CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY

Dr. Alcantara
CARBOHYDRATE
is made up of three different components:
Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen.
The empirical formula of of carbohydrates it will be made up of
carbon 2 units or atoms of H and O.
is all about HYDRATES of Carbon. Hydrates because it has a water and
it is made up of carbon. It is where carbohydrate is derived.
It is a polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
Polyhydroxy meaning it contains each of the carbon atoms, it
contains your hydroxyl group.
Fischers projection of Carbohydrates:
Every carbon of it contains your hydroxyl group depending where it is
written on the right or in the left. With the exception of the carbon
that is double bonded with your Oxygen.

1g is equal to 4kcal. The chief storage form of carbohydrates in animals will be in

the form of starch and glycogen. Glycogen will be stored in the liver and
muscles. In plants, it will be stored in the form of starch.
2.

This will be termed as your carbonyl group.

The position of your carbonyl group will determine the functional
group of your carbohydrates.
If the functional group or carbonyl group is written at Carbon 1 in
comparison with this which is written at Carbon 2.
If the carbonyl group is under C 1 it is termed as Aldose sugar.
If the functional group is written at C2 it is termed as Ketose sugar.
In naming your carbohydrates, look at the position of your functional
group. If it is an aldehyde sugar it is in the C1.
If the carbonyl group is in the C2 that will be a Ketose sugar.
Carbohydrate is a polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
It is made up of Carbon, Hydrogen or Oxygen.

As a structural element. They form the main structure of our body

and of our cells. They maintain the structure of plant tissues,
cellulose.
Previous board exam question: what is that carbohydrate that can
never be digested by the body CELLULOSE.
The component monosaccharide of a cellulose is a polysaccharide but
it is made up of the repeating unit of glucose. Glucose all over the
polysaccharide. If the monosaccharide component is glucose, the
disaccharide component, glucose plus glucose is equivalent to
CELLUBIOSE that is being linked via 1,4. There is still a disaccharide
that is composed of two glucose units MALTOSE (glucose +
glucose).The difference between maltose and cellubiose will be the
point of linkage. Glucose plus glucose is maltose, point of linkage will
be via 1,4. We cannot digest our cellulose because we dont have
the enzyme CELLULASE. The body cant cleave 1,4 linkage because
we dont have the enzyme cellulase. The body can digest if it is not
two glucose units linked together via 1,4. The body can only cleave
two glucose via 1,4. But any other disaccharide for e.g. Glucose +
Galactose or any other monosaccharide as long as they do not
contain two sugar units, the body will be capable of digesting it even
if they are linked via 1,4. The body can digest if it is not two glucose
unit linked together via 1,4.
In animal tissues, structural element will be PROTEOGLYCANS.
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS)
1. Heparin
2. Heparan Sulfate
3. Dermatan Sulfate
4. Keratan Sulfate
5. Hyaluronic Acid
GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS CHARACTERISTICS:
1. It must contain a sugar acid:
a.
uronic/glucoronic acid
b. iduronic acid
2. It must contain an amino sugar (aminated):
a.
Glucosamine
b. Galasctosamine
GAGS SPECIFICATIONS:

1.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:

Storage form of fuel. In everything that you are eating most of its
content will be made up of carbohydrates. Most of what youre
eating is not fats, its not proteins but most of it is carbohydrate
because it is the primary source of ATP of our body will be
carbohydrates. BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS of CARBOHYDRATES

as a storage form of fuel

1 g CHO = 4 kcal

chief storage form : starch (plants)

glycogen (animals)

as structural elements
cellulose ( plant tissues)

1 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

acid mucopolysaccharides &

proteoglycans (animal tissues)
Chitin in insects and crustaceans
Peptidoglycan in bacteria

They should be acetylated , N-acetyl galactosamine or Nacetylglucosamine

All your GAGS contain your SULFATE with the exception of

Hyaluronic Acid.

All of them contains you sugar acid and an amino sugar

with the exception of Keratan Sulfate. It does not contain
the sugar acid instead the sugar acid is being replaced by
what you call as your galactose.

PROTEOGLYCAN
It has a sugar acid and an amino sugar but what differs it to the GAGS
is, Proteoglycans have a CORE PROTEIN.

