Chapter 2 Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Chapter 2
Cell Structure and Cell Organisation
A Typical Plant Cell
A Typical Animal Cell
PLANT CELLS
Cell wall, plasmodesmata,
plastids, central vacuole,
chloroplast
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, nucleus, robosomes,
cytoplasm
ANIMAL CELLS
Centrioles, vesicles,
lysosomes
Level of organization in multicellular

organism
Similarities and differences between plant

and animal cells
SPOTLIGHT BIOLOGY SPM

PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS SDN BHD
Chapter 2:
Cell Structure and Cell Organisation
Learning Objectives
2.1
Cell Structure and
Function
Importance Learning Outcomes

Draw and label an animal and a plant cell
Identify the cellular components of
an animal and a plant cell
Structures, function and distribution of cell
organelles
Compare and contrast between structures
of plant and animal cells
Page 4
Page 10
Page 11
Page 17
The density of certain organelles

in specific cell
Page 19
2.2
Start Off
Cell Organisation
Page 22
Start Off
The living processes of an Amoeba sp.

Cell specialization in
multicellular organisms
Cell organization in animals
Cell organization in plants
Start Off
2,3
Appreciating the uniqueness
of the cell
Page 24
Page 25
Page 32
Regulating the internal environment

Page 41
The involvement of various system in
maintaining the internal environment
Page 42
Cells without a particular cellular component Page 43
Start Off
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
What is your skin made up of?

What can you see if you observe your cheek cells under a light microscope?
What is onion bulb made up of?
What can you see if you observe an onion epidermal cell under a light microscope?
Cell can only be seen under a microscope. Do you think there are other ultra-structures
inside a cell?
How are cells similar to the bricks of a building?
Why are the different types of cells shaped differently?
How the cells work together in a multicelluar organism?
How a tissue is formed?
How an organ is formed?
How a system is formed?
How a multicellular organism is formed?

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Endocrine system
Integumentary system
Lymphatic system
Ribosomes
Vacuole
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Plasma membrane
Centrioles
Skeletal system
Digestive system
Excretory system
Organs
CELL STRUCTURE AND

CELL ORGANISATION
Cell structure
and function
Cell organisation
Plant cell
Unicellular
organisms
Animal cell
In common
Structures/
organelles
found in plant
cell only
Structures
Organelles
found only or
mostly in
animal cell
Organelles
Multicellular
organisms
Organisation
Ameobe,
Paramecium
Cells
Lysosomes
9
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
5
6
4
Cell wall
Golgi
apparatus
2
1
Nervous
system
10
7
Store
starch
13
Organ
system
Circulator
y
system

11
Respiratory
system
14
15
12
Reproductive
system
Muscular
system
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL

ORGANISATION
2.1Cell Structure and Function
INTRODUCTION:
1.
The combined observations and conclusion of cell biologists over many years led to the
development of the cell theory, which states:
All living things are composed of cells.
Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells.
2.
The living component of a cell is called the protoplasm. It consists of cytoplasm and
nucleus.
3.
The protoplasm is surrounded by a thin layer of membrane, known as the plasma
membrane.
4.
In a pant cell, there is a rigid cell wall made up of cellulose which formed an outer
boundary completely surround the plasma membrane.
5.
All typical cells appear to have nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane in common.
2.1.1 Draw and label an animal cell and a plant cell
1.
Cells vary enormously in their size and their complexity.
2.
However, most cells are in the range of 5-50 micrometer (m) in diameter.
3.
The cellular components of a cell can be seen under a light or optical microscope.
4.
The detailed internal structure of a cell known as ultra-structure can be seen
under an electron microscope.
5.
The ultra-structure of a typical animal cell is illustrated in Figure 1.1A and 1.1B.

Figure 1.1A The Structure of a typical Animal Cell
Figure 1.1B
6.
Ultra-structure of a generalized animal cell under an electron microscope
The structure of a typical plant cell is illustrated in Figure 1.2A and 1.2B.
Figure 1.2A The Structure of a typical Plant Cell

Figure 1.2B
Ultra-structure of a generalized plant cell under an electron microscope
Experiment 2.1
Preparing and examining slides of plant and animal cells
Aim: To prepare and observe the structure of plant cells
Problem statement: What are the structures of a plant cell?
Hypothesis: The structure of a plant cell consists of call wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, plasma membrane
and vacuole.
Variables:
(i)
Manipulated variable:
(ii)
Responding variable:
(iii)
Controlled variable:
Type of cells
The structure of cells
The staining method
Materials:
Apparatus:
Distilled water, an onion bulb, iodine solution.

Glass slides, cover slips, a light microscope, a scalpel, a pair of forceps, a dropper, a
mounting needle and filter papers.
Technique:
Observe and draw the structure of a plant cell under a light microscope.

Figure 1.3
Preparing a slide of onion epidermal cells
(Biology Form 4 Practical Book by Bakaprep Sdn. Bhd.)
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A scale leaf is cut from an onion bulb.

A translucent piece of tissue from the onion scale is peeled off using a pair of forceps.
a drop of water is put onto the middle of the slide and the piece of onion epidermis
Is placed on top of the water.
The slide is covered with a cover slip at an angle of 45 0C with the help of a mounting
needle.
Using the irrigation technique, the specimen is stained with a drop of iodine solution by
adding a drop of iodine solution onto one side of the cover slip. A filter paper is place at
the opposite end of the cover slip to allow the iodine solution to move through the cover
slip and stain the specimen in the process.
A piece of filter paper is used to absorb the excess iodine solution.
The slide is examined under a light microscope using the low power objective lens and
then high power objective lens.
The specimen which can be observed is drawn and the cell structure is labeled. The
magnification used is recorded.
Observations:
Epidermal cells under (X40) magnification power

using light microscope
Drawing and labeling onion cells under

low power magnification
Epidermal cells under (X100) magnification power Drawing and labeling onion cells under
high power magnification
Discussion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why do we stain the specimen?

We stain the specimen to make the structures in the cell to be seen clearly.
What is the colour of the nucleus and cytoplasm that is stained with iodine solution?
The nucleus is stained dark brown while the cytoplasm is stained light brown.
What are the structures that can be observed under the light microscope?
The structures in a plant cell consists of cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
and a central vacuole.
Why didnt the onion cell have chloroplast?
Because onion cell is an underground bulb which is not exposed to sunlight.
Conclusion: The structure of a plant cell consists of call wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, plasma membrane
and vacuole. The hypothesis is accepted.
Experiment 2.2
Preparing and examining slides of animal cells
Aim: To prepare and observe the structure of animal cells

Problem statement: What are the structures of an animal cell?
Hypothesis: The structure of an animal cell consists of plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Variables:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Materials:
Apparatus:
Type of cells
The structure of cells
The staining method
Distilled water, cheek cells, methylene blue solution.

Glass slides, cover slips, a light microscope, a toothpick, a dropper, a mounting needle
and filter papers.

Technique:
Observe and draw the structure of an animal cell under the light microscope.
Procedure:
1. To view cheek cells, the blunt end of a clean toothpick.is used to gently scrape the inside lining
of the cheek.
2. The scrapings are mounted in a drop of methylene blue solution on a clean glass slide.
3. The specimen is then covered with a cover slip at an angle of 45 0C with the help of a mounting
needle.
4. The slide is observed under the low-power objective lens and then high-power objective lens.
5. The cheek cells are drawn and the cell structures are labeled accordingly.
Observations:
Cheek cells under (X40) magnification power

Drawing and labeling cheek cells under

low power magnification
Cheek cells under (X100) magnification power

Discussion:
1.
Do human cheek cells have fixed shape? Why?
Drawing and labeling cheek cells under

high power magnification
No, human cheek cells do not have a fixed shape. Because the plasma membrane is very
thin and delicate.
What are the cell structures that can be observed under the light microscope?
The structures of the human cheek cells consist of a nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma
membrane.
What are the colour of the cytoplasm and the nucleus that are stained with methylene blue?
The nucleus is stained dark blue, while the cytoplasm is stained light blue.
What are the similarities and differences in structure between the cheek cells and the onion
epidermal cells?
Both onion and cheek cells have plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm; while cell
wall and central vacuole can only be found in a plant cell.
2.
3.
4.
Conclusion: The structure of a plant cell consists of call wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, plasma membrane
and vacuole. The hypothesis is accepted.
Try Questions 1& 2 in Spotlight Practice 2.1
2.1.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
2.1.3
Identify the cellular components of an animal cell and a plant cell

The electron microscope reveals that the cell is highly complex and contains structures
called organelles.
Organelles are cellular components that perform specific functions within the cell.
The cell surface membrane or plasma membrane is selectively permeable or semipermeable and controls the exchange of substances between the cell and its environment.
Plasma membrane regulates and controls the flow of materials in and out of the cell. It
encourages the movement of certain molecules across the membrane and at the same time
limits or inhibits the movement of other molecules.
Plasma membrane consists mainly of lipid (phospholipids) and protein.
The cytoplasm refers to all the living parts of the cell (protoplasm) excluding the nucleus.
The cytoplasm consists of membrane-bound organelles and the cytosol, the fluid part of the
cytoplasm.
Cytosol contains water and dissolved solutes such as: sugars, amino acids, enzymes, fatty
acids, nucleotides, ATP, dissolved gases and proteins. It is the site for many biochemical
reactions.
In plants, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a rigid cellulose cell wall which
determines the shape of the cell, that protects and supports the plant cell.
The cellulose fibrils have high tensile strength and prevent the plant cells from bursting
when water enters by osmosis. The turgor pressure developed helps to support the plant.
There are often tiny holes in the wall through which cytoplasmic connections between
adjacent cells may run. These connections are celled plasmodesmata.
Plasmodesmata enable substances to be transported easily between neighbouring cells.
Most cell walls are completely permeable to water and provide a pathway for the free flow
of water and mineral salts.
Some cell walls become modified by substances such as lignin. Lignin strengthens cell
walls but make them impermeable.
Structures, function and distribution of cell organelles
Organelles are structures in the cell that carry out specialized functions. Examples are
nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,

vacuoles, centrioles and ribosomes.

