 4)
h 2, 4 22 2 4 4 2 16 36 6
2
TOPIC 9
(c)
151
h(1, 3)
h 1, 3
2 3 1 2 9 19
2
Example:
Function of three variables
Suppose f (x, y , z ) = 4 x 2 3xz + 2yz 2 1 . Find
(a)
f (3, 0, 1)
(b)
f (2, 1, 0)
Solution:
(a)
f (3,0,1) = 4(3) 2 3(3)(1) + 2(0) 1 1

2
36 9 0 1 26
(b)
f (2,1,0) = 4(2) 2 3(2)(0) + 2(1) 0 1

2
16 6 0 1 21
Example:
The
labour
charge
for
assembling a type of car

is given by
L( x, y ) 12 x 6 y 2 xy 40 where x is the number of hours required by a skilled
worker and y is the number of hours required by a semi-skilled worker. Find
(a)
L (3, 5)
(b)
L (5, 2)
(c)
If a skilled worker requires 7 hours to assemble a car and a semi-skilled

worker requires 9 hours, find the total labour cost.
Solution:
(a)
L( x, y ) 12 x 6 y 2 xy 40
L(3,5) 12(3) 6(5) 2(3)(5) 40 136

(b)
L(5, 2) 12(5) 6(2) 2(5)(2) 40 132
(c)
L(7,9) 12(7) 6(9) 2(7)(9) 40 1304

152
TOPIC 9
ACTIVITY 9.1
If f (x, y , z ) = x + 4y 2 + y 3 , where variable z is not in the function. Can the
function be expressed as f (x, y ) = x + 4y 2 + y 3 ? Why?
EXERCISE 9.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
Given f (x, y ) = 4x + 5y + 3 . Find the values of

(a)
f (2, 1)
(b)
f (2, 3)
Given g (x, y ) = x 2 4xy + y 3 . Find the values of

(a)
g (2, 4)
(b)
g (2, 3)
Given g (x, y , z ) = x 2 4xy + y 3 . Find the values of

(a)
g (3, 0, 1)
(b)
g (2, 1, 4)
The population of cats in an area is assumed by a mathematical

model, C (x , y ) = x 2 + 200y 1200 , where x is the population of
rats measured in hundreds and y is the population of mole rats
measured in tens.
(a)
Determine C (50, 0)
(b)
Determine C (30, 4)
(c)
Find the number of cats if there are 1,400 rats and 150 mole rats.
TOPIC 9
153
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
9.2
dy
, where it measures the rate at
dx
which a function y = f(x) is changing with respect to changes in variable x. Let us now
look into the rate of change of function f(x,y) with respect to one of its variables.
In Topic 6 we have discussed about derivatives
Let f(x,y) be a function of two variables x and y. Since we want to know how f(x,y)
changes both with respect to x and with respect to y, we shall now define partial
derivatives with respect to the two variables.
Definition
1. The partial derivative of f with respect to x is the derivative of f
obtained by treating x as a variable and y as a constant.
fx or f/x.
Notation:
2. The partial derivative of f with respect to y is the derivative of f
obtained by treating y as a variable and x as a constant.
Notation:
fy or f/ y
Recall from the differention:
d
d
(k ) 0
(3) 0
dx
dx
d
d
kx k
2x 2
dx
dx
d
d
kf ( x) kf ( x)
2 x2 2(2 x) 4 x
dx
dx
d
d
2 x 2 6 2(2 x) 0 4 x
kf ( x) C kf ( x)
dx
dx
Example:
(a)
f ( x, y ) 4 x 2 6 y 3
f x 8x
remember y is a constant
f y 18 y 2
remember x is a constant
154
(b)
TOPIC 9
f ( x, y ) 2 xy x 2
fx 2 y 2x
remember y is a constant
f y 2x
remember x is a constant
Example:
Let f (x, y ) = 4x 2 9xy + 6y 3 . Find fx and fy .
Solution:
f (x, y ) = 4x 2 9xy + 6y 3
(a)
(Remember to find fx , y is a constant)
f
4 x 2 8 x,
f
9 xy 9 y,
x
f
6 y3 0
Hence, fx = 8x 9y.
(b)
(Remember to find fy , x is a constant)
f
4 x 2 0,
f
9 xy 9 x,
y
f
6 y 3 18 y 2
Example:
Suppose f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 3xy 3 + 2y + 5 . Find
(a)
fx (1, 2)
(b)
fy (4, 3)
Solution:
(a)
f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 3xy 3 + 2y + 5
To differentiate with respect x means y is a constant
f
2 x 2 4 x,
x
f
3xy 3 3 y 3 ,
f
f
2 y 0
5 0
x
x
f x = 4x + 3y 3
f x 1, 2 4(1) 3(2)3 4 3(8) 20