All your GAGS will then be considered as Proteoglycans

except Hyaluronic Acid. Reason is Hyaluronic Acid has no
Core protein.
Hyaluronic Acid is just considered as GAGS but never a
proteoglycan.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES:
1.
2.
3.

Classification

Other FUNCTIONS of CARBOHYDRATES

I.

lubricants of skeletal joints

Hyaluronic acid in ground substance and in

major components of cell walls of bacteria

& soft cell coats in animal tissues

provide adhesions between cells

transport functions glycoprotein in

Ceruloplasmin (Cu); Transferrin (Fe)

For bacteria this is one way of identifying whether the bacteria is

gram positive or gram negative. That is your Proteoglycan layer. The
glycan layer will indicate that there is a carbohydrate component of
it.
The soft cell coats in animal tissues will be CHITIN.
3.

4.
5.

Another function will be lubricants of skeleteal joint. This is

being used as a medication for arthritis. Hyaluronic acid is used
for skeletal joint lubrication.
Provide adhesions within your cells. That will be the transport of
something from outside to inside.
Transport functions. It will be your glycoproteins e.g.
Transferrin, transport form of Fe. Cerulloplasmin, transport
form of Cu. Both are made up of glycoprotein.

Simple sugar or monosaccharides [CH2O]n

- contain 3 to 10 C atoms
- names end with ose

A. Acc. to the no. of C atoms [triose, tetrose..]

B. Acc. to the aldehyde or ketone groups
aldose
ketose (ulose); Ex. Ribulose
C. Combination of A & B [aldotriose,
ketopentose, ketohexose, etc]
D. Acc. To ring structure [furanose (5-C);
pyranose (6-C)]

connective tissue of vertebrates

Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide

Classified according to (a. ) number of carbon atoms and not the sugar units. It
could be made up of 3-10 carbon atoms. The simplest monosaccharide is a 3
carbon atoms while the most complex monosaccharide will be a 10 carbon
atoms. Naturally occurring atoms is just until 6 carbon atoms.
(b.) based on the functional group. The simplest Aldose sugar will be
GLYCERALDEHYDE. And the simplest Ketose sugar will then be
DIHYDROXYACETONE.
You may combine it. e.g. Aldotriose no. of carbon atoms is Triose ( 3 C atoms)
and the functional group is Aldose.
We can name your monosaccharide whether they contain:
5 membered ring (Furanose) or
6 membered ring (Pyranose)

Other FUNCTIONS

confer biologic specificity on the surface of

animal cells
Blood typing:
Type A N-acetylgalactosamine

Type B D-galactose
Type AB both sugars are present
Type O both sugars are absent

Anticoagulant:

Heparin a glycoprotein, acid mucopolysaccharide

Remember the writing of Furanose and Pyranose.

There are 2 different projections:
(about the members of the ring not about the carbons attached to it.)

6.

Surface specificity. This is one way of identifying whether the

person is type A or type B blood. In type A the sugar component
is N-acetylgalactosamine while in type B it will be D- galactose.
Heparin is an anticoagulant drug.
Other FUNCTIONS

as metabolites of glucose, supply

precursors for the synthesis of vital
biological substances
- components of enzymes (glycoproteins)
(Ex. pepsin, pancreatic RNAse, DNAse)

7.

as components of hormones (Ex. FSH, TSH)

Precursors of DNA, RNA and Ascorbic acid

Component for the synthesis of other biologic substances.

Carbohydrates are used to make nucleic acids. It contains
RIBOSE in RNA and Deoxyribose in DNA.
It is contained as well in different stimulating hormones e.g.
FSH, TSH.

2 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

a.
b.
c.
d.

a.
b.
-

Fischer projection
written in linear or straight chain
C1 should always be written above the chain.
Haworths projection
ring sugar
C1 is the carbon written farthest from your right.

D or L FORM of Fischer and Haworth:

a.

Fischer projection
*Reference carbon: PENULTIMATE CARBON - will always be the
Carbon second from the last C.
If OH is on the right D sugar form
If OH is on the left L sugar form
The most common occurring monosaccharide sugar in nature: D form
b.