Chromatin
Extended Knowledge
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm
Figure 2.1 The Structure of Nucleus
The study of cells began

in 1660 when Robert
Hooke used a microscope
to examine pond water,
cork and other things.
The nucleus
1.
2.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The nucleus is the largest and most prominent organelle within the cell.
The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope, which consists of two membranes
perforated by nuclear pores.
The nucleoplasm is the semi-fluid substance surrounds the nuclear envelope.
The nucleoplasm contains chromatin, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes during cell
division.
The chromatin contains DNA, the molecule of inheritance which control the activities of the
cell.
The nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli. Nucleolus manufacture ribosomes.
The nucleus acts as the centre to control all the cell activities and cell division.
Extended Knowledge
Figure 2.2 The Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Microscope used by Robert Hooke
The endoplasmic reticulm

1.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of flattened membrane-bound sacs forming

tubes and sheets .
2. The sacs, called cisternae, are full of fluid.
10
3. The endoplasmic reticulum membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope. It is made up
of a single unit membrane.
4. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the synthesis, packaging and transport of
secretory proteins (glycoprotein).
5. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) consists of an interconnected system of membranebound flattened sacs covered with bead-like structures called ribosomes.
6. Protein synthesised by ribosomes is incorporated into the cisternae of rough endoplasmic
reticulum in which a short carbohydrate chain is added to the protein converting it to a
glycoprotein ( a secretory protein).
7. Once the secretory proteins are formed, the molecules are packaged into tiny sac called
transport vesicles.
8. The transport vesicles then bud off from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane to be transported
to the Golgi body for further processing.
9. The system of canals formed by the cisternal space of rough endoplasmic reticulum function as
an intracellular transport system to facilitate the movement of substances from one part
of the cell to another.
10. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has no ribosomes.
11. The cisternae of smooth endoplasmic reticulum is in the form of interconnected tubules like
connecting pipes, and not flattened sac.
12. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes, secretes, transport and stores carbohydrates,
lipids, and other non-protein products.
13. Enzymes of smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesised lipids, including oils, phospholipids
and steroids.
14. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum of liver cells also contains enzymes which break down
many chemicals. For example, detoxification of drugs, alcohol and poisons.
15. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a type of smooth endoplasmic reticulum containing calcium ions in
skeletal muscles which functions in controlling the process of muscle contraction.
Ribosomes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ribosomes are tiny organelles consisting of two ribosomal subunits: the small subunit and
the large subunit.
Ribosomal subunits are synthesized in the nucleolus. These subunits then pass through the
nuclear pores into the cyroplasm, where they can combine to form ribosomes.
Ribosomes are found in two places in the cell:
(a) As bound ribosomes attached to the RER and the nuclear envelope.
(b) As free ribosomes suspended freely in the cytosol.
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. They synthesise protein molecules from amino
acids, using genetic information carried by mRNA molecules transcripted from the DNA
in the nucleus.
The proteins synthesised by free ribosomes are released into the cytosol for intracellular
enzymes or as structural proteins within the cell.
The proteins synthesised by ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum pass into
the cisternal space of the reticulum and are then transferred to the Golgi body to be secreted
outside the cell as extracellular enzymes or hormones.

11
Extended Knowledge
Cook cells drawn by Robert Hooke

and published in his book
Micrographia.
Figure 2.3 The Stucture of Mitochondria

Mitochondria
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.
Mitochondria are tiny, cylindrical organelles. Occasionally, they can exist in the form of
rods or filamemnts
Each mitochondrion is bound by a double unit membranes: the smooth outer membrane
and the inner membrane is extensively folded into shelves called cristae.
Between the two membranes are the intermembrane space filled with fluid.
The inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled matrix.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cells, generating energy in the form of ATP by
aerobic respiration
Extended Knowledge
Size of image
Magnification = Size of object
Magnification of drawing = Magnification X
of eyepiece
Magnification
Size of drawing
of objective X Actual size of object
lens
Actual size of object =
Size of image
Magnification
Figure2.4 The Structure of Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus
1.
2.
The Golgi apparatus or Golgi body consists of a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs,
called cisternae.
In Golgi bodies, enzymes put the finishing touch on proteins and lipids, sort them out, then

12
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
package them inside vesicles for shipment to specific location.

The Golgi apparatus functions as a processing and packaging structure. It enables cell
materials such as enzymes to be secreted from the cell in vesicles, and is involved in the
formation of lysosomes.
The Golgi body receives transport vesicles from rough endoplasmic reticulum. It stores,
concentrates, modifies, finishes and sorts secretory proteins.
Products of ER are modified during their transit in the Golgi body. For example, various Golgi
enzymes modify the oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins which were first added in
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Finally, the Golgi body dispatches its products by packaging them in the secretory vesicles
which bud off to be delivered to other cell organelles such as lysosomes and to the plasma
membrane to release their protein contents.
Fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane maintains the membrane which is used
to form phagocytic vacuoles and pinocytic vesicles.
Extended Knowlwdge
Figure 2.5 The Structure of Lysosome

Lysosomes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Electron microscopes use a

bean of electrons instead of a
bean of light. Electron beans
have
a
much
smaller
wavelength than light rays, so
electron microscopes have
greater resolving powers and
can produce much higher
effective magnifications than
light microscopes.
Lysosomes are found in all animal cells. They are usually absent in plants except
insectivorous plants such as Nepenthes , Dionaea.
Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi apparatus. They are spherical, small sac covered by
a single membrane.
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion. Lysosomes
eliminate worn-out mitochondria and other redundant organelles.
They also digest the contents (such as bacteria) of vacuoles ingested by white blood cells in
the process of phagocytosis, and are involved in autolysis.

13
Extended Knowledge
Mitochondria, chloroplasts and bacteria are
all self-replicate, and they all contain circular
DNA and similar ribosomes.
It has been postulated that mitochondria and
chloroplast evolved from bacteria. These
bacteria were lived inside other cells in
mutually beneficial relationship. Eventually,
the relationship became permanent.
Cells having both types of bacteria became
plant cells; those with only the respiring
bacteria became animal cells.
Figure 2.6 The Structure of Chloroplast

Chloroplasts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Chloroplasts are large plastids (5-10 m) found in the photosynthetic tissues of plant.
Plastids are a group of large organelles found in the cytoplasm of all plant cells but not in
animal cells.
The chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes and contains a gel-like matrix called
stroma.
The stroma contains ribosomes, DNA, and photosynthetic enzymes.
A series of interconnecting flattened membrane-bounded sacs, called the thylakoids, are
found in the stroma.
The internal chloroplast membranes are piled up in places to form stacks called grana.
Connecting one granum to another granum are intergranal lmellae.
The grana membranes contain photosynthetic pigments, including the green pigment
chlorophyll, responding for harvesting the light energy for photosynthesis.
Vacuoles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vacuoles are cavities bound by a single membrane.

Young plant cells usually have many vacuoles which fuse to form a single large central
vacuole, the nucleus and cytoplasm are pushed to the cell periphery.
The plant vacuole contains cell sap and is surrounded by a single membrane called
tonoplast.
The cell sap contains water and dissolved organic molecules such as sugars, amino acids,
pigments, mineral ions, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and some waste products.
The concentrated cell sap causes water to enter by osmosis and the cell become turgid.
Turgidity of plant cells help to control cell shape and volume, gives support to herbaceous
plants and plays a role in enlargement and growth of young plant cells.
Centrioles
1.
Centrioles are found only in animal cells.

14
2.
The centrioles are located outside the nucleus in a material of poorly defined structure
called the centrosome.
Centrioles are paired cylinders and held at right angle to each other.
The centrioles separated and move to opposite ends of the cell before cell division.
On reaching the poles, each centriole pair will form asters from which a system of
microtubules called spindle fibres radiates.
Centrioles act as organizers of spindle fibres and are involved in the separation of
chromosomes or chromatids during cell division.
Although spindle fibres are also formed during plant cell mitosis, asters are not observed
since plant cells lack centrioles..
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Do It Right
1)
What is the function of chloroplast?

a) You should answer
To absorb light energy or site of photosynthesis. (the specific function)
b) You shouldnt answer
To carry out photosynthesis. (the general function)
2)
What is the function of Golgi apparatus?

To convert and secrete proteins.
c) You shouldnt answer
To synthesise proteins.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SUB-CELLULAR ORGANELLES
ORGANELLE
IN PLANT
IN ANIMAL
FUNCTION
Mitochondrion
Yes
Yes
Site of aerobic respiration
Chloroplast
Yes
No
Site
of
photosynthesis
and
synthesis of organic molecules
Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)
Yes
Yes
Packages and modifies synthetic

products
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER)
Yes
Yes
Proteins synthesised by ribosomes

are transported by the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER)
Yes
Yes
Proteins synthesised by ribosomes

are transported by the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Plasma membrane
(Cell membrane)
Yes
Yes
Synthesised lipids (phospholipids

and steroids) , and carries out
detoxification
of
drugs
and
metabolic by products

15
Nucleus
Yes
Yes
Site of hereditary information;

control of cell activity
Ribosomes
Yes
Yes
Site of protein synthesis; often

associated with ER
Central vacuole
Yes
No
Storage; excretion; water balance
Tonoplast
Yes
No
Single
layered
semi-permeable
membrane surrounds the vacuole
Plasmadesmata
Yes
No
Cell to cell communication
No
Protection; fluid pressure

maintain cell turgidity; support
Cell wall
Yes
to
Cytoplasm
Yes
Yes
Jelly-like
substance
intracellular
space,
dissolved substances
Centrioles
No
Yes
Paired rods which help to form

spindle fibres during cell division in
animal cells
Lysosomes
In
insectivorous Yes
plants only
Membrane
bound
structure
containing
hydrolytic
enzymes
involved in intracellular digestion
2.1.4
filling
contains
Compare and contrast between the structures of plant and animal cells
Similarities in animal and plant cells:

Both have a nucleus, cytoplasm, a plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes.
Differences between animal and plant cells:
Animal Cells
a No cellulose cell wall, only plasma
membrane present
b No plasmodesmata
c No chloroplast
b
c
e
f
g
h
i
Small, temporary vacuoles called vesicles

present
No tonoplast
Nucleus centrally located surrounded by the
cytoplasm
Centrioles present
Contain glycogen granules for carbohydrate
storage
Lysosome present

e
f
g
h
i
16
Plant Cells
A rigid cellulose cell wall and plasma
membrane present
Plasmodesmata present in the cell wall
Chloroplast containing chlorophyll present
in photosynthetic cells
Contains as large central vacuole filled with
cell sap in matured cells
Tonoplast surrounds the vacuole
Central vacuole pushes the nucleus and
cytoplasm to the periphery
No centrioles
Contain starch granule for carbohydrate
storage
Lysosome usually except insectivorous
plants, e.g. Nepenthes, Utricularis
Size smaller
Size bigger
Try Questions 3 & 4 in Spotlight Practice 2.1

Do It Right
1)
Compare and contrast between plant and animal cells?

The similarities are: Both plant and animal cells have (similarities and)
The differences are: Plant cells contain . whereas animal cells do not contain
(differences with comparison)
d) You shouldnt answer
The differences are:
Plant cells
Animal cells
(only differences in package form)
PLANT CELLS
Cell wall, plasmodesmata,
plastids, central vacuole,
chloroplast
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleus, robosomes, cytoplasm
ANIMAL CELLS
Centrioles, vesicles, lysosomes
Figure 2.7
2.1.5
1.
Similarities And Differences Between Plant And Animal Cells
The Density of Certain Organelles in Specific Cells

The density or abundance of certain organelle within a specific cell refers to the total
numbers of that particular organelle within the cell.

17
2.
3.
Some cells have high density of certain organelles to carry out a specific function in the
cell. For example, pancreatic cells which synthesise and secrete enzymes and hormones
contain a high density of rough endoplasmic reticulum compared to other types of cells.
The relationship between the density of certain organelles with their functions in specific
cell are listed in the table below:
Types of cells
Sperm cells
Functions
Require large amounts of energy to propel
towards the uterus and Fallopian tube
during fertilization.
Flight muscle cells in Contract and relax to enable movement
insects and birds
and flight.
Cells in the meristems Required large amount of energy for
of plants
mitotic cell division.
Liver cells
Plays a central role metabolism,
regulating a wide range of chemicals in
the blood.
Regulate the amount of sugar released
into bloodstream and detoxification
Mesophyll palisade
Absorbed
light
energy
during
cells of leaf
photosynthesis
Pancreatic cells
Synthesise and secrete enzymes and
hormones
Organelles in high density

Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus
and rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Chloroplast
Rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus and
mitochondria
Adrenal gland cells
Synthesise of some steroid hormones
Gut epithelium cells
Synthesise lipids from fatty acids and

glycerol
Synthesise
steroid
sex
hormones
testosterone
Synthesise
steroid
sex
hormones
oestrogen
Contain hydrolytic enzymes to break
down the pathogens, e.g. bacteria.
Secrete mucus
Golgi apparatus
Testes cells
Ovary cells
Phagocytic cells, e.g.,
macrophages and
neutrophils
Goblet cells in the
epithelial cells of
intestinal and
respiratory tract

Lysosomes
SPOTLIGHT PRACTICE 2.1

1
If you prepare and examine slide of onion epidermal cells under a light microscope,
(i) How many layers is the epidermis of onion cells?

