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Fig. 1
A0 = Original cross section of the specimen.
L0 = Original gauge length.
Ai = instantaneous cross section of the specimen.
Li = instantaneous length of specimen after extension
E = Elasticity limit
N = Necking Point
F = Fracture Point
Fig. 3
Y = Yield point
Fig. 4
i.
Engineering
Fi
Stress S A
0
Fi = instantaneous load
Engineering strain =
True stress
ii.
L L0
L
Change in length
L0
Original length of specimen
L0
Fi
and
Ai
Li
dL
i
True strain L log L
o
L0
True stress is defined as load divided by actual cross sectional area (not original cross sectional area
A0) for that particular load.
Fi
Ai
Similarly, true strain is based on the instantaneous specimen length rather than original length. As such
true strain (or incremental strain) is defined as
d
dL
L
The true strain at load F is then obtained by summing all the increments of equation.
Arithmetically, this can be written as
dL0
dLn
dL1
dL2 dL3
......
L0
L1
L2
L3
Ln
L1
dL
L0
log
L1
L0
True strain is the sum of each incremental elongation divided by the current length of specimen, where
L0 is original gauge length and Li is the gauge length corresponding to load F i. The most important
characteristics of truestress strain diagram is that true stress increases all the way to fracture. Thus true
fracture strength
f is greater than the true ultimate strength u in contrast with engineering stress
5
Relationship between true and engineering stress strains
From volume constancy,
V = A0 L0 = Ai Li
Li
A
0
L0
Ai
e=
Li
L0
Li L0
L0
Li
1
L
( 1 e)
Fi
Ai
Fi
A0
A0
Ai
Li
L0
S (1 e)
Li
L
dL
log i log (1 e)
L
L0
L0
log (1 e)
Engineering stressstrain diagram does not give true and accurate picture of deformation
characteristics of the material because it takes original cross sectional area for all calculations
though it reduces continuously after yield point in extension and markedly after necking. Thats
why we get fracture strength of a material less than its ultimate tensile strength is S u > Sf which is
not true.
2.
Total engineering strain is not equal to sum of incremental strains which defies the logic.
6
Let us have a specimen with length of 50 mm which then is extended to 66.55 in three steps
0
1
2
3
50
50
55
60.5
50
55
60.5
66.55
5
5.5
6.05
E= L
0
5/50 = 0.1
5.5/55 = 0.1
6.05/60.5 = 0.1
5
5 .5
6.05
Now we will calculate total strain considering original and final length after of extension L3 = 66.55
Total engineering strain when extended =
L3 L0
66.55 50
0.331
L0
50
01 12 2 3 =
= log
log
L1
L0
55
60.5
66.55
log
log
50
55
60.5
L3
L0
log
log
L2
L1
log
L3
L 2
= 0.286
66.55
0.286
50
In the case of true strains, sum of incremental strain is equal to the overall strain. Thus true strains are
additive. This is not true for engineering strains.
3.
Fig
L0 = length before extension
L1 = L0 = length after extension
Strain e =
L1 L 0
L0
L1 L 0
L0
L1 = 0
Fig
To obtain strain of 1 the cylinder must be squeezed to zero thickness which is only hypothetical and not
true. Moreover, intuitively we expect that strain produced in compression should be equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign.
Applying true strain formulation, to extension
log
L1
L0
log
2L 0
L0
log 2
To compression; L1 = L0/2
log
L1
L0
log
L0 / 2
L0
log 1 / 2 log 2
gives consistent results. Thus true strains for equivalent deformation in tension and comprehension are
identical except for the sign. Further unlike engineering strains, true strains are consistent with actual
phenomenon.
8
Problem:
The following data were obtained during the true strain test of nickel specimen.
Load
Diameter
Load
Diameter
kN
0
15.30
15.92
16.32
16.5
16.55
mm
6.40
6.35
6.22
6.10
5.97
5.84
kN
15.88
15.57
14.90
14.01
13.12
12.45
Mm
5.11
5.08
4.83
4.57
4.32
3.78
A.
B.
1.
True stress at maximum load.2.True fracture stress.3.True fracture strain.4.True uniform strain .5.
True necking strain. 6.Ultimate tensile strength.7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
16.55 10 3
=
5.84 2
4
Pmax
A
d
ln 0
d
i
d
ln 0
d
i
12.45 10 3
= 1109 MPa
11.22
6.4
3.78
ln
= 617.77 MPa
=
5.