Haworth projection
Reference point: LAST carbon attached in the ring.
If OH is written above the plane D sugar
If OH is written below the plane - L sugar

n
3
4
5
6
7
8

Monosaccharide Names/Structures
Category
Triose
Tetrose
Pentose
Hexose
Heptose
Octose

Rules to write the OH if its below or above:

(memorize the position of OH group)

SUGAR:
Reference point: C1 of ring projection ANOMERIC
CARBON
sugar will only be specific to Haworth projection not
seen in Fischer projection.
BUDA Beta Up OH, Down OH Alpha

In D-glucose OH is right, left, right, right.

Another rule is that in you are in Fischers projection there is what you call as
Right Down rule . ( Pag right side nakasulat si OH, you are going to right in your
Haworths downward.)
For you to form a ring: there should be linkage of the OH group of the
penultimate carbon and the carbonyl group.

Q: If you have an aldos/ketose sugar, for you to form a ring, what should be
linked?
A:Penultimate carbon linked to carbonyl group.

Name the number of carbon that should be linked:

So you have here your fructose, it has a 6 carbon atoms.
Q: Given a fructose and you want to form a ring structure, name the number of
carbon atoms that should be linked with each other.
A: Carbonyl group at C2 and Penultimate group at C5.

3 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

Q: Given a glucose, an aldose. What should be linked?

A: Carbonyl group of C1 and Penultimate group of C5.

The common name of the above structure is Maltose. Chemical name is Dglucopyranosyl 1,4 D-glucopyranose. The first ends in -syl while the second
will end on -ose.
STEREOISOMERS

Stereoisomers

compounds identical in composition

and differ only in spatial
configuration

mirror images of each other

Optical isomers enantiomers

Rule of n (where n is the # of

asymmetric C ):
2n = no. of possible isomers

CHIRAL CARBON
> is a carbon with 4 different atom groups attached on it.
> all monosaccharides will contain a chiral carbon except Dihydroxyacetone.
In here you release the Hydrogen in here, I would release the Hydrogen in 1 of
the bonds of your C = O to make then as your OH. Si H papasoks sa O to become
an OH. Ive added H kaya yung double bond nawala yung isa. This will be the
product CHOH san napunta yung isang H? kay OH. I have then this O atom in
here. Lets try to number it then. Carbon 1 is farthest from the right. This is your
5 and this is your 6 bakit CH nalang? Kasi si OH nawala siya napunta sa C1 kaya
natira nalang si CH in C5. And this one in C6 is CH2OH.
(Top figure) So I have here (lower left figure) downward OH therefore its . Look
at the Fischer projection of glucose (top figure) Look at C2 the OH is on the right
therefore it should be written downward in Haworth projection (Right Down
rule). In C3 left OH thereby it is written upward uin Haworth projection. C4 OH is
on the right therefore it is written donward. In C5 wala nang OH kasi nailink na
sa C1. In C5 and C6 it will depend only whether its D or L form.

Both are glucose in D form, I am going to form between these 2 glucose units.
Between 2 monosaccharides they will be linked by glycosidic bond. So in every
glycosidic bond that is formed Ill be releasing OH and H that is water(H20)

Q: What is formed and released eventually if you form a glycosidic bond? What
is the linkage?
A: WATER H2O. 1,4

4 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

The chiral carbon of glyceraldehydes is Carbon 2.

STEREOISOMERS
> Dalawang sugar parehong pareho ang number ng carbon, parehong pareho
ang number ng H at O.
> Everything is the same except the position of the OH group.
> Yung isa nasa right yung isa nasa left.
> Chemical formula is the same but the position of the OH group is different.
> Identical in composition but differ in -OH configuration.
a. ENANTIOMERS or OPTICAL ISOMERS
> a type of stereoisomer.
> Mirror image
> If you look at in in front of the mirror, it will be an enantiomer of that one
structure.

Both are the same but they differ in C234 around their chiral carbon. The one
OH is on the right and the other is on the left.

For you to know if its a chiral carbon or not,

For 5 carbon aldose sugar C1 is not a chiral carbon and the last carbon is not a
chiral carbon. So if you have a 5 carbon aldose and the 1st and last carbon atom
is not a chiral carbon, you will have an aldose with a 3 chiral carbon. ALDOSE
C1 and the last carbon is not a chiral carbon, subtract 2.