TOPIC 9
(b)
155
f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 3xy 3 + 2y + 5
To differentiate with respect to y means x is a constant
f
2 x 2 0,
y
f
3xy3 9 xy 2 ,
y
f
f
2y 2
5 0
y
y
fx = 9xy 2 + 2
fx (4,3) = 9( 4)( 3)2 + 2 = 9( 4)(9) 2 + 2 = 324 + 2 = 322
EXERCISE 9.2
1.
Given f (x, y ) = 2x 4 + 6x3 y 3 + 5y 2 8 . Find fx and fy .
2.
Given f (x, y ) = 8x 2 + 5xy 2 9y + 4 . Obtain
3.
(a)
fx (0, 4)
(b)
fx (1, 2)
(c)
fy (2, 5)
(d)
fy (0, 0)
Given the temperature of the water at the point on a river,

where a nuclear power plant discharges its hot water, is
approximated by a function T(x, y) = 2x + 5y + xy 40 where x
represent the temperature of the river water measured in C
before it reaches the power plant and y is the number of
megawatt (in hundreds) of electricity being produced annually
by the plant.
(a)
Find the temperature of the water around the factory if the

water temperature before reaching the factory is 10C and
400 megawatt of electric is produced a year.
(b)
Find and interpret Tx (5, 4).
(c)
Find and interpret Ty (8, 3).
156
TOPIC 9
HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
9.3
The idea of second order differentiation for functions of single variable y=f(x) can
be applied to functions of multi-variable, where the first degree partial
differentiation will be differentiated again with respect to x and y.
If z = f (x , y )
z
fx
x
and
z
= fy
y
the first order differentiation
z
f x f xx

xx x
z
f y f yy
y y y
the second order partial diferentiation

z
f y f yx
x x x
f f xy
y x y x
Example:
Find
all
the
second
degree
3
2
3
2
f (x , y ) = 4x 3x y + 2y .
partial
derivatives
for
Solution:
First we find the first order partial differentiation, fx and fy .
Given f (x , y ) = 4x 3 3x 2 y 3 + 2y 2 .
Then,
f x (x , y ) = 12x 2 6xy 3
f y (x , y ) = 9x 2 y 2 + 4y
To get fxx , perform partial differentiation with respect to x on fx
f x 12 x 2 6 xy 3
x
x
24 x 6 y 3
function
TOPIC 9
157
To get fyy, perform partial differentiation with respect to y,on fy
fy
9 x 2 y 2 4 y
y
y
18 x 2 y 4
To get fyx , perform partial differentiation with respect to x on fy
fy
9 x 2 y 2 4 y
x
y
18 xy 2
To get fxy , perform partial differentiation with respect to y, on fx
f x 12 x 2 6 xy 3 a
y
y
18 xy 2
EXERCISE 9.3
1.
Obtain all the second order partial derivatives for

f (x, y ) = 4x 2 y 2 9xy + 8x 2 3y 4
2.
Obtain all the second order partial derivatives for the following
functions:
(a)
f (x, y ) = 6x 3 y 9y 2 + 2x
(b)
R (x, y ) = 4x 2 5xy + 12y 2 x 2
(c)
r x, y
4x
x y
ACTIVITY 9.2
For examples and application of partial differentiation, visit:
http://www.math.hmc.edu/calculus/tutorials/partialdifferentiation/
To observe the difference between ordinary and partial differentiations,
visit:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Mathematics/geomath/level2/pdiff/intro.html
158
TOPIC 9

1.
Find the partial derivative of f x and f y

A.
2.
3.
f x 4 x 3 y; f y 3 xy
B.
(B) f x 4 x 3 xy; f y 3 x
C.
(C) f x 4 x 3 y; f y 3 x
D.
(D) f x 4 x 3 xy; f y 3 xy
Find the partial derivative of g ( w, z ) 3 w2 z 2 .
2w
gw
B.
g w 2 w z 2 ; g z w2 2 w
C.
gw
D.
gw
3 w2 z
2 2/3
2w
3 2w z
2 2/3
3 w2 z 2
2/3
; gz
2z
A.
; gz
; gz
3 w2 z 2
2/3
2z
3 w2 2 z
2/3
3 w2 z 2
2/3
Find fx(2, 1) if f ( x, y ) 3 x 3 y 2
A. 36
4.
of f ( x, y ) 2 x 2 3 xy .
B. 1152
C. 9x 2 y 2
Find
all
second-order
f ( x, y ) 6 x 3 y 9 y 2 2 x .
partial
D. 6x3 y
derivatives
A.
f xx 18 x 2 y; f yy 18; f xy f yx 18 x 2
B.
f xx 36 xy; f yy 18 y; f xy f yx 18 x 2
C.
f xx 36 xy; f yy 18; f xy f yx 18 x 2
D.
f xx 18 xy; f yy 18 y; f xy f yx 18 x 2
of
TOPIC 9
5.
159
Given f ( x, y ) x 3 y 7 x 2 y 2 8 , Find fyy.