18
2.
3.
4.
5.
(ii) What will happen to the images of the cells if the layer is folded up?
If the leaf of Hydrilla sp. is observed under the light microscope,
(i) what type of organelle present which cannot be seen in an onion epidermal cell?
(ii) what will be the colour of this organelle when stained with iodine solution?
What are the cellular components that are present in both animal and plant cells?
What are the structures that can only found in plant cells?
Match the following cellular components with its description or function:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Mitochondria
Tonoplast
Nucleus
Chloroplast
(f)
(g)
Golgi apparatus
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Transport proteins synthesised by the

ribosomes
Site of photosynthesis and synthesis of
organic molecules
Surrounds the vacuole containing cell sap
Site of aerobic respiration
Transport lipid and steroids
To process and to pack protein for
secretion
To regulate all the cell activities
Diagnostic Test 2.1

1.
Which of the following is not found in plant cells?

A Cell wall
B Tonoplast
C Centriole
D Mitochondria
2.
Which of the following organelles generate energy in the form of ATP?

A Ribosomes
B Golgi apparatus
C Chloroplast
D Mitochondria
3.
What is the type of organelle which is abundant in the goblet cells of respiratory tract?
A Chloroplast
B Mitochondria
C Rough endoplasmic reticulum
D Golgi apparatus

19
4.
Which of these organelles are found in the cells of an onion bulb?

I
Large central vacuole
II
III
Chloroplast
IV
Nucleus
A
III and IV only
B
I, II and III only
C
I, II and IV only
D
I, II, III and IV
5.
Which of the following organelles are common to all the plant and animal cells?
I
Ribosomes
II
Lysosomes
III
Centrioles
IV
Nucleus
A
I and IV only
B
III and IV only
C
I, II and III only
D
I, III and IV only
6.
When observe an Elodea cells stained with iodine under a light microscope, which organelle is
stained dark brown in colour?
A
Nucleus
B
Chloroplast
C
Ribosomes
D
Vacuole
7.
What are the organelles with double layered plasma membranes?

I
Mitochondria
II
Nucleus
III
Chloroplast
IV
Endoplasmic reticulum
A
I and IV only
B
III and IV only
C
I, II and III only
D
I, III and IV only
8.
Which organelle is found abundantly in the mesophyll palisade cells of a green leaf?
A
Mitochondrion
B
Ribosome
C
Golgi apparatus
D
Chloroplast
9.
Which of the following cells have high density of mitochondria?

I
Liver cells
II
Flight muscle cells
III
Sperm cells
IV
Meristematic cells
A
B
C
D
I and II
I, III and IV
II, III and IV
I, II, III and IV
10.
What type of cells containing high density of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

I
Liver cells
II
Testes cells
III
Ovary cells
IV
Pancreatic cells
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
2.2
Cell Organisation
INTRODUCTION
1.
Some organisms such as Amoeba, Chlorella and Euglene have only one cell. These organisms
are called unicellular organisms.
2.
Unicellular organisms have to carry out all the living processes essential to maintain life,
including feeding, respiration, locomotion, excretion and reproduction.
3.
The survival of a unicellular organism depends largely on the cellular components called
organelles.
4.
Organelles are little organs which perform specific functions in the cell.
5.
Multicellular organisms consist of many cells. These cells do not have to carry out many
different functions.
6.
Cells in a multicellular organism become specialized for one particular function and carry it out
very efficiently. This is called cell differentiation.
2.2.1
Figure 2.8
The Structures of an Amoeba sp.
The Living Processes of an Amoeba sp.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Amoeba sp. is a unicellular protozoa which habitat in freshwater environment, as well as in
salt water and soil water.
The Amoeba sp. does not have a permanent shape. It gets its name from the Greek word for
change, amoibe.
The cytoplasm consists of the outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. The ectoplasm consists of
a jelly-like cytoplasm, while the endoplasm consists of watery cytoplasm.
Living processes in Amoeba sp. include:
(a)
Locomotion:
(i)
Amoeba sp. moves by extending lobes of cytoplasmic projection called pseudopodium,
which means false foot.
(ii)
A pseudopodium forms when the endoplasm pushes the ectoplasm forward to create an
arm-like extensioin the direction of movement. This is known as ameboid movement.
Food
particle
Pseudopodium
Figure 2.9
(b)
(i)
Phagocytosis by Amoeba sp.
Feeding:
Amoeba sp. is a holozoic organism which feeds on bacteria, algae and other microscopic
organisms.
(ii)
Amoeba sp. also use pseudopodium for feeding to engulfs foods by phagocytosis:
Amoeba sp. approaches the food particles.
Two pseudopodia extend out to enclose the food particles.
The food particles are packaged in a food vacuole which fuses with lysosome containing
hydrolytic enzyme called lysozyme.
The food particles are digested by the lysozyme.
The resulting nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm by diffusion.
Undigested food materials are left behind when the Amoeba sp. moves away.
(c)
Respiration:
(i)
Oxygen and carbon dioxide for respiration occurs through the plasma membrane by
diffusion.
(ii)
This is because the unicellular organisms have a large total surface area to volume
ratio and provide a short distance for gaseous exchange to take place.
(d)
Excretion:
(i)
In the cytoplasm there is a contractile vacuole involves in osmoregulation. As Amoeba
sp. lives in freshwater, water diffuses into the cell by osmosis. When the vacuole is
filled to a maximum size, it contracts to expel its contents from time to time. This will
prevent the cell from bursting.
(ii)
Amoeba sp. also eliminates waste products such as carbon dioxide and ammonia by
diffusion.
Figure 3.0
(e)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)
Binary Fission
Reproduction:
Amoeba sp. reproduces asexually by binary fission and by forming spores.
In a favourable environment where food is abundant, Amoeba sp. reproduces by binary
fission.
Binary fission begins with nucleus division, follows by cytoplasmic division to produce
to daughter cells from one parent cell. (Figure 8)
If food or water becomes scarce, or when the environment is not conducive to
reproduction, Amoeba sp. survives by forming a hard cyst called spores.
Try Questions 1 & 2 in Spotlight Practice 2.2
2.2.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cell Specialisation in Multicellular Organisms
In multicellular, the cells grow, change shape and differentiate to carry out specific functions.
Cells of a multicellular organism differentiate and undergo specialization in order to perform
their task more efficiently.
In multicellular organisms the cells are often organized into tissues, organs and organ
systems.
Tissues are group of cells of the same type that develop in the same way, with the same
structure and function. e.g. cardiac muscle of the heart.
Organs are groups of different types of tissues that have combined to form a single structure.
In an organ the tissues work together to perform a specialised function, e.g. the muscle tissue,
nerve tissue, and connective tissue work together to form an organ heart.
Organ systems are groups of organs within an organism that together carry out a process. e.g.
the cardiovascular system
All systems work together to make up an organism. The functions of all systems must be
coordinated to work together for the survival of the organism.
Figure 3.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Cell Organisation in a Multicellular Organism
Each element is made up of atoms.

A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Many biological molecules are very large: DNA, for example, contains millions of atoms.
Organelles are formed from biological molecules.
A cell is made up of cellular components, for example, nucleus, mitochondria and plasma
membrane.
Group of cells of the same type associate together to form tissue.
Group of different tissues that carry out a particular function form an organ.
Several different organs are organized into a system.
Various system made up the multicellular organism.
2.2.3
Cell Organisation in Animals
a)
Tissues
1.
Being multicellular not only enables organisms to be larger, it also enables their cells to become
specialized. Each cell no longer has to carry out all the activities necessary to sustain life as in
the case of Amoeba sp. or other unicellular organisms.
This division of labour among cells makes multicellular organisms become more efficient,
however, specialisaation often means that individual cells lose the ability to carry out some
functions.
The cells in a tissue act together to perform a common function.
Animal tissues can be divided into four main groups based on their structures and functions.
These are:
(i)
Epithelial tissues line the body surface and the surfaces of organs, cavities, and tubes.
(ii)
Connective tissues hold body structures together.
(iii)
Muscle tissues move the body part.
(iv)
Nerve tissues communicate between different parts of the body.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 3.2
4.
Types of Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissue
The outer layer of skin and the linings of the alimentary canal, lungs, blood vessels, ducts,
and body cavities are called epithelium.
It also lines various spaces and tubes, in which situation it is usually referred to as
endothelium.
Epithelial cells are tightly interconnected and form a continuous layer over body surfaces,
without any space between the cells.
The epithelial tissue is a protective barrier that separates the cells below it from the
medium outside.
Mucus found on the ciliated epithelial surface is secreted by a special type of gland cell
found within the epithelium, known as glandular epithelium These are called goblet cells,
e.g. epithelial cells found in the cavity of nose, trachea, oviducts and intestine.
Folding of glandular epithelia results in the formation of glands whose sole function is
secretion. For example: sweat gland, gastric gland, sebaceous gland and salivary gland.
Figure 3.3
5.
Types of Connective Tissues
Connective tissue
Connective tissues include bone, cartilage, blood and adipose tissue.

Except for blood, all connective tissues consist of cells embedded in a non-living substance
called matrix or ground substance.
The connective tissues bind other tissues, fill spaces, protect and cushion internal organs,
and provide mechanical support.
Connecting tissues act as connecting system, binding all other tissues together. They also
form surrounding sheath to separate the various organs.
Loose connective tissue is the most widespread connective tissue in the body. It is widely
distributed and has many functions.
Dense fibrous connective tissue contains a large number of collagenous fibres which are
packed closely together.
(i)
Bone
Bone is a living tissue that is hard, rigid and strong. This enables bones to give body
shape, provide framework for support and protect the internal organs.
Bones also provide a jointed skeleton for tendons, which connect muscles to bones,
and in ligaments, which join bones together at joints to enable movement.
Tendons and ligaments are dense connective tissue
Bones also act as storage areas for calcium and phosphorus in the body.
The bone matrix contains many collagen fibres. The collagen fibres provide tensile
(stretchable extent) strength whereas the mineral salts deposited such as calcium
phosphate cause the bone to become hard.
(ii)
Cartilage
Cartilage is a strong and flexible connective tissue. It provides support for the nose,
ears, larynx, trachea and acts as cushion to absorb pressure in the inter-vertebral
discs.
(iii)
(iv)
Hyaline cartilage forms embryonic and foetal skeletons.