ISOMERS:
Q: How many number of isomers will Aldohexose have?
2n = no. of possible isomers
n = number of chiral carbons.
A: 24 = 16
Q: How many number of isomers will Fructose have?
A: 6 carbon atoms 3 = 3
23 = 8

In a 5 carbon Ketose sugar, C1 is not a chiral carbon, C2 is not a chiral carbon and
the last one is not a chiral carbon therefore you will just have a 2 chiral carbon.
KETOSE C1, C2 and the last carbon is not a chiral carbon, subtract 3.

In a 6 carbon atoms, you will have 3 chiral carbons because you will subtract the
3 atoms that is not a chira carbon ( C1,C2 & C6).
Q: How many chiral carbons will Aldohexose have?

A: 6 C 2 = 4 chiral carbons.

5 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

You need to memorize whether its a Ketose or an Aldose.

Q: Given a sugar mannose, write the Mannose in Haworths projection.

It is a 6 membered ring
Note:
>C1 it varies, its either OH is down or up unless it is specified as or .
>C5 and C6. It is interchangeable. Unless it is specified as D or L.
>It varies on C2 C3 C4 where the OH will be written upward or downward.
>Remember the Right Down rule( Pag right side nakasulat si OH, you are going
to right in your Haworths downward.)

MANNOSE

b. EPIMERS
it will only apply to Fischers projection, straight chain.
- Two sugars that differ only in the configuration around one carbon
very much the same in other carbons.
- The reference sugar is glucose.

Epimers - Two sugars that differ only in the configuration

around one carbon atom

Glucose is an epimer of Mannose at Carbon 2.

Galactose is an epimer of glucose at Carbon 4.

General Reactions of Monosaccharides

I.

Reactions of sugars due to the carbinol group

A. Formation of phosphate esters of sugars

a.
b.

Alpha D glucose 1 phosphate

Alpha D fructose -1,6 - biphosphate

CARBINOL GROUP
- There are 2 reactions: Glycosidic & Phosphorylation reaction
- is your alcohol group.
- OH of alcohol group may be linked to:
phosphate or another OH of another group which may or may not be
necessarily another carbohydrate.
- You release water and form an O-glycosidic linkage.
- If you form a glycosidic linkage, you form H2O.

atom but

Another is N- glycosidic linkage.

- In N-glycosidic linkage, OH will be linked with your amino group.
- Release water and will form an N-glycosidic linkage.
-The reaction due to your carbinol group will be termed as GLYCOSYLATION
reaction.

Anomers

- isomeric forms of
monosaccharides that differ
only in their configuration
about the hemiacetal or
hemiketal carbon atom
[anomeric C ]
Mutarotation

- interconversion of
the and anomers in
aqueous solution

PHOSPHORYLATION reaction
- Donate the phosphate group at C1of glucose to make glucose 1 phosphate.
- Its reaction is also due to carbinol group/alcohol group.
Formation of the 2 cyclic forms of glucose

c. ANOMERS
- It will only apply in a ring structure, Haworths projection
- They only differ at one carbon.

CARBONYL GROUP
- Reactions due to carbonyl group is C=O
a. OSAZONE REACTION
- The carbonyl group of Aldose will be linked to Phenylhydralazine
- The product of the linkage is crystal called OSAZONE.
- All sugars have soluble Osazone. The only sugar without a soluble Osazone will
be MANNOSE.
- The first reaction due to your carbonyl group is OSAZONE formation.

6 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

REDUCTION
b. OXIDATION REACTION
c. REDUCTION REACTION

General Reactions of Monosaccharides

Reducing actions of sugars
- sugar is oxidized to its corresponding sugar
acid and the Cu ions are reduced to cuprous
ions and formation of yellow-brick red ppt.
A. Fehlings test [Cu in strong alkaline medium]
B. Benedicts test [Cu in weak alkaline medium]
C. Barfoeds test [Cu in an acid medium]\
D. Tollens: silver mirror

- If a sugar is being OXIDIZED the product will be sugar ACID

- If a sugar is being REDUCED the product will be sugar ALCOHOL
If you oxidize a sugar, this will be an aldehedic carbon, Aldehyde, Aldose. If you
have oxidized the aldehyde carbonyl group the product will be ALDONIC acid.
If you ozidize both the aldehedic/carbon carbonyl group and the primary
terminal alcohol group , the product will be ALDARIC or SACCARIC acid.
If you oxidize the primary alcohol group only, it will give you a product of
URONIC acid.
A sugar can be a REDUCING SUGAR if they can be oxidized.
All sugar can be a REDUCING SUGAR except Fructose.
For you to determine if its a Reducing sugar you must have a (+) result of BRICK
RED PRECIPITATE.