B. 14x 2
A. 14xy
C. 14 y 2
D. 14x 2 y
The discussion in this topic is only limited to two-variable functions:
The first order partial differentiation of z = f (x , y ) with respect to x is fx or

f
. Here x is a variable while y is regarded as a constant.
x
The first order partial differentiation of z = f (x , y ) with respect to y is fy or

f
. Here y is a variable while x is regarded as a constant.
y
The second order partial differentiations of z = f (x , y ) are:
fxx
or
( fx ) x
fyy
or
( fy ) y
fxy
or
( fx ) y
fyx
or
( fy ) x
Note that fxy = fyx .
Dependent Variable
Multi-variable Function
Independent Variable
Partial Differentiation
Topic
10
Application
of Partial
Differentiation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.
Find the critical points of functions of two variables;
2.
Determine the properties of critical points, whether the points are

maximum, minimum or saddle points, using the M Test; and
3.
Apply the Lagrange multiplier method to solve maximum and

minimum problems involving constraints.
INTRODUCTION
One of the applications of partial differentiation which will be discussed in this

topic is to obtain the maximum and minimum points of a function multi-variable.
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.1 shows that points A, B and C are the maximum points, while points
D and E are the minimum points.
This topic will discuss the application of partial differentiation. In the business
world, we want to maximise profit but with a certain limitations called
constraints. This can be solved using the Lagrange multiplier technique.
TOPIC 10
10.1
APPLICATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
161
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FOR

FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES
Similar to single variable functions which was discussed earlier, if a is a critical

point (maximum or minimum point), then f(a) = 0.
Now in functions of two variables, if (a, b) is a critical point (maximum/minimum
point) of a two-variable function, then fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0.
Besides a maximum and minimum point, (a,b) can also be a saddle point where a
saddle point is neither a maximum nor a minimum point. Figure 10.2 shows that
a critical point which is a saddle point. Approaching a point from one direction
(on the x-axis) indicates a maximum point, while approaching a point from
another direction (on the y-axis) indicates a minimum point.
Figure 10.2
M Test to determine maximum or minimum point or a saddle point.

Given z =
f (x, y), if a point (a, b) exists, where

fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0
Define M = [fxx (a, b) fyy (a, b)] [fxy (a, b)] 2 Then
f (a , b ) is a maximum point if M > 0 and fxx (a, b) < 0.
f (a , b ) is a minimum point if M > 0 and fxx (a, b) > 0.

f (a , b ) is a saddle point if M < 0.
If M = 0, this test does not provide any conclusion.
162
TOPIC 10
Example:
Given f (x, y ) = 6x 2 + 6y 2 + 6xy + 36y 5
(a)
find the critical point(s) of f (x, y ) .
(b)
determine whether the point(s) is maximum, minimum or a saddle point.
(c)
calculate the minimum/maximum value.
Solution:
(a)
To obtain the critical point(s), differentiate with respect to x and y

respectively.
f (x, y ) = 6x 2 + 6y 2 + 6xy + 36x 5
fx = 12x + 6y + 36
fy = 12y + 6x
fx = 0 and fy = 0 for critical points

12x +6y + 36 = 0 (1)
6x + 12y = 0
(2)
Solve the equations simultaneously.

From (2), 6x = 12y
x = 2y
(3)
Substitute (3) into equation (1).

12(2y) + 6y + 36 = 0
24y + 6y + 36 = 0
18y = 36
y= 2
Substitute y = 2 into equation (3).
x = 2(2) = 4. Therefore (4, 2) is a critical point.
TOPIC 10
(b)
163
To determine whether it is a maximum or minimum, we need to obtain all

the second degree partial differentiation.
fx = 12x + 6y + 36
fxx = 12 fxy = 6
fy = 12y + 6x
fyy = 12 fyx = 6
M = fxx fyy (fxy) 2