In adults, hyaline cartilage is found at the ends of bones and reduces friction
between joints during movement. This is known as joint cartilage.
Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
As blood flows in a system of blood vessels, it is also called vascular connective
tissue.
About 55% of blood is plasma forming a fluid matrix and the remaining 45% is
made up of various types of blood cells.
Human blood cells can be divided into erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes
(white blood cells) and platelets.
Adipose tissue
The matrix of the adipose tissue contains nothing but closely-packed fat-filled
cells.
In the dermis of the skin, adipose tissue insulates the body from heat loss and is
important in storage.
Adipose tissue acts as an energy reserve and also provides protection around
major organs.
Figure 3.4
6.
Types of Muscle Tissues
Muscle tissue
Muscle cells are known as muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is a cell that is specialized for
contraction.
There are three types of muscle tissues:
(i)
smooth muscle: can be found in intestine, blood vessels, urinary and reproductive
tract.
(ii)
skeletal or striated muscle: can be found in our arms and legs and
(iii)
cardiac muscle: can be found in the walls of the heart.
Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are called involuntary muscles because their
contraction is not under the control of the will.
(i)
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle exists in the wall of many types of organs with cavities, such as the
stomach, small intestine, urinary bladder and blood vessels.
(ii)
(iii)
Smooth muscle fibres are spindle-shaped and each cell has a nucleus. Usually the
cells are arranged in parallel and form muscle layers (not muscle bundles).
Smooth muscle does not have striations.
Smooth muscles can contract without nerve stimulations. It contracts more slowly
than striated muscle but is capable of sustained contractions and does not tire easily.
Skeletal muscle (striated muscle)
Skeletal muscle is known as voluntary muscle because its contraction is under
conscious control.
Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleated and striated. The nuclei in striated
muscle fibres are located at the sides of the fibres.
Many skeletal muscle fibres combine to form muscle bundles. Skeletal muscle
bundles are commonly found attached to bones through tendons.
Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is the heart muscle.
Cardiac muscle fibres are uninucleated, striated and branched. The branching
connects the muscle fibres to form a network.
There are also intercalary discs where adjacent fibres meet.
Cardiac muscles can contract without stimulation from nerves. The muscle is said
to be myogenic.
Figure 3.5
7.
Types of Nervous Tissues
Nerve tissue
The mammalian nervous system is made up of nerve cells called neurons.

Neurones are specialised to detect stimuli and transmit electrical signals called nerve
impulses to muscles or glands.
Each neurone consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called dendrites and axons.
Dendrites are extensions that receive messages from other neurons and send the messages
towards the cell body.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Axons are extensions that send messages away from the cell body. The axon may be
several meters in length.
The myelin sheath provides electrical insulation and allows the rapid conduction of
nervous impulses. The speed of transmission is further increased by nodes of Ranvier
found throughout the myelin sheath.
b)
Organs
An organ is formed by different types of tissues that work together to perform specific
functions.
Examples of organs include the heart, skin, lungs, kidneys, eyes and ears.
The skin is an organ because it consists of many types of tissues joined together to perform
specific functions.
The skin composed of two main layers: the epidermis and dermis.
The epidermis is made up of epithelial tissue.
The dermis is composed of connective tissue, nerve tissue, epithelial tissue and muscle
tissue.
Blood is the connective tissue that supplies blood to the skin through a network of blood
capillaries.
The nerve tissues act as receptors which transmit nerve impulses for pressure, temperature,
touch and pain from the skin to the other parts of the nervous system.
Specialised epithelial tissues in the skin form structures such as hair follicles which produce
hair, sweat glands which secrete sweat and oil glands which secrete sebum onto the surface of
the skin.
The erector muscle is the muscle tissue that control the hair shaft to stand upright during cold
day or lie flat during hot day
Do It Right
1)
State reason why erector muscle is classified as a tissue.

The erector muscle contains a group of similar cells which perform a specific function.
B) You shouldnt answer
The erector muscle contains a group of cells which perform a specific function.
2)
State reason why the skin is classified as an organ.

The skin contains a group of different tissues that carry out a certain function.
B) You shouldnt answer
The skin contains a group of tissues that carry out a certain function.
1.
2.
(c)
Systems
Each system consists of several organs that work together to perform a common function.
There are 11 major systems which carry out major body functions in humans:
(i)
Nervous system: consists of organs such as brain, spinal cord and neurons. It detects
stimuli, transmits nerve impulses, integrating and coordinating all the activities in our
body.
(ii)
Skeletal system: consists of organs such as bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments. It
gives support and protection to the body, as well as provides site of attachment for
muscle movement.
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
Circulatory system: consists of organs such as heart, blood vessels and blood. It
transports nutrients and oxygen to body cells and transports waste products to excretory
organs.
Digestive system: consists of organs such as mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
liver, pancreas, small and large intestine. It ingests and digests foods, absorbs nutrients
into the body and eliminates undigested substances.
Respiratory system: consists of organs such as nose, trachea and lungs. It allows
gaseous exchange between blood and the external environment.
Excretory system: consists of organs such as kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra,
skin and lungs. It helps to remove metabolic waste products such as urea, and regulates
osmotic balance of the blood.
Reproductive system: consists of organs such as testes, seminal vesicles and penis for
the male; and ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and virgina for the females. It
produces gametes for the process of fertilization.
Muscular system: consists of organs such as skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac
muscles. It contracts and relax the muscles to enable body movement.
Integumentary system: consists of the organ skin. It protects the body against
mechanical injuries, microbial infection and dehydration.
Endocrine system: consists of organs which form endocrine glands. It secretes
hormone to coordinate body activities in conjunction with the nervous system.
Lymphatic system: consists of organs such as lymph vessels, lymph nodes, bone
marrow and thymus. It defends the body against infections and returns excess interstitial
fluid to the blood circulatory system.
Circulatory system
Endocrine system
Lymphatic system
Nervous system
Digestive system
Muscular system
Excretory system
Skeletal system
1.
2.
Respiratory system
Reproductive system
Figure 3.6
Different System In Human Body
(d)
Multicellular Organisms
All systems combine to form a multicellular organism.
The functions of these systems must be coordinated for the survival of the organism.
Try Questions 4, 5 & 6 in Spotlight Practice 2.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.2.4 Cell Organisation in Plants

Tissues
There are two main types of tissues in plants: the meristematic tissues and permanent tissues.
Meristematic tissues consist of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm
and no vacuoles.
Meristematic tissue comprises of young, actively dividing cells which have not undergone
differentiation.
The main plant meristems are at the apex of the shoot and the tip of the root.
Figure 3.7
Different Types of Plant Tissues
5.
Permanent tissues comprise of more mature cells that are either undergoing or have undergone
differentiation and have lost the ability to divide. There are three types of permanent tissues:
epidermal tissues, ground tissues and vascular tissues.
(a)
Epidermal tissues
(i) Epidermal tissue is the outermost layer that covers the stem, leaves and roots of
young plants. It forms a protective layer to protect the inner tissue.
(ii) Epidermis is a layer of elongated flattened cells, one cell thick, have large vacuoles
and covers the whole of the primary plant body.
(iii)
The cells secrete cutin which forms a layer of waxy cuticle on the outer surface
of epidermis. The waxy cuticle reduces water loss by evaporation from the plant and
entry of pathogens.
(iv)Epidermis of leaves have specialised cells containing chloroplasts found among
epidermal cells. These are pairs of guard cells with each pair enclosing a stoma
pore and control the opening and closing of stomata.
(v) Epidermis is transparent and allows light to reach the mesophyll layers of leaves
for photosynthesis.
(vi)Stomatal pores in the epidermis allow gaseous exchange.
(vii) The root epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs to increase the
surface area for water absorption.
(b)
Ground tissues
Ground tissues consist of parenchyma tissue, collenchyma tissue and sclerenchyma
tissue. These tissues form the bulk of a plant.
Parenchyma tissue
(i)
Parenchyma is the most common plant tissue that forms the bulk of the packing
tissue within the plant.
(ii)
Parenchyma are living cells, usually spherical and thin-walled, and have one
large vacuole with the cytoplasm pushed to the cell periphery.
(iii)
Parenchyma cells have thin primary cell walls containing cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin. The walls are permeable to water and permit the
passage of solutes.
(iv)
Parenchyma cells are arranged loosely with many intercellular air spaces to
allow exchange of gases to take place between the plant tissues and the external
environment.
(v)
The most important function of the parenchyma cells of roots and stems is the
storage of food (starch, proteins and lipids) and water.
(vi)
When tightly packed and turgid, parenchyma cells give support and shape to
herbaceous plants.
(vii) The parenchyma tissues can be modified or differentiated to form specialised
cells carry out specific functions. These cells include epidermis, mesophyll,
endodermis, pericycle, aerenchyma and secretory cells.
Collenchyma tissue
(i)
Like parenchyma, collenchyma is a simple tissue with living cells.
(ii)
Collenchyma cells are polygonal-shaped and elongated and have unevenly
thickened cell walls. Air spaces between collenchyma cells are very small or
non-existent.
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
The thickened areas are usually at the corners of the cell walls (angular
collenchyma). The thickening materials are cellulose and pectin. Collenchyma
cells are not lignified.
Collenchyma tissue provides herbaceous plant with mechanical strength and
flexibility. It allows the cells to expand and be stretched in young plants and in
non-woody plants for growth.
Collenchyma tissue is usually found in herbaceous located below the epidermis,
midrib of the leaves and leaf petioles.
Some of the collenchyma cells contain chloroplasts which can carry out
photosynthesis.
Sclerenchyma tissues
(i)
The main functions of sclerenchyma cells are supporting and strengthening
plant parts. Some sclerenchyma tissues are also protective in nature.
(ii)
Sclerenchyma cells usually die after maturity, have secondary cell walls that are
thickened uniformly and are lignified.
(iii)
The thickened cell walls are very hard and impermeable to water, solute and
gases.
(iv)
Sclerenchyma fibres are found below epidermis of the stems or roots, usually
in association with xylem and phloem in vascular bundles. They are also found
in the midribs of leaves.
(v)
It acts as supporting tissue. Collectively, the tightly packed sclerenchyma fibres
with thick lignified walls provide the plant with mechanical strength and
rigidity.
(c)
Vascular tissues
1.
A vascular tissue is a tissue that functions as a tube or vessel enabling water and
other substances in solution to move from a specific part in the plant to other
parts.
2.
Vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem which are continuous throughout
the plant.
Xylem
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Xylem functions in transporting water and dissolved minerals from the roots to
the stems and leaves.
Xylem is a tissue comprises of four types of cells: tracheids, vessel elements,
xylem fibres (sclerenchyma) and xylem parenchyma.
Tracheids and xylem vessel elements die on maturity because their walls have
thickened with lignin deposits. This prevents the entry of food substances, so the
cytoplasm disintegrates leaving a cylindrical empty cavity in the centre of the cell.
The thick, lignified cell walls prevent tracheids and vessel elements from collapsing
as water rises through the plant. They also provide mechanical support by helping
to keep the plant upright.
Tracheids are longer but have a smaller diameter than vessel elements.
Tracheids taper at two ends with many bordered pits to allow water to pass
through.
A vessel is a long tube made up of many vessel elements joined together end-to-end.
As the ends of each vessel element are open due to the cross wall separating the
cells breaking down, the cavity forms a channel.
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
Vessels are more efficient in water transport compared to tracheids. Water flowing
through vessels does not face much obstruction, whereas water flowing from one
tracheid to another has to pass through bordered pits. This offers a resistance to the
flow of water.
Xylem fibres, together with the thick-walled tracheids and the xylem vessels, aid
support.
Parenchyma cells are the only living cells in the xylem tissue, they store various
types of food.
Phloem
(i)
Phloem is specialised to transport organic substances such as carbohydrates and
amino acids. Organic substances synthesised in the leaf are transported by the
phloem to the stem and roots for storage or transported to growth areas for
immediate use.
(ii)
Phloem is a complex tissue comprises four types of cells: sieve tube, companion
cell, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibre.
(iii)
The sieve tube cells are elongated living cells. The end wall of ach cell is perforated
to form sieve plate. The pores of the sieve plate are penetrated by cytoplasmic
strands.
(iv)
The sieve tube cells are arranged end-to-end forming a long tube-like structure that
forms the transportation unit in phloem. The cytoplasmic strands within the sieve
tube are continuous from cell to cell through the pores of the sieve plate.
(v)
The companion cell is a parenchyma cell closely associated with each sieve tube
element. Within its dense cytoplasm is a large nucleus and numerous mitochondria.
Companion cells are metabolically active, they play a role in the movement of food
in and out of the sieve tube.
(vi)
Parenchyma and phloem fibres are parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells placed
together with other phloem tissues. The function of phloem parenchyma is to store
food substances whereas the function of the fibres is for support.
Figurer 3.8
Classification of Plant Tissues
Plant Tissues
Meristematic tissues
Permanent tissues
Meristematic cells
Ground tissue
Supporting tissues
Vascular tissues
Parenchyma cells
Phloem tissue
Collenchyma cells
Sieve tube elements
Tracheids
Xylem tissue
Sclerenchyma cells
Companion cells Phloem parenchyma cells Fibres
Vessel elements
Figurer 3.9
Xylem parenchyma cells
Fibres (Sclerenchyma cells)
Classification of Plant Tissues
Organs and System in Flowering Plants