Glucose sorbitol or glucitol

Mannose mannitol
Fructose mannitol and sorbitol
Glyceraldehyde glycerol

In reduction process, the product is sugar alcohol. In glucose the alcohol that is
formed is sorbitol or glucitol and so on. Sorbitol is the one being nitrated and
eventually dehydrated to form the isosorbide mononitrate that is used to treat
Angina. Mannitol is a diuretic.
*Memorize the different tests for Carbohydrates.

TEST FOR CHO

Moolisch test- alpha naphtol rxn, general
reaction for CHO
Bials test- orcinol-HCl test, test for pentoses
Tollens test- Phloroglucinol HCl test, test for
pentose and galactose
Seliwanoffs test- resorcinol-HCl, test for
ketohexoses
Kilianis test- test for deoxysugar
Barfoeds test- test for monosacharrides
Moores test test for CHO that contain a
free sugar group

The best test for Fructose is Seliwanoffs test because fructose is a hexose and a
ketose. Killianis is used for deoxysugar. Moolisch test is used to test for all
sugars. Bials test is used for pentoses.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
If we talk about oligosaccharides, we talk about sugar units not the number of
carbon atoms. 2 -10 sugar units is considered oligosaccharides. The simplest
oligosaccharide is Disaccharide.

Disaccharides

A,B,C are all test for the reducing action of your sugar.
Tollens test will not give you a Brick red precipitate instead they will give you a
silver mirror appearance.

- contain 2 to 10 sugar units

- linked by O-glycosidic bond
- most impt. physiologically
Examples:
Maltose : glucose + glucose
Lactose (milk sugar) : glucose + galactose
Sucrose (table sugar): glucose + fructose

Remember the linkage of oligosaccharides for e.g. Maltose is 1,4 the

monosaccharide component of Maltose is glucose + glucose. Lactose is linked via
1,4. Maltose and Lactose are reducing sugars because they dont have the
fructose component. The point of linkage of sucrose is 1,2. Sucrose is not a
reducing sugar because it has a fructose component.
Example you have a polysaccharide, a sries of glucose and you want to add
another glucose. You lengthen it by one sugar unit. Every sugar added to the
polysaccharide, you also make CYANOHYDRIN. You can form cyanohydrins when
an aldose acted with Hydrocyanide, Hydrocyanide + Aldose the product would
be CYANOHYDRIN. Every cyanohydrin woud mean another sugar added. In short
the use of Cyanohydrin formation is to lengthen or extend the sugar unit by
adding another SUGAR UNIT. Also known as FISCHER KILLIANI synthesis.

RUFF DEGRADATION
Series of reaction that removes the reducing carbon from a sugar and
reduces the number of chiral centers

Ruff degradation is used to remove or cleave the carbon series by removing one
carbon.

7 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

CELLUBIOSE
- contains 2 glucose units
- joined by an -glycosidic linkage bet. C1 of and C4 of glucose
- reducing disaccharide
- point of linkage is 1,4
LACTULOSE
-gal B -1,4 fructose
-non reducing agent because it has a fructose component
-Laxative, hepatic encephalopathy
-Lactic acid, formic acid and acetic acid

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

TRI: RAFFINOSE
TETRA: STACHYOSE
PENTA: VERBASCOSE
HEXA: AJUGOSE

PLASMA EXPANDER / DEXTRAN

Dextran is also made up of glucose components. It is used as plsma expanders.
Dextran is very important because it is used as an alternative for blood
transfusion.
INULIN

Inulin (Prebiotic fiber)