= (12)(12) (6) 2
= 144 36
= 108
Since M = 108 > 0, fxx = 12 > 0, then the point (4,2) is the minimum point.
(c)
To obtain the minimum value, we have to substitute the values of x and y

into the function f (x, y ) = 6x 2 + 6y 2 + 6xy + 36x 5
f (x, y ) = 6x 2 + 6y 2 + 6xy + 36x 5
f (4,2) = 6(4) 2 + 6(2) 2 + 6(4)(2) + 36(4) 5
= 77
The minimum value is 77.
Example:
Find the critical point for f (x, y ) = 50 + 4x - 5y + x 2 + y 2 + xy and determine
whether it is the maximum or minimum point.
Solution:
f (x, y ) = 50 + 4x 5y + x 2 + y 2 + xy
Differentiate with respect to x and y respectively.
fx = 4 + 2x + y
fy = 5 + 2y + x
To obtain the critical point(s),
fx = 0 and fy = 0
Then,
4 + 2x + y = 0 and 5 + 2y + x = 0
164
TOPIC 10
Rearranging gives,
2x + y = 4 (1)
x + 2y = 5 (2)
Solve using elimination method. Eliminate x as follows:
2x + y = 4
2x + 4y = 10
(2) 2
3y = 14
14
y=
3
(1) (3)
Substitute y
(1)
(3)
14
into equation (1).
3
14
2x 4
3
14
3
12 14 26
2x
3
3
13
x
3
2x 4
13 14
Therefore, , is the critical point.
3 3
To determine whether it is a maximum or minimum, we need to obtain all the

second degree partial differentiation.
fx 4 2x y
f xx 2
f y 5 2 y x
f yy 2
f xy f yx 1
M f xx f yy f xy
2 2 12
3
TOPIC 10
165
13 14
M = 3 > 0, fxx = 2 > 0, then the point , is the minimum point.

3 3
Example:
The cost function for a company producing carbonated drinks is approximated
by:
C (x, y ) = 2200 + 27x 3 72xy + 8y 2
where x is the total amount of the sugar in kilograms and y is the amount of
flavours in grams. Obtain:
(a)
The total amount of sugar and flavours which will minimise the cost; and
(b)
The minimum cost.
Solution:
C x, y 2200 27 x3 72 xy 8 y 2
C x 81x 2 72 y
C y 72 x 16 y
(a)
To obtain the critical point(s), Cx = 0 and Cy = 0.
81x 2 72y = 0
72x + 16y = 0
(1)
(2)
Solve for y and hence, equate the solutions.

From (1),
81x 2 = 72y
81 2
x y
72
9 2
x
8
(3)
9
x
2
(4)
72x = 16y
From (2),
72
x y
16
(3) = (4),
9 2 9
x x
8
2
166
TOPIC 10
x2 x
8 2
x2 4 x
x x 4 0
x 0 or x 4
When x = 0,
9
9
x 0 0
2
2
(0,0) is the critical point

9
9
y x 4 18
When x = 4,
2
2
(4, 18) is another critical point
However, the result (0, 0) is irrelevant as we are looking for the total amount of
sugar and flavours, thus we will only use the point (4, 18). We need to
determine whether it is actually a minimum point using the M test.
C x = 81x 2 72y
Cxx = 162x
C y = 72x + 16y
C yy = 16
C xy = C yx = 72
M = Cxx Cyy (Cxy) 2 (x still exist, therefore we substitute x = 4 as the

= (162x)(16) (72) 2 and the critical point is when x = 4)
= (162)(4)(16) (72) 2
= 5184
Cxx = 648 > 0, M > 0, then the cost is minimised.

(b)
The cost is minimised when x = 4 and y = 18,
C (x , y ) = 2200 + 27x 3 72xy + 8y 2

C (4,18)
= 2200 + 27(4) 3 72(4)(18) + 8(18)2

= 1336
Thus, the minimum cost is RM1,336.
TOPIC 10
167
ACTIVITY 10.1
After observing the Figures 10.1 and 10.2, and learning the techniques
of differentiation for two-variable functions, what would the
application of this topic be in the field of architecture?
EXERCISE 10.1
Find the critical points and determine whether they are maximum,
minimum or saddle points.
1.
f (x, y ) = xy + x y
2.
f (x, y ) = x 2 2xy + 2y 2 + x 5
3.
f (x, y ) = x 2 xy + y 2 + 2x +2y+ 6
4.
f (x, y ) = x 2 + 3xy + 3y 2 6x + 3y
5.
f (x, y ) 4 xy 10 x 2 4 y 2 8 x 8 y 9
6.
f ( x, y ) x 2 xy 2 x 2 y 2
7.
f (x, y ) = x 2 y 2 2x + 4y 7
8.
f (x, y ) = 2x 3 3y 2 12xy + 4
9.
f (x, y ) = x 2 + 4y 3 6xy 1
10.
The profit function for a company is given by