1.
Flowering plants (angiosperms) consists of two main system, namely the shoot system and the
root system.
2.
Above the ground are the shoot system which consists of leaf organ, flower organ and stem
organ.
3.
The leaf, stem, branches and roots are made up of three major tissues, that is, ground tissues,
epidermal tissues and vascular tissues.
4.
The leaf is the photosynthetic organ which traps sunlight to synthesize organic compounds
required for plant growth.
5.
The flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering plant. The flowers are involved in
pollination.
6.
A flower contains four basic tissues, namely: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
7.
The reproductive organ is made up of male reproductive tissue stamen and female
reproductive tissue carpels.
8.
The stem offers structural support by positioning the leaves upright for maximum absorption
of sunlight during photosynthesis, and some of its tissues conduct water and mineral salts.
9.
The root system absorbs water and dissolved minerals. It typically anchors the aboveground
parts of the shoot system.
10.
The root system is consists of root organs such as primary root, lateral root, root hairs, root tip
and root cap.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Between a unicellular organism and a multicellular organism, which organism has a higher
TSA/V ratio?
Why the physical features of unicellular organisms has an advantage in the physiological
processes?
What is cell specialization?
What are the different levels of cell organization in a multicellular organism?
Why the physical features of a multicrllular organism can become a disadvantage in its
physiological processes?
How the multicellular organisms overcome the problem of being big size and consist of many
layers of cells?
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 2.2

1.
Which of the following statements are true regarding Amoeba?

I
II
III
IV
A
B
C
D
2.
It feeds by phagocytosis.
It exchanges nutrients substances through plasma membrane by diffusion.
It moves by sending out cytoplasmic projection called pseudopodium.
It reproduces by conjugaton and binary fission.
I and II only
II and IV only
I, II and III only
I, II, III and IV
The diagram below shows four different level of cell organisation in human. Which is the
correct level of organisation:
cell
I
A
B
C
D
tissues
II
I, II, III and IV

IV, III, II and I
IV, I, III and II
IV, III, I and II
organs
system
III
IV
3.
Animal tissues can be divided into four main groups based on their structures and functions.
Which are the four main groups of animal tissues:
I
Epidermal tissue
II
Connective tissue
III
Muscle tissue
IV
Nerve tissue
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, II, III and IV
4.
The diagram below shows four different organs found in human body. In which of the
following organ system can W, X, Y and Z be found?
X
Digestive system
Y
Respiratory system
Z
Excretory system
W
Integumentary
system
Respiratory system
Digestive system
Excretory system
Digestive system
Respiratory system
Excretory system
Integumentary
system
Respiratory system
Integumentary
system
Excretory system
5.
Integumentary
system
Digestive system
The diagram P, Q and R shows three different types of muscle tissues. What are name of these
muscle tissues and the organs that are composed of these muscle tissues?
P
A
B
C
D
P
Cardiac muscle in heart
Smooth muscle in stomach
Skeletal muscle in legs
Q
R
6.
Which of the following plant vascular tissue consists of living cells?

I
Companion cell
II
Tracheid
III
Vessel element
IV
Sieve tube
A
I and III
B
I and IV
C
II and III
D
II and IV
7.
The diagram shows four types of plant cells P, Q, R and S. What are the plant tissues formed
from cells P, Q, R and S?
P
A
B
C
D
8.
P
Phloem tissue
Epidermal tissue
Epidermal tissue
Xylem Tissue
R
Q
Xylem Tissue
Xylem Tissue
Phloem tissue
Xylem Tissue
S
R
Epidermal tissue
Xylem Tissue
Epidermal tissue
Phloem tissue
S
Phloem tissue
Phloem tissue
Xylem Tissue
Epidermal tissue
The table below shows three types of permanent plant tissue and the cell type found in it.
(i) Parenchyma cell
(a)
(b)
(c)
Vascular tissue
Supporting tissue
Ground tissue
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Sclerenchyma cell
Collenchyma cell
Vessel element
Sieve tube element
Which is the correct match for its specific function?

Vascular tissue
Supporting tissue
A
(i)
(ii)(iii)
B
(ii)(iii)
(iv)(v)
C
(iv)(v)
(i)
D
(iv)(v)
(ii)(iii)
9.
10.
Ground tissue
(iv)(v)
(i)
(ii)(iii)
(i)
What are the different type of cells that made up the phloem tissue and xylem tissue
respectively?
Phloem tissue
Xylem tissue
A
Sieve tubes
Vessels
Companion cells
Tracheids
B
Companion cells
Tracheids
Sieve tubes
Vessels
C
Companion cells
Sieve tubes
Vessels
Tracheids
D
Vessels
Tracheids
Companion cells
Sieve tubes
Which of the following are ground tissues?
I
Parenchyma tissue
II
Edidermal tissue
III
Collenchyma tissue
IV
Sclerenchyma tissue
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
2.3
Appreciating The Uniqueness of The Cell
Figure 4.0
Regulating the Internal Environment
2.3.1 Regulating the internal environment

The internal environment of a multicellular organism consists of the interstitial fluid and the
blood plasma.
2.
Interstitial fluid and blood together are called extracellular fluid.
3.
The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells and constantly baths the cells to enable
the exchange of nutrients and waste substances between the body cells and the fluid.
4.
Blood plasma is a fluid connective tissue, transports substances in the body by means of blood
circulatory system.
5.
Interstitial fluid is formed from blood by a process of ultra-filtration in which the small
molecules and ions are forced through the walls of the capillaries into the intercellular spaces.
6.
The interstitial fluid consists of all the constituents of blood plasma, except the plasma protein
molecules together with the cellular components of the blood.
7.
The physical factors and chemical factors of the internal environment must be kept constant,
regardless of the conditions outside the cells, if the cells are to continue function optimally.
8.
The physical factors for the internal environment that must be kept constant are:
(i)
its blood pressure
(ii)
its osmotic pressure
(iii)
its temperature.
9.
The chemical factors for the internal environment that must be kept constant are:
(i)
its pH value
(ii)
its salt and sugar content
10.
Maintenance of a constant internal environment is known as homeostasis, a Greek word
meaning staying the same.
11.
The mechanism that governs homeostasis is called the negative feedback mechanism.
1.
2.3.2 The involvement of various system in maintaining an optimal internal environment

Systems in the body function and interact with one another to maintain a stable internal
environment.
2.
Temperature
(i)
Changes in the body temperature is detected by the integumentary system (the skin).
(ii)
Impulses are transmitted by the nervous system through afferent neuron to the
hypothalamus, the temperature regulatory centre in the brain.
(iii) The hypothalamus activates various effectors through efferent neuron of the nervous
system:
The blood circulatory system to constrict the blood vessels (vasoconstriction)
when the body temperature is low or dilate the blood vessels when the body
temperature is high.
The integument system to produce more sweat to lower the body temperature
through evaporation when the body temperature is high.
The muscular system to produce shivering effects when the surrounding
temperature is too low.
The endocrine system to secrete thyroxin hormone from thyroid gland and
adrenalin from adrenal gland when the body temperature is too low.
3.
pH value
1.
4.
5.
The pH of human body fluid is approximately 7.4.

It is important to maintain a constant blood pH, changes in pH can affect protein structure
and cause denaturation of enzymes.
The pH level is regulated by the nervous system, respiratory system, circulatory system
and excretory system:
(i)
Nervous system: when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases, pH level drop
or blood acidity increases, the chemoreceptor cells are stimulated to send impulses to
the respiratory centre and the cardiovascular centre in the brain via afferent nerve.
(ii)
Circulatory system: From the cardiovascular centre, impulses are sent via efferent
nerves to stimulate the heart to increase cardiac frequency. The increase in cardiac
frequency increases the rate of circulation of oxygenated blood to tissues.
(iii)
Respiratory system: From the respiratory centre, impulses are sent via efferent nerve
to stimulate the lungs to increase the ventilation rate (breathing rate). The increase in the
alveolar ventilation helps to remove the accumulated carbon dioxide from the body and
increase oxygen uptake.
(iv)
pH regulation in the tissue fluid is primarily concerned with the regulation of the
concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions and hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-).
(v)
Excretory system: The excess hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH-) are secreted
from the convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of nephrons and excreted in the urine
to maintain a constant pH level.
Osmotic pressure
In the brain there are groups of osmoreceptor cells sensitive to the osmotic pressure of the
blood, located in the hypothalamus at the base of the pituitary gland.
The nervous system, endocrine system, excretory system and circulatory system
regulate the blood osmotic pressure, and the balance of water and dissolved substances in
body fluid.
Nervous system: A rise in the blood osmotic pressure is detected by the osmoreceptors in
the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are generated and sent to the posterior pituitary gland to
stimulate the release ADH hormone.
Circulatory system ; ADH is transported by the bloodstream to its target organ, the kidney.
Endocrine system; ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts more permeable to water, thus facilitating the reabsorption of water from
the filtrate into the surrounding blood vessels.
Excretory system: Thus, less but more concentrated urine is excreted.
Excretory system: Conversely, a decrease in ADH results in a decrease in water removal,
thus a larger volume of dilute urine is excreted.
Glucose level
The concentration of glucose in human blood is about 90 mg per 100 cm3 of blood.
The blood glucose level is regulated by the endocrine system, the circulatory system and
the digestive system.
(i)
Digestive system: After a heavy meal rich in carbohydrate, the digestive system
hydrolyses it into glucose and absorbed into the ileum of the small intestine.
(ii)
Circulatory system: The glucose is sent to the liver by hepatic portal vein.
(iii)
Endocrine system: However, the liver cannot detect changes in blood glucose level,
any fluctuation from the normal is detected by the pancreas which functions as an
endocrine gland to secrete the hormones insulin.
(iv)
When the blood sugar level rises, the hormone insulin is secreted into the blood and
(v)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
send to the liver by the blood circulatory system.

Endocrine system: In the liver, insulin causes the liver cells to speed up the oxidation
of glucose to carbon dioxide and water through cell respiration. The liver also speeds up
the conversion of glucose to glycogen and fat for storage.
2.3.3 Cells without a particular cellular component

A red blood cell without a nucleus cannot divide by mitosis and short-lived.
A sperm cell without mitochondria cannot propels itself to the Fallopian tubes and no
fertilization can take place.
A phagocyte without ribosome cannot produce hydrolytic enzyme and no phagocytosis will
occur.
A pancreatic cell without rough endoplasmic reticulum cannot secrete digestive enzyme.
A testes and ovary cell without smooth endoplasmic reticulum cannot produce steroid
hormones.
A goblet cell without Golgi apparatus cannot secrete mucus.
A mesophyll palisade cell without chloroplast cannot absorb sunlight to carry out
photosynthesis.
Each organelle in the cytoplasm has a specific function. But in a multicellular organism,
individual cell cannot work alone. A division of labour is necessary to enable all the organelles
to work together in coordination and in harmony to maintain all the physiological processes in
life.
In the synthesis of extracellular enzymes, the organelles in the pancreatic cells that involved
directly or indirectly are nucleus, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus.
Try Questions 1, 2 & 3 in Spotlight Practice 2.3

1.
2.
3.
What is meant by internal environment?