All of them contains 1 glucose, 1 fructose and it varies in the amount of

galactose. Trisaccharide is composed of 3 monosaccharide units and contains 1
galactose. Hexa is composed of 4 monosaccharide units therefore it contains 1
glucose and 1 fructose & 4 galactose. It varies only in the number of galactose.
They are not reducing sugar because they all contain a fructose component.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Classification
III. Polysaccharides
- contain more than 10 sugar units
- maybe linear (cellulose) or
branched (glycogen)
Homopolysaccharides [homoglycans]
- contain 1 type of sugar unit
[Ex. starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin]

Heteropolysaccharides [heteroglycans]
- contain more than 1 type of sugar unit
[Ex. Heparin, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
sulfate]

They are labeled either Homo or Hetero polysaccharides. If all are fructose and
contains only 1 sugar or all are glucose, it is classified as Homo. If the sugar unit
contains more than 1 sugar unit it is classified as Heteropolysaccharide. All of
your GAGS are Heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides are your starch,
glycogen, cellulose & inulin. Starch has a straight chain and it has a branched
chain.

Components of starch

1. Amylose 13- 20% of starch

- linear unbranched chain of glucose
molecules ( 1,4 linkages)
2. Amylopectin 80 85% of starch
- branched chains of glucose
molecules ( 1,4 linkages in the chain) with
branching every 24 30 residues via 1,6
linkages
The straight chain of starch is called amylase while the branched chain of starch
is called Amylopectin. In a linear straight chain and all of it contains glucose it is
being linked as 1,4. If it is branched the linkage of it wiil be 1,6. If the starch is
made up of glucose it is called Monosaccharide but if it is made up of Maltose it
is called Disaccharide. Starch is the same with glycogen, it also has a straight and
branched chain. The only difference is starch is the storage form in plants while
Glycogen is for animals. Another difference, starch will branch every 24-30
residues while glycogen will branch every after 8-12 sugar residues. Glycogen
will more often branch that is why it is more highly branched.

- Consists mainly of fructose units joined by

2,1 linkages with a terminal glucose residue
- Used to determine glomerular filtration rate
- Readily soluble in water
- Not hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes

The repeating unit of Inulin is fructose. It is used to test for your glomerular
filtration rate GFR. It can test the filtration of kidney because they are readily
soluble in water. If you take in 500ml and your kidney is functioning, your intake
output must be still 500ml that means you have a well functioning kidneys. The
point of linkage is via 1,2.
CELLULOSE
It is made up of monosaccharide glucose and a disaccharide cellubiose.
* Memorize the component sugar acid and the component amino sugar of each
of these heteropolysaccharide. For e.g. Hyaluronic sugar acid: Acid D-glucoronic
acid amino sugar: N-acetyl, D-glucosamine.

Polysaccharides
I. Heteroglycans
A. Acid mucopolysaccharides (glycosaminoglycans)
group of protective and structural polysaccharides
- mucinsor mucoproteins w/ proteins
- characterized by their content of amino sugar and
uronic acids
1) hyaluronic acid
- (D-glucoronic acid & N-acetyl, D-glucosamine

2) chondroitin sulfate (N-acetylgalactosamine)

3) heparin (N-acetylglucosamine & D-iduronic acid)

Important Derivatives of Monosaccharides

A.

Amino sugars impt. components of glycoprotein,

glycosphingolipids, GAGs

- Glucosamine major amino sugar

(from hydrolysis of chitin; Ex. Hyaluronic acid )
- Galactosamine
(characteristic polysaccharide of cartilage;
Ex. Chondroitin sulfate)
- Sialic acids (Ex. Acetylneuraminic acid, principal SA in
human tissues)
C. N-acetymuramic acid (building block of polysaccharide
backbone of bacterial cell walls)

-endGLYCOGEN
-

Highly branched
Consists of glucose molecules linked by 1,4 linkages in the chain
with branching points every 8 to 12 residues ( 1,6 linkages)

DEXTRIN
This is the product of the incomplete hydrolysis of starch. If you
cleave the starch and not all are cleaved you produce Dextrin. Dextrin is the one
that we are buying in the form of glue. The point of linkage is via 1,2 1,3 &
1,6.

8 | Hazel A. Perilla,RN

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