P (x, y ) = 1000 + 24x x 2 + 80y y 2
where x is the labour cost and y is the cost of raw material. Find
the number of x and y which will maximise the profit. What is
the maximum profit?
10.2
LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER
In subtopic 10.1, we saw how to find a relative maximum and relative minimum
for a function of two variables. In practice, many functions come along with a
constraint. Problems involving constraints can be solved by using Lagrange
multiplier method.
168
TOPIC 10
Theorem: Lagrange Multiplier Method

The maximum or minimum value for a function z = f (x,y)
over a constraint g (x, y) = 0 can be determined between the
points (x, y),
where there exists , i.e. Fx (x, y, ) = 0
Fy (x, y, ) = 0
F (x, y, ) = 0
given
F (x, y, ) = f (x, y) + g(x, y)
Example:
Find the minimum value for f (x , y ) = 5x 2 + 6y 2 xy over a constraint of x +
2y = 24 using the steps below.
(a)
Express the constraint in terms of an equation equals to zero and in the

form of
g (x, y) = 0. The constraint x + 2y = 24 then becomes x + 2y 24 = 0.

(b)
Form the Lagrange function, f (x , y , ) where
f x, y , f x, y g x , y
5 x 2 6 y 2 xy x 2 y 24
5 x 2 6 y 2 xy x 2 xy 24
(c)
Find Fx , Fy and F and then equate to zero.
Fy 12 y x 2 0
F x 2 y 24
Fx 10 x y
(d)
Solve the three simultaneous equations.
10 x y 0
12 y x 2 0
x 2 y 24 0
TOPIC 10
169
Using (1) and (2), equate the to obtain the relation between x and y.
4 (5)
because 2 2
2 y 20 x x 12 y
14 y 21x
2 y 3x
Substitute this relationship into (3).
Insert 3x = 2y into (3)
x 2 y 24 0
x 3 x 24 0
4 x 24
x6
Substitute x = 6 into the equation 3x = 2y

3x 2 y
3 6 2 y
18 2 y
y 9
Therefore, x = 6 and y = 9 will minimise the function f (x, y) = 5x 2 + 6y 2 xy .

The minimum value is f (x, y ) = 5x 2 + 6y 2 xy is
f (6, 9) 5(6) 2 6(9) 2 (6)(9)

612
There are four steps for solving problems using the Lagrange multiplier method.
1.
Express the constraint in an equation that equals to zero, g(x, y) = 0.
2.
Form a function F (x, y, ) = f (x, y) + g(x, y)
3.
Obtain the partial derivatives and then equate them to zero.
Fx = Fy = F = 0
4.
Solve the equations simultaneously.
170
TOPIC 10
Example:
Find two numbers whose sum is 50 and that their product is maximum.
Solution:
Suppose the two numbers are x and y. We need to maximise the multiplication
(product) of the two numbers, i.e. f (x, y) = xy with the constraint x + y = 50
1.
x + y = 50; therefore g (x, y) = x + y 50
2.
F (x, y, ) = f (x, y) + g(x,y)

= xy + (x + y 50)
= xy + x + y 50
3.
Fx = y +
y+ =0
(1)
Fy = x +
x+ =0
(2)
x + y 50 = 0
(3)
F = x + y 50
4.
Solve all the three equations simultaneously by equating the ,

From (1) = -y
From (2) = - x
Equating the we note that the relationship is y=x
Substitute this relationship y = x into (3),
x x 50 0
2 x 50
x 25, y 25
Hence, y = 25.
Therefore, xy = 25 25 = 625
Thus, the two numbers which maximise their product are 25 and 25 with
their product equals to 625.
TOPIC 10
171
ACTIVITY 10.2
1.
Why does constraint exist? What causes a constraint to occur? Explain.
2.
For further discussion on the Lagrange multipliers, visit:

http://www.mathworld.wolfram.com/LagrangeMultiplier.html
EXERCISE 10.2
1.
Maximise f (x, y) = 2xy over a constraint of x + y = 12.
2.
Maximise f (x, y) = x 2 y over a constraint of 2x + y = 4.
3.
Maximise f (x, y) = x 2 + y 2 xy over a constraint of x + y = 8.
4.
Maximise f (x, y) = x 2 10y 2 over a constraint of x y = 18.
5.
Find two numbers (say, x and y) which totals up to 12 and that the
product of x 2 y is maximised.
6.
Find two numbers which totals up to 20 and that the product of the
two numbers is maximised.
7.
Find two numbers, x and y which give x + y = 20 and xy 2 is

maximised.
8.
A farmer has 200 metres of fencing. Find the dimensions of the

rectangular field of maximum area that can be enclosed by the
amount of fencing.