What are the factors affecting the internal environment?
What are the systems involved in controlling the following internal environment in our body:
(i)
temperature
(ii)
pH value
(iii) osmotic pressure
(iv)
glucose level
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 2.3

1.
The role of homeostasis is to

A
control changes in the external environment
B
maintain a constant internal environment
C
allow positive feedback to take place in our body
D
allow negative feedback to fluctuate the internal environment
2.
What are the chemical factors affecting the internal environment of the human body?
I
II
III
IV
A
B
C
D
temperature
pH value
osmotic pressure
glucose level
I and III
II and III
II and IV
III and IV
3.
How the integumentary system help to maintain a stable body temperature?

A
Through sweating to lower down the body temperature by evaporation.
B
Through vasodilation to expand the blood vessels.
C
Through vasoconstriction to constrict the blood vessel
D
By releasing hormone adrenaline and thyroxine to increase metabolic rate.
4.
How the cardiovascular system and respiratory system help to maintain the pH value in the
internal environment?
I
The increase in cardiac frequency increases the rate of removal of deoxygenated blood
containing carbon dioxide from the body tissues.
II
The increase in the ventilation rate helps to remove the accumulated carbon dioxide
from the body and increase oxygen uptake.
III
The excess hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH-) are excreted in the urine.
IV
When pH level drops, the nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre and the
cardiovascular centre.
A
I and II
B
I and III
C
II and III
D
II and IV
5.
When a person taken a meal rich in carbohydrate, what are the systems involved in bringing the
blood glucose level back to normal?
I
Digestive system
II
Excretory system
III
Endocrine system
IV
Circulatory system
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
6.
Endocrine system plays an important role in maintaining a constant osmotic pressure in the
body. What is the hormone involved?
A
Adrenaline
B
Thyroxine
C
Antidiuretic
D
Insulin
7.
What will happen to a pancreatic cell without ribosome in it?

I
cannot generate energy
II
III
IV
A
B
C
D
8.
cannot synthesis protein

cannot synthesis lipid
cannot synthesis hormone
I and III
I and IV
II and III
II and IV
Which organelles below may be lacking in the pancreatic cells if the cells fail to produce
digestive enzymes?
I
Nucleus
II
III
IV
Glogi apparatus
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
D
II, III and IV

I, III and IV
SPM SPOTLIGHT ZONE

Paper 1
Question 1 to 30 are followed by four option A, B, C or D. Choose the best option for each question.
Knowledge
1.
Which of the following organelles regulates all the activities of the cell?
(Cloned SPM 2003).
A
B
C
D
2.
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Diagram 1 shows the structure of a cell organelle.
Diagram 1
Which cell does not possess the organelle shown in Diagram 1? (Cloned SPM 2003).
A
B
C
D
3.
Guard cell
Epidermal cell
Spongy mesophyll cell
Palisade mesophyll cell
Diagram 2 shows a plant cell.
Diagram 2
What is organelle W? (Cloned SPM 2004).
A
B
C
D
4.
Nucleus
Ribosome
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
The following information are features of an organelle in a cell.

Spherical or oblong shaped
Smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane
Which of the following organelles has features as stated above?
(Cloned SPM 2005).
A
B
C
D
Ribosome
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
5.
The following statements are about an organelle of a cell. (Cloned SPM 2006).
-
Exists freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Site of protein synthesis.
What is the organelle?

A
B
C
D
6.
Lysosome
Mitpchondria
Ribosome
Golgi body
Which of the following is a epithelial tissue? (Cloned SPM 2006)
7.
Which of the following cells forms the ground tissues in plants? (Cloned SPM 2007)
A
B
C
D
8.
Companion cell
Guard cell
Epidermal cell
Parenchyma cell
Which of the following blood cells play an important in blood clotting? (Cloned SPM 2007)
9.
Which of the following human cells have no nucleus?

A
Red blood cells
B
White blood cells
C
Sperm cells
D
Egg cells
10.
A plant is exposed to bright sunshine. After few hours, a leaf cell stained with iodine solution is
observed under a microscope.
Which structure will be stained blue black?
Understanding
11.
Diagram 3(i) and Diagram 3(ii) shows the structures of an amoeba and a plant cell.
(Cloned SPM 2003).
Diagram 3(i)
Diagram 3(ii)
Which of the structures on Diagram 3(i) Diagram 3(ii) are common to both cells ?
A
B
C
D
12.
W and P
X and Q
Y and R
Z and S
Diagram 4 shows a typical animal cell. (Cloned SPM 2005).
Diagram 4
Which of the following is true about the functions of organelles X and Y?
13.
Function of organelle X
A
Site of lipid synthesis
B
Site of protein modification
C
Site of protein synthesis
D
Diagram 5 shows the structure of a plant cell.
Function of organelle Y
Site of protein synthesis
Site of lipid synthesis
Diagram 5
Which of the following is true about X? (Cloned SPM 2006).
A
Semi-permeable
B
C
D
14.
Elastic
Fully permeable
Impermeable
Diagram 6 shows the cell organization in a multicellular organism.

Cell
Tissue
System
Organism
Diagram 6
Which part of the body can be represented by R? (Cloned SPM 2007).
A
B
C
D
15.
Tendon
Blood
Epithelium
Skin
The diagram shows four different organelles.
I
II
III
Which of these organelles are found in the epidermal cell of an onion bulb?
A
B
C
D
16
IV
I, II and III
II, III and IV
I, III and IV
I, II, III, and IV
P, Q, R, and X are four different types of plant tissues.
P
What are tissues W, X, Y and Z ?
A
B
C
D
17.
P
Meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Q
Phloem tissue
Xylem tissue
Phloem tissue
Xylem tissue
R
Xylem tissue
Phloem tissue
Xylem tissue
Phloem
Organ P, Q, R and S show four different organs in human body.

P
Which organ is part of the endocrine system?

A
B
C
D
18.
P
Q
R
S
X in diagram 7 shows a type of plant cell.
Diagram 7
What is the type of this plant cell?
A
B
C
D
19.
X
Sclerenchyma tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissue
Epidermal cell of a leaf

Mesophyll cell of a leaf
Root hair cell
Xylem parenchyma cell
Diagram 8 shows the arrangement in the cross section of a leaf.
1
2
4
`
DIAGRAM 8
Which cells normally contain chloroplasts?
A
1and 2
B
2 and 3
C
1, 2 and 3
D
2, 3 and 4
20.
Which of the following comparison between an animal cell and a plant cell is/are correct?
Animal cell
I
II
III
IV
Has chloroplasts
Has centrioles
Without a cell wall
Without a central vacuole
Plant cell
Without chloroplast
Without centriole
Has a cell wall
Has a central vacuole
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
APPLICATION
21
Diagram 9 shows a tissue. (Cloned SPM 2003).
DIAGRAM 9
Which organelle is found in abundance in the cell shown in Diagran 9?
22.
Diagram 10 shows cross-section of a leaf.
Classifying the structures in Diagram 10 into organ and tissue?

Organ
A
P , Q, S
B
R
C
P, R
D
S, Q
23.
Tissue
R
P, Q, S
S, Q
P, R
The diagram shows four different organs.

Which organ is not involved in maintaining a stable internal environment in human body?
A
24.
Diagram 11 shows the feeding process in Amoeba sp.
DIAGRAM 11
Which of the following is the true sequence about the process?
I
Food vacuole fuses the lysosome containing lysozyme.
II
The nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm and are assimilated.
III
Two pseudopodia extend out to enclose the food particles.
IV
Food particles are trapped into a food vacuole.
A
I, II, III and IV
B
IV, I, III and II
C
III, IV, I and II
D
II, IV, III and I
25.
Diagram 12 shows an organelle.
DIAGRAM 12
Which organ contains an abundance of this organelle?
A
B
C
D
26.
Pancreas
Heart
Stomach
Lungs
What are the differences in the physical features of a multicellular organism in comparison with
a unicellular organism?
I
II
III
IV
A
B
C
D
Multicellular organism
TSA : V ratio is small
Body consists of many layers of cells
Rate of diffusion of substances into and
out of all body cells is fast
Inner part of the body is not in direct
contact with its surrounding.
Unicellular organism
TSA : V ratio is big
Body consists of a single layer of cell
Rate of diffusion of substances into and out
of all body cells is slow
Body cell is directly in contact with its
surrounding
I, II and III
I, II and IV
II, III and IV
I, III and IV
27.
What is the correct sequence for a pancreatic cell to synthesis and secrete digestive enzymes?
I
The synthesised and modified protein is packaged and transported by transport vesicles.
II
The modified and finishing protein is packaged and transported by secretory vesicles.
III
The information for the synthesis of protein is transcripted from DNA in the nucleus.
IV
The information for the synthesis of protein is translated by the ribosomes.
A
I, II, III and IV
B
IV, I, III and II
C
III, IV, I and II
D
II, IV, III and I
28.
Which of the following organs have cells which are dense in smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
I
Testes
II
Ovaries
III
Liver
IV
Pancreas
A
I, II and III
B
I, II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
29.
Which of the plant tissues contain lignified cell wall to give provide support and strength to the
growing plant?
I
Parenchyma
II
Sclerenchyma
III
Collenchyma
IV
Xylem vessels
A
II and III
B
II and IV
C
II, III and IV
D
I, III and IV
30.
A Tsunami victim drank some sea water to quench his thirst. His blood osmotic pressure soared
immediately to a very high level.
What are the systems in his body responded immediately to the change in osmotic pressure?
I
Circulatory system
II
Endocrine system
III
Nervous system
IV
Excretory system
A
I and II only
B
II and IV only
C
III and IV only
D
I, II, III and IV
PAPER 2
Section A: Structured Items
Diagram 1 shows a plant cell as seen under an electron microscope. (Cloned SPM 2006)
1.
P:
Q:
R:
S:
DIAGRAM 1
(a)(i) On Diagram 1, label the structures P, Q, R and S.
(ii)
[ 4 marks ]
State the function of structure:

P: ...
...
S:
(b)
...
...
[ 2 marks ]
Explain the role of R to maintain cell turgidity.
.
(c)
...
[ 2 marks ]
Red blood cell does not contain structure Q.
Give one problem encounters by the red blood cell because of absence of Q.
.
.
[ 1 marks ]
Cell components work together in coordination and harmony to maintain life processes.
(d)
Explain the above statement based on the ability of pancreatic cells to synthesise and secrete
enzymes.
.
.
.
[ 4 marks ]
2.
Diagram 2 shows a cross section of organs X in the human body. ( Cloned SPM 2007)
Hair
Erector muscle
Sweat gland
Diagram 2
(a)(i) Name organ X.
..
[ 1 mark ]
(ii) Table 1 shows the function of several organ in human body.
Transporting oxygen
Regulating body temperature
Eliminating urea
Converting excess glucose to glycogen
As a protective layer
Table 1
Tick () the Three correct functions of organ X, in the boxes provided in Table 1.
(b)
Erector muscle is a tissue.