1.
Find the critical points for f ( x, y ) x 2 2 xy 2 y 2 x 5 .

A. (1, 1/2)
2.
B. (1, 1/2)
C. ( 1, 1/2)
D. (1, 1/2)
For the function given in question 1 above, the critical point is

A. maximum
B. minimum
C. saddle
D. infimum
172
3.
TOPIC 10
Using Lagrange multipliers, the critical points of f ( x, y ) 2 xy , subject

to x y 12
A. (6, 6)
B. ( 6, 6)
C. (4, 4)
D. (3, 3)
The next information is for question 4 and question 5.

Determine the dimension of the largest rectangular field that can be
enclosed with 600 meters of fencing. Assume that no fencing is needed
along one side of the field.
4.
5.
What is the constraint for the problem?

A. 2 x 2 y - 600 0
B. 2 x y - 600 0
C. xy - 600 0
D. x 600 0
What is the dimension of the field?

A. (150, 150)
B. (300, 300)
C. (150, 300)
D. (150, 200)
The M test is applied to determine whether a critical point is a maximum,

minimum or saddle point.
M Test to determine maximum or minimum point

Suppose z = f (x , y ) , and if a point (a, b) exists, where fx(a, b) = 0 and
fy(a, b) = 0,
then the M Test = M f xx a, b f yy , b f xy a, b
Therefore,
f (a , b ) is a maximum point if M > 0 and fxx(a, b) < 0.
f (a , b ) is a minimum point if M > 0 and fxx(a, b) > 0.
f (a , b ) is a saddle point if M < 0.
If M = 0, this test does not provide any conclusion.
TOPIC 10
173
The Lagrange multiplier method is a technique to obtain the maximum or

minimum value of a function z = f (x, y) with a constraint g (x, y) = 0.
The maximum or minimum point (x, y) can be determined when F (x , y , ) = f

(x, y) + g(x, y) where there exists , i.e. Fx (x, y, ) = 0, Fy (x, y, ) = 0 and F
(x, y, ) = 0.
Lagrange Multiplier Method
Minimum Point
Maximum Point
Saddle Point
174 ANSWERS
Answers
TOPIC 1: MATRIX
Exercise 1.1
1.
(a)
3x2
(b)
1x 3
(c)
3x1
2.
a0
3.
No. Identity matrix only exists for square matrix.
4.
(a)
Zero Matrix (Null)
(b)
Column Matrix
(c)
Row Matrix
Exercise 1.2
1.
(a)
6
12
3
0
9
3
(b)
2
9
1
4
(c)
6 3
3 1
2 5
(d)
Not possible
(e)
130 140
110 60
(f)
27 35
4 26
(g)
20 2 2
2 1
3
2 3 10
ANSWERS
2.
2 1
A
5 2
Exercise 1.3
1.
2.
(a)
11
(b)
a2 + b2
(c)
27
(d)
27
(a)
(b)
The determinant does not exist.
Exercise 1.4
1.
(a)
1
7
1
7
2

7
3
14
(b)
2 11 3
1 6 2
0 1 0
(c)
Does not exist
(d)
13
10
2
5
7
10
7
5
1
5
3
5
1
2
1
2
175
176 ANSWERS
2.
A1 2
3

2
3.
(a)
B 1
(b)
ad bc 0
1 d b
ad bc c a
Exercise 1.5
24
23
, y
5
5
(b) x 1, y 3, z 2
1. and 2. (a) x
(3)
(a)
(b)
2
10
60
, y , z
17
17
17
x 1, y 0, z 5
Multiple Choice Questions

1.
(a)
(b) D
2.
3.
4. D
TOPIC 2: LINEAR AND QUADRATIC

FUNCTIONS
Exercise 2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(a)
1
m , c 1
2
(b)
m = 5, c = 5
(c)
m = 3, c = 0
(d)
2
5
,c
3
3
y = x + 5
3y = 8x 4
2y + x = 4
3y + x + 3 = 0
ANSWERS
Exercise 2.2
(a)
(b)
(c)
Exercise 2.3
(a)
The parabola opens upward.

The turning point is (3, 4).
The y-intercept is (0, 5).
The x-intercepts are (1, 0) and (5, 0).
(b)

(c)
The parabola opens downward.

There is no x-intercept.
(d)

The x-intercepts are (4, 0) and ( 4, 0).
177
178 ANSWERS
(e)
The parabola opens downward.

Exercise 2.4
(a)
(1, 8)
(b)
(d)
(3, 1) and (1, 7)
(e)
(1, 1) and (2, 2)
(f)
(1, 9) and (3, 29)
(0, 2)
(c)
(2, 1)

1. C
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. A
TOPIC 3: APPLICATION OF LINEAR AND

QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
Exercise 3.1
1.
(450, 9.50)
2.
p = RM75, q = 5225
Exercise 3.2
1.
2.
2p = 100q 600 is a supply equation

p = -50q + 600 is a demand equation
p = RM150,
q=9
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
50q
40q + 5000
10q 5000
500
ANSWERS
179
Exercise 3.3
(a)
1850p 5p 2
(b)
RM9,125
(c)
RM185
(d)
RM171,125

1. D
2. A
3. C
4. D
5. C
TOPIC 4: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS
Exercise 4.1
(a)
1
27
(b)
(c)
(d)
1
4
(e)
125
(f)
(c)
Exercise 4.2
(a)
(b)
(d)
1
4
(e)
(f) 1
Exercise 4.3
1.
(a)
52 = 25
(b)
2x = y
(c)
101 = 0.1
2.
(a)
log10 100 = 2
(b)
10ga 1 = 0
(c)
1
log2 = 3
8
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
1
3
2
180 ANSWERS
4.
(a)
(d)
1
2
4
(b)
(c)
(e)
20
(f)
20
Exercise 4.4
1.
(a)
(b)
55 years
97,045 people
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
RM6,016.61
RM14,693.28
RM11,373.99
RM2,354.99
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
RM15,000
RM10,000
RM6,000
RM25,000

1. B
2. D
3. B
4. A
5. C
TOPIC 5: DIFFERENTIATION
Exercise 5.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
7x 6
(f)
5x 4
(g)
2 5
r 3
3
(h)
3 8
t 5
5
(i)
5 14
x
4
(j)
5 32
x
2
(k)
x4
(l)
3
10 x
x2
ANSWERS
(m) 3
(o)
2x + 4
(q)
8x
(s)
x 1 10 x 2
(u)
(w)
(y)
4
x2
3
2 x 2 x 3 6 x 1
10x (x 2 + 4) 4
2x 5
2 x2 5x
1
4
(n)
(p)
10x3
(r)
1 2 x 10 7 x
(t)
181
x2 2 x 2
(v)
4(2x 1)
(x)
3x
(z)
2x 2
3
x3
2 x 1
2
1
2
3x 1
x 3 2

1. D
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. C
TOPIC 6: APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION

Exercise 6.1
1.
(a)
24 x 24
(b)
12
x4
2.
(a)
(b)
24
(c)
12x 4
Exercise 6.2
1.
(a)
10x + 5000
(c)
10
5000
x
(b)
RM7,000
(d)
10
182 ANSWERS
(a)
100 000 + 1500q + 0.2q 2
(c)
1504
(a)
q
400
3
4
q
(c)
40 unit
4.
(a)
5.
2.
3.
(b)
1500 + 0.4q
(b)
1 400
4 q2
10 dozens
(b)
RM203,000
(a)
2500
75 0.25q
q
(b)
100
(c)
RM12,500
(b)
0.001q 2 + 840
Exercise 6.3
(a)
0.01q 3 + 840
(c)
0.003q 2 + 840
2.
(a)
2x 0.1x 2
(b)
RM1,000
3.
(a)
RM200
(b)
RM400
1.
Exercise 6.4
1.
2.
3.
(a)
R (q ) = 54q q 2
(b)
K(q) = 4q + 100
(c)
q q 2 50q 100
(d)
RM29
(a)
300x x 2
(b)
1.1x 2 + 286x 100
(c)
130
(d)
RM170
(e)
RM18,490
1 3
x 2x2 5
3
(b)
2 3
x 5 x 2 16 x
3
(d)
(a)
(c)
1 3
x 3 x 2 16 x 5
3
ANSWERS
(e)
RM101.67

1. (a) D
(b) C
2.(a) A
(b) C
3. D
TOPIC 7: INTEGRATION
Exercise 7.1
1.
xc
2.
ex c
3.
8p3x + c
4.
ex 3
c
3
5.
u4 3
c
4 u
6.
1
2 32 12 54 x 3
x x c
5
3
2 x 2 3
7.
x 2 x5
c
2
5
8.
x2 2
1
3 c
2 x 3x
9.
e 0.07 t
c
0.07
10.
e3 s 4
c
3
11.
12.
4ln x
1
1
2ln x x c
2
x
x
x2
ex c
8
Exercise 7.2
1.
65
4
2.
87
10
3.
22
3
4.
5.
211
5
6.
3e5
7.
4 ln 8
8.
20
3
1
3
183
184 ANSWERS
Exercise 7.3
1.
2
1 4
t 8t 2 c
2.
1
3
2
4
2
x
2 c
4
3.
5.
2 ex 2 2
3
4.
2
3
1 2s 2 3 c
6.
1
18 4 3 x 2 2 x 3
1
ln x 2 2 x 1 c
2