State reasons why X is classified as an organ and erector muscle is classified as a tissue.
X: ...
.
Erector muscle:
(c)
[ 2 marks ]
The following information shows some of the organ systems found in the human body.
Tick ( ) the two systems which contain organ X, in the boxes provided below.
Blood circulatory system
Respiratory system
Excretory system
[ 2 marks ]
(d)
Human body temperature is maintained at 370C.

Explain the roles of the erector muscle, hair follicle and sweat gland in maintaining the
body temperature on a hot day.
Erector muscle:
.
.
.
Hair:
.
.
.
Sweat gland:
.
.
.
[ 3 marks ]
3.
Diagram 3 show two types of cells.
M
P
R
S
Q
Cell A
Cell B
DIAGRAM 3
(a)
Based on Diagram 3, label the structures P, Q, R and S,

P:
R:
(b)
..
.
S:
[ 4 marks ]
What are cell A and cell B?

Cell A :
Cell B:
(c)
Q;
(i)
.
[ 2 marks ]
Suggest one similarity between cell A and cell B.
.
(ii)
.
Suggest one difference between cell A and cell A.
.
(i)
.
[ 2 marks ]
M and S are the outermost surface of the cells.
Why S has a fixed shape but not M?
(ii)
.
[ 1 mark ]
Why M is semi-permeable but S is fully permeable?
(d)
.
.
[ 4 marks ]
4.
Diagram 4 shows a cross-section of an organ P in the plant.

S
X
Xylem
Y
Phloem
DIAGRAM 4
(a)
Name organ P.
(b)
(i)
.
[ 1 marks ]
An organ is composed of many different tissues.
Based on Diagram 4, what are the tissues that formed organ P.
.
(ii)
.
[ 2 marks ]
X and Y are made up of the same type of cells.
Name the cell type in X and Y.
(c) (i)
.
[ 2 marks ]
What is the layer S?
(ii)
.
What is the main function of S?
.
[ 2 marks ]
(d) (i)
Xylem tissue is made up of four type of cells. Name the cells that provide mechanical
support to the plant.
(ii)
.
[ 2 marks ]
Phloem tissue is also made up of four types of cells. Name the cell that transports
organic food substances in the plant.
.
[ 1 marks ]
(e) Name one type of cells that formed the following permanent tissues in organ P.
(i)
Epidermal tissues:
..
(ii)
Ground tissues:
(iii)
Supporting tissues:
..
[ 3 marks ]
Section B
[ 20 marks ]
1.
(a)
(b)
2.
Draw labelled diagram of a generalized plant cell and a generalized animal cell.
Your drawing must show the ultra-structures of the cells under an electron microscope.
[ 10 marks ]
Compare and contrast between a plant cell and an animal cell.
[ 10 marks ]
(a)
What is cell specialization?
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(c)
[ 2 marks ]
Give one example of a specialised plant cell and a specialised animal cell that
differ from the respective generalized structures.
[ 2 marks ]
Describe how these cells are adapted to perform their functions efficiently.
[ 4 marks ]
(i)
What is a tissue?
[ 1 mark ]
(ii)
Discuss how the structure of xylem tissue is related to its function.

[ 5 marks ]
(d)
(i)
What is an organ?
[ 1 marks ]
(ii)
Discuss how the structure of an animal organ is related to its function.

[ 5 marks ]
Section C
[ 20 marks ]
1.
(a)
What is meant by homeostasis?

[ 2 marks ]
(b)
What are the two main factors affecting internal environment in the human body?
[ 2 marks ]
(c)
Explain how the different systems in human body are working together to maintain a
stable blood glucose level.
[ 6 marks ]
Tested in SPM 2006, Paper 2 Question 9
(d)
Multicellular organisms like humans, need specific transport systems as

compared to unicellular organisms like Amoeba sp., which do not need a
transport system.
Give an evaluation of the above statement based on the physical features of the organisms with
the following physiological processes:
Respiration
Nutrition
Excretion
[ 10 marks ]
PAPER 3
1.
Plants and animals are made up of cells. Cells are the basic functional units of all living
organisms. They may exist singly or in aggregates. When cells join together to take on a
specialised function within a larger organism, they form a tissue.
Animal epithelial cells and plant epidermal cells may share the same characteristics, or they can
be different. Epithelial tissues form the skin of the body surface and lining the inner surfaces.
Epithelial cells are specialised for transportation of substances and protection. The individual
cells of these layers may be shaped like cubes, columns, or flat, depending on their location and
function.
Based on the above information, design a laboratory experiment to determine the differences in
structures of epidermal cells of onion bulb and the cheek epithelial cells.
The planning of your experiment must include the following aspects:
Problem statement
Aim of investigation
Hypothesis
Variables
List of apparatus and materials
Technique used
Experimental procedure or method
Presentation of data
Conclusion
[ 17 marks ]
ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(i)
One layer of cell
(ii)
The overlapping layers made the images to become blurred
(i)
Chloroplast
(ii)
Blue black
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
Cell wall, a large central vacuole and chloroplast
a(iv)
b(iii)
c(vii)
d(ii)
e(i)
f(v)
g(vi)
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 2.1

1.
C
2.
D
6.
A
7.
C
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.
8.
D
D
4.
9.
C
D
5.
10.
A
A
A unicellular organism has a higher TSA/V ratio.

Exchange of substances between the organism and the surrounding occurs easily.
Body cell is directly in contact with the surroundings.
Cell specialization is a process whereby the cell differentiate, changes in shape and structures to
carry out specific function.
Cell
Tissues
Organs
Organ system
Big size with multi-layered of cells provide a small TSA/V ratio
Rate of diffusion of substances into and out of all body cells is slow.
Cells in the inner part of the body are not in direct contact with the surroundings.
The multicellular organisms overcome the problem of being big size and consist of many layers
of cells by having cell specialization. They develop organ systems to carry out their live
processes through a division of labour.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 2.2

1.
6.
C
B
2.
7.
D
B
3.
8.
C
D
4.
9.
B
C
5.
10.
A
D

1.
2.
3.
Internal environment refers to the interstitial fluid that surrounds the cells and tissues of the
body. The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells.
The factors affecting the internal environment are the physical factors such as temperature,
blood pressure and osmotic pressure; and chemical factors which include salt and sugar content
and pH.
The systems involved in controlling the internal environment of the body are:
(i)
Temperature: the integumentary system, nervous system, blood circulatory
system, muscular system and endocrine system.
(ii)
pH value: the nervous system, respiratory system, circulatory system and excretory
system
(iii)
(iv)
osmotic pressure: the nervous system, endocrine system, excretory system and
circulatory system
glucose level: the endocrine system, circulatory system and digestive system.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST 2.3

1.
6.
B
C
2.
7.
C
D
3.
8.
A
B
4.
5.
SPM SPOTLIGHT ZONE

1.
6.
11
16.
21
A
A
D
B
D
22.
23.
24.
B
C
25
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
PAPER 2
Section A
2.
B
3.
C
4.
D
5.
C
7.
D
8.
D
9.
A
10.
C
12.
C
13.
A
14.
D
15.
C
17.
A
18.
C
19.
D
20.
C
Mitochondria generate energy to propel the sperm cells towards the Fallopian
tubes during fertilization.
P, Q and S are tissues because they are made up of similar types of cells
R is an organ because it composed of many different types of tissues
Stomach only involved in the digestion process.
The process of phagocytosis involves engulfing food particles, hydrolysis and
diffusion of nutrients.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the packaging and transporting
of digestive enzymes and hormones.
Rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the distance of diffusion. The
shorter the distance of diffusion, the greater the rate of diffusion.
The genetic code for the synthesis of protein is stored in DNA in the nucleus.
The genetic code is copied (transcripted) and carried by mRNA out from the
nucleus into the cytoplasm to be decoded (translated) by the ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The synthesised proteins are modified and
package into transporting vesicles of the RER. The proteins are then sent to the
Golgi apparatus to be modified again into finishing products before being
packaged into secretory vesicles for secretion outside the cell.
I
Testes produce steroid hormone testosterone
II
Ovaries produce steroid hormone oestrogen
III
Liver cells contain enzymes in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum for the
regulation of sugars and detoxification of drugs and poisons.
Parenchyma cells with primary cell walls give turgidity support to the plant but
not much of the strength.
Sclerenchyma, and xylem vessels are cells with thickening lignified cell
walls which provide support and as well as strength to the plant.
Collenchyma cell has angular thickening cell wall, but impregnated with
cellulose and pectin, not lignin.
The nervous system, endocrine system, excretory system and circulatory system
regulate the blood osmotic pressure, and the balance of water and dissolved
substances in body fluid.
1.(a)(i) P:
Q:
R:
S:
(ii)
P:
S:
(b)
(c)
(d)
Mitochondrion/ Mitochondria
( 1 mark )
Cell wall
( 1 mark )
Vacuole
( 1 mark )
Chloroplast
( 1 mark )
Generate energy in the form of ATP// Site of cellular respiration
( 1 mark )
Absorb light energy (to carry out photosynthesis) //
Site of photosynthesis
( 1 mark )
F:
Cell sap contains water and dissolved sunstances
( 1 mark )
P:
Causes water to enter the cell by somosi//
Produces turgor pressure in the cell
( 1 mark )
Red blood cell easily rupture and burst because no cell wall for protection
( 1 mark )
P1;
Genetic information for the synthesis of protein/enzyme is stored in the nuclear DNA.
P2:
The genetic information is copied (transcripted) to mRNA.
P3:
mRNA binds to ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
P4:
Ribosomes translate the genetic information into a polypeptide.
P5:
The polypeptide is processed in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
P6:
The protein/enzyme is transported by transport vesicles from rough endoplasmic
reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
P7:
Golgi apparatus further modified and packaged the protein/ enzyme into secretory
vesicles.
P8:
Secretory vesicles transport protein/enzyme to the cell surface membrane where it is
secreted by exocytosis.
(Any four )
( 4 marks )
2.
(a)(i)
(ii)
Skin
( 1 mark )
Transport oxygen
Regulating body temperature
Eliminating urea
Converting excess glucose to glycogen
As a protective layer
(b)
( 3 marks )
X:
Skin is an organ because it contains a group of different tissues that carry out a
certain function.
( 1 mark )
Erector muscle:
Erector muscle is a tissue because it contains a group of similar
cell (which perform a specific function.
( 1 mark )
Blood circulatory system
(c)
Respiratory system
Excretory system
( 2 marks )
(d)
Role of erector muscle: Erector muscle relaxes, causing the hair to lie flat
( 1 mark )
Role of hair:
The hair traps less air, causing more heat to lost to the atmosphere. ( 1 mark )
Role of sweat gland: Sweat gland secretes sweat, causing latent heat of vaporization to
lost to the surrounding when sweat evaporates
( 1 mark )
3.
(a)
P:
Q:

Mitochondrion
( 1 mark )
(1
mark )
R:
Vacuole
( 1 mark )
S:
Cell wall
( 1 mark )
(b)
Cell A: Animal cell
( 1 mark )
Cell B: Plant cell
( 1 mark )
(c)(i) Both have plasma membrane/nucleus/cytoplasm/Golgi body/ mitochondria/
Endoplasmic reticulum/ribosomes
(Any one)
( 1 mark )
(ii)
Cell B/Plant cell has a cell wall, whereas cell A/animal cell does not has a cell wall//
Cell B/Plant cell has a large central vacuole, whereas cell A/animal cell does not has a
large central vacuole// Cell B/Plant cell has chloroplast, whereas cell A/animal cell does
not has chloroplasts// Cell A/Animal cell has centriolel, whereas cell B/plant cell does
not has centriole// Cell B/Plant cell has a fixed shape, whereas cell A/animal cell does
not has a fixed shape
(Any one)
( 1 mark )
(d)(i) S is tough and rigid, but M is soft and flexible.
( 1 mark )
(ii)
F1:
M is made up of phospholipids and proteins
( 1 mark )
P1:
M regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell. ( 1 mark )
F2:
S is made up of cellulose fibres with tiny pores.
( 1 mark )
P2:
S allows all the substances to pass through it freely.
( 1 mark )
4.
(a)
Leaf
( 1 mark )
(b)(i)
(ii)
(c)(i)
(ii)
S, X , Y, xylem and phloem

( 1 mark )
Parenchyma/Mesophyll cells
( 1 mark )
Epidermal layer
( 1 mark )
Protects the plant from mechanical injury// prevent excessive water loss through
evaporation// prevents invasion of pathogens.
( 1 mark )
(d)(i) Xylem vessels, tracheids and sclerenchyma fibres.
( 1 mark )
(ii)
Sieve tubes
( 1 mark )
(e)(i) Epidermal cells/Epidermis
( 1 mark )
(ii)
Parenchyma cells/ Mesophyll cells
( 1 mark )
(iii)
Collenchyma cells/ Sclerenchyma cells
( 1 mark )
Section B
1.
(a)
Ultra-structure of a generalized plant cell

1(a)
Similarities between plant and animal cells:

(i)
Both have plasma membrane
(ii)
Both have a nucleus
(iii)
Both have cytoplasm
(iv)
Both have Golgi body
(vi)
Both have mitochondria
(vii) Both have Endoplasmic reticulum
(viii) Both have ribosomes
(Any five )
Differences between plant and animal cells:
Ultra-structure of a generalized animal cell
( 5 marks )
Plant cell
(a) Have a rigid cellulose cell wall
(b) Chloroplast present in photosynthetic cells
(c) Has fixed, regular shape due to the presence
of cell wall
(d) Has a large central vacuole
(e) Tonoplast around vacuoles
(f) No centrioles
(g) Lysosome usually absent, except
insectivorous plants
(h) Food is stored in the form of starch
granules
(i) Nucleus and cytoplasm usually peripheral
(j) Plasmodesmata present in the cell wall
(Any five )
2.(a)
P1:
P2:
Animal cell
No cellulose cell wall
No chloroplast
Shape is irregular and can be altered
Small, temporary vacuoles
No tonoplast
Has a pair of centrioles
Lysosomes present
Food id stored in the form of glycogen
granules
Nucleus often central with cytoplasm
throughout the cell
No plasmodesmata
( 5 marks )
Cell specialization is a process of change and adaptation that a cell undergoes

to give it special structures and specific physiological functions.
( 2 marks )
(b)(i) Red blood cell is biconcave-disc shape and without nucleus
( 1 mark )
Palisade mesophyll cell is columnar shape with many chloroplast
( 1 mark )
(ii)
F1:
Red blood cell has a large total surface area (TSA) to volume (V) ratio.
( 1 mark )
P1:
Enables the rapid diffusion of oxygen across its plasma membrane.
( 1 mark )
F2:
Palisade mesophyll cell traps the maximum amount of sunlight.
( 1 mark )
P2:
Enables the plant leaf to carry out its optimum rate of photosynthesis.
( 1 mark )
(c)(i) A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure organized to perform a specific function
( 1 mark )
(ii)
F:
Xylem is a vascular tissue that functions in transporting water and dissolved mineral
salts from the roots to the leaves of the plant.
( 1 mark )
P1:
A xylem vessel is a long tube made up of many xylem elements joined together end-toend.
P2:
As the ends of each vessel element are open due to the cross walls separating the cells
breaking down, the cavity forms a continuous channel.
P3:
Tracheids taper at both ends. The ends of tracheids overlap with each other, forming a
long tube which can facilitate the movement of water through it.
P4:
The end walls of tracheids have many bordered pits to allow water to pass through.
P5:
The thick, lignified cell walls prevent tracheids and vessel elements from collapsing as
water rises through the plant.
( F and any four Ps )
( 5 marks )
(d)
(i)
An organ is composed of groups of different tissues specialised to carry out a particular
function.
( 1 mark )
(ii)
F:
The skin is an organ because it consists of various types of tissues combined together to
perform certain functions.
P1:
The erector muscle is a specialised smooth muscle tissue to cause the hair to become
erect forming an insulating air layer when the muscle contract.
P2:
The arterioles are vascular tissues to cause vasodilation or vasoconstriction in response
P3:
P4:
P5:
P6:
to the surrounding temperature.

The sweat gland is a specialised epithelial tissue to secrete sweat for evaporation which
requires latent heat of vaporization to increase heat loss.
The nervous tissue scattered all over the skin to detect various stimuli and transmit
nerve impulses to the nervous system.
The adipose tissue lies beneath the dermis is a specialised connective tissue which acts
as a heat insulating layer and energy store.
The elastic fibres and collagen fibres are specialised connective tissue to give elasticity
and high tensile strength to the skin.
( F and any four Ps )
( 5 marks )
Section C
1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
P1:
P2:
Homeostasis is the regulation of an organisms internal environment

so that all the physiological processes can proceed at optimum rates. .
( 2 marks )
P1:
The physical factors include temperature, blood pressure and osmotic pressure.
P2:
The chemical factors include salt and sugar content and pH value.
( 2 marks )
F:
The concentration of the human blood glucose level is regulated by the
endocrine system, the circulatory system and the digestive system.
P1:
Digestive system: After a heavy meal rich in carbohydrate, the digestive system
hydrolyses it into glucose and absorbed into the ileum of the small intestine.
P2:
Circulatory system: The glucose is sent to the liver by hepatic portal vein.
P3:
Endocrine system: However, the liver cannot detect changes in blood glucose
level, any fluctuation from the normal is detected by the pancreas which
functions as an endocrine gland to secrete the hormones insulin.
P4:
When the blood sugar level rises, the hormone insulin is secreted into the blood
and send to the liver by the blood circulatory system.
P5:
In the liver, insulin causes the liver cells to speed up the oxidation of glucose to
carbon dioxide and water through cell respiration. The liver also speeds up the
conversion of glucose to glycogen and fat for storage.
( 6 marks )
Physical features of multicellular organisms:
P1:
Big size with multi-layered of cells provide a small TSA/V ratio
P2:
Rate of diffusion of substances into and out of all body cells is slow.
P3:
Cells in the inner part of the body are not in direct contact with the surroundings.
( Any two )
( 2 marks )
Physical features of unicellular organism:
P4:
Small size with single layer of cell, it has a higher TSA/V ratio.
P5:
Exchange of substances between the organism and the surrounding occurs easily
by diffusion.
P6:
Body cell is directly in contact with the surroundings.
( Any two )
( 2 marks )
Physiological processes
Unicellular organism
Respiration process
Needs respiratory system for the

exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
Needs transport system to carry
respiratory gases in and out of the
tissues
Nutrition processes
Excretion process
Needs transport system to bring in

food from surroundings into
alimentary canal, digest and
absorb into small intestine.
Digested foods are then
transported to the body cells
through blood and lymphatic
system.
Needs transport system to take
excretory waste/urea from the liver
to the kidney
Excretory waste is excreted
through urine
No specific organ needed for gaseous

exchange because oxygen and carbon
dioxide gases diffuse directly through
the plasma membrane.
No transport system is required
because diffusion of substances can
occur directly throughout the plasma
membrane.
Do not need transport system because
food is directly taken in through
plasma membrane by phagocytosis
Food particles are digested by
intracellular enzyme in food vacuoles
Do not need transport because
excretory waste are directly
eliminated from body cells to the
surroundings through the cell
membrane
Excretory waste is excreted through
contractile vacuole
( 2 X 3 = 6 marks )
PAPER 3
Problem statement:
What are the differences (relationship) in the structures (responding variable) of plant and animal
cells (manipulated variable)?
[ 3 marks ]
()
Aim of investigation:
To determine the differences in structures of epidermal cells of onion bulb and the cheek epithelial
cells.
()
Hypothesis:
There are differences (relationship) in the structures (responding variable) of plant cells and
animal cells (manipulated variable)
[ 3 marks ]
()
Variables:
(i)
Type of cells
(ii)
Cell structures
(iii)
Magnification power/ staining method
()
List of apparatus and materials:
Materials:
An onion bulb, iodine solution, distilled water
Apparatus:
Glass slides, cover slips, a light microscope, a scalpel, a pair of forceps, a glass dropper, a
mounting needle, filter papers and toothpicks.
[ 3 marks ]
()
Technique used:
Prepared and examined slides of plant cells and animal cells, observe and draw the cells
respectively under a light microscope.
[ 1 marks ]
()
Experimental procedure or method:
(i)
Preparation of material and apparatus:
Onion cells
1.
Using a pair of forceps, peel a translucent piece of tissue from the onion bulb.
2.
Put a drop of water onto the middle of a glass slide and place the epidermal cells on the
drop of water.
3.
With a mounting needle, cover the specimen with a cover slip at a 450 angle.
Cheek cells
4. To view cheek cells, gently scrape the inside lining of your cheek with the blunt end of
a toothpick.
5. Gently tap the toothpick with scrapings onto a drop of water on a clean glass slide.
6. The specimen is then covered with a cover slip.
(ii)
1.
2.
3.
(iii)
Operation to fix the controlled variable

Add a drop of iodine solution onto one side of the cover slip. Place a filter paper at the
opposite end of the cover slip to allow the iodine solution to spread through the
epidermis and the cheek cells.
Use a piece of filter paper to absorb the excess iodine solution.
Record the magnification used.
Operation of changing the manipulated variable
1
Observe the onion cell under both low and high power of a light microscope.
2.
To view cheek cells, gently scrape the inside lining of your cheek with the blunt
end of a toothpick.
3.
Observe the cheek cells under both low and high power of a light microscope.
1.
2.
(iv)
Operation of measuring the responding variable
Draw the epidermis and the cheek cells structures and labeled accordingly.
Compare the differences in structures of both plant cells and animal cells.
1.
(v)
Precautionary measure
Do not gouge the inside of your cheek.
[ 3 marks ]
()
Results:
Epidermal cells of an onion bulb
Human cheek cells

[ 1 mark ]
Conclusion:
There are differences in the structures of plant cells and animal cells.
The hypothesis is accepted.
Marking Schemes:
Planning Summation
1. Problem statement
2. Aim of investigation
3. Hypothesis
4. Variables
5. List of apparatus and materials
6. Technique used
7. Experimental procedure or method
8. Presentation of data or results
9. Conclusion
10. Planning: (7-9 Ticks=3 M; 4-6 Ticks=2M; 1-3 Ticks=1M)
TOTAL MARKS=
Marks
3
3
3
1
3
1
__3 __
17 M
Ticks
_____
9 Ticks
()

Chapter 2 Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Chapter 2 Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Chapter 2

Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

A Typical Plant Cell

A Typical Animal Cell

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Level of organization in multicellular

Similarities and differences between plant

SPOTLIGHT BIOLOGY SPM

Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Importance Learning Outcomes

The density of certain organelles

The living processes of an Amoeba sp.

Regulating the internal environment

What is your skin made up of?

SPOTLIGHT BIOLOGY SPM

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

CELL STRUCTURE AND

SPOTLIGHT BIOLOGY SPM