1.B
2.C
3.A
4.A
5.D
TOPIC 8: APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

Exercise 8.1
1.
4
3
2.
12
3.
4.
18
5.
4
3
6.
32
3
7.
9
2
8.
1
6
Exercise 8.2
1.
(a)
0.001q 3 0.015q 2 + 176
(b)
RM45,038
2.
RM2,000
3.
(a)
3x 2
15 x 8000
2
(b) 165 x 3 x 2 8000
ANSWERS
4.
Consumers' surplus:
11,250
Producers' surplus:
11,250
5.
0.001 3
q 0.01q 2 1000
3
6.
CS = 9,000,
PS = 18,000
7.
CS = 166.66,
PS = 53.33
185

1. A
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. A
TOPIC 9: PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

Exercise 9.1
1.
(a) 6
(b) 20
4.
(a) 1300
(b) 500
(c) 1996
2.
(b) 92
(b) 47
3.
(a) -8
(b) 68
Exercise 9.2
1.
fx
= 8x 3 + 18x 2 y 3
fy
= 18x 3 y 2 + 10y
(b) 4
(c) 109
(d) 9
2.
(a) 80
3.
(a)
40C
(b)
6. The water temperature around the factory will increase by 6C if

the temperature of the water approaching the factory increases from
5C to 6C, while the factory generated 400 megawatt.
(c)
13. The water temperature around the factory will increase by 13C if
the electrical power generated by the factory increases from 300
186 ANSWERS
megawatt to 400 megawatt, while the temperature of the water

approaching the factory is 8C.
Exercise 9.3
1.
f xx 8 y 2 16
f yy 8 x 2 36 y 2
f xy 16 xy 9 36 y 3 f yx
2.
(a)
f xx 36 xy
f yy 18
f xy f yx 18 x 2
(b)
Rxx 8 24 y 2
R yy 24 x 2
Rxy R yx 5 28 xy
(c )
rxx
8 y
x y
ryy
8x
x y
rxy ryx
4x 4 y
x y

1. B
2. A
3. A
4. C
5. B
TOPIC 10: APPLICATION OF PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIATION
Exercise 10.1
1.
(1, 1)
saddle point
2.
1,
2
minimum point
3.
(2, 2)
minimum point
4.
(15, 8)
minimum point
5.
2 4
,
3 3
maximum point
6.
(2, 2)
saddle point
7.
(1, 2)
saddle point
ANSWERS
8.
(0, 0)
saddle point and (4,8) minimum point
9.
(0, 0)
saddle point and (9/2, 3/2) minimum point
10.
P (12,40) = 2744
Exercise 10.2
1.
2.
f (6, 6) = 72
4 4 64
f ,
3 3 27
3.
f (5, 3) = 28
4.
f (20, 2) = 360
5.
x=8 y=4
6.
(10, 10)
7.
x = 20/3 y = 40/3
8.
(50, 50)

1. B
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. C
187

BBMP1103 Mathematics For Management

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BBMP1103

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil

Assoc Prof Dr Zurni Omar

Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, November 2007

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Cofactor of Element aij

Linear and Quadratic Functions

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Application of Linear and Quadratic Functions

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

6.2.1 Average Total Cost Function ( C )

6.3.2 Marginal or Ultimate Total Revenue Function (R )

Application of Partial Differentiation

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion

Study the module

Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions

Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s)

TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED

Apply the basic mathematical concepts;

Construct mathematical formulae;

Assess mathematical concepts in their specific course; and

Apply the usage of mathematics in daily life.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Explain the concept of matrix and the classification of matrices;

Define matrix addition, scalar multiplication and multiplication of

Calculate the determinant for square matrix using the cross

Determine the inverse of an invertible matrix and use inverses to

Apply Cramer's rule to find the solution of a two-linear equation

Data is an important source of information. Therefore, it is necessary for the data

More simply, the data can be represented by the matrix A

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

a12 ... a1n

This matrix is called an m x n (read as m by n) matrix or a matrix of order m x n.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

a11 lies in the first row and the first column

a21 lies in the second row and the first column

a32 lies in the third row and the second column

Row Matrix (Row Vector)

Column Matrix (Column Vector)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

State the order of each matrix.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

aij= bij for each i and j. Thus,

By equating corresponding entries, we must have

a13 q 1, b13 5 . Therefore a13 b13 , then

a21 q 1, b21 r . Therefore b21 a21 , then

a23 p 1, b23 q 4 . Therefore a23 b23 , then