= 1.053
6.4
5.84
ln
=0.183
16.55 10 3
Ultimate tensile stress =
=
= 514 MPa
A max
6.4 2
4
7.
Now, n= log(1+e)
Pmax
9
Load
Diamete
Area
KN
mm2
0
15.3
15.92
16.32
16.5
16.55
15.88
15.57
14.90
14.01
13.12
12.45
True
Pi
mm
6.40
6.35
6.22
6.10
5.97
5.84
5.11
5.08
4.83
4.57
4.32
3.78
(N/mm2)
0
48.31
523.86
558.52
589.50
617.77
774.63
768.13
813.32
854.27
894.95
1109.63
32.17
31.67
30.39
29.22
27.99
26,79
20.5
20.27
18.32
16.40
14.66
11.22
d0
ln
d
i
Ai
P
A
(N/mm2)
0.0156
0.057
0.096
0.139
0.183
0.45
0.46
0.56
0.67
0.786
1.053
0
475.59
494.87
507.30
512.90
514.45
493.62
484.00
463.16
435.5
407.83
387.00
= 0
di
0.0158
0.059
0.10
0.149
0.20
0.568
0.587
0.755
0.961
1.19
1.866
It represents the actual and accurate stress and strain. True strain refers to a length from which that
change is produced rather than to original gauge length.The engineering stresse and strains
provides incorrect values after yield point i.e. plastic zone which a main zone of interest for metal
working.
2. True strains additive i.e. the total overall strain is equal to sum of incremental strains.
10
3. True strains for equivalent deformation in tension and compression are identical except in sign.
4. The volume change is related to the sum of the three normal true strains and with volume constancy.
5. True stress can be related to true strain.
(0 ) n
K () n
= the amount of strain hardening that material received prior to the tension test.
6. Truestresstrue strain values are quite sensitive to change in both metallurgical and mechanical
conditions of matter.
1.
Truestressstrain
Actual values of gauge length and 1.
Engineering
Original cross sectional areas (A0) is
Fi
Ai
Li
dL
L
L0
S=
Fi
A0
Further strain e =
Li L0
is used.
L0
in
strain
The calculated values of stress 2.
3.
11
4.
4.
through
test
costly.
These
in
metal
because
and
convenientless
values
are
widely
working
of
its
fundamental significance.
It is more consistent with the 5.
The solutions to the plasticity problems are quite complex. To obtain solution to these problems,
stress strain curves are idealized by [i] neglecting elastic strains and/or [ii] ignoring the effect work
hardening. Idealization and simplification restrict its field of application.
1. Elastic perfectly plastic
It considers elastic strains and neglects effects of work hardening; it yields more difficult constitutive
relations. As a consequence, it also leads to greater mathematical difficulties in practical applications. It
must be used for those processes in which elastic and plastic strains are of the same order. This is the
case in structural engineering or for bending.
2. Rigid, perfectly plastic
In most metal forming operations, the permanent strains are much longer than the elastic. One therefore
in air no great error by assuming the metal to behave as a rigid body prior to yielding. It is for this
reason that one mainly employs perfectly plastic material idealisation.
12
13
k is strength constant
Fig. 6
In a tension test of stell, a specimen of circular cross section with original diameter 9 mm is used. The
loads applied were 22 kN and 28 kN which reduces its diameter to 8.6 mm and 8.3 mm respectively.
Determine (i) true stress and true strain for given loads (ii) strain hardening exponent and strength
coefficient.
Solution:
d 0 original diameter of specimen = 9 mm
T2
F1
/ 4 d12
22 10 3 ( N )
/ 4 (8.6) 2
F2
/ 4 (8.3) 2
28 10 3
/ 4d2
2
3.78 N / mm 2
517.5 N / mm 2
L1
L0
14
2
d 0 L 0 d12 L1
4
4
d0
d1
log
L1
L0
d0
d1
d
2 log 0
d1
2 log
0.091
8 .6
d
9
2 log 0 2 log
0.1619
d1
8.3
1 K1n
2 K n2
2
1
log 2 n . log 2
1
1
or
log
log
2
1
2
1
log
log
517.5
378 0.54
0.1619
0.091
strength coefficient
K = 1385
N / mm 2
15
1385 () 0.54
Both n and K are material properties: The strain hardening exponent physically reflects the rate at which
the material hardens. The derivative of this equation
d d
n .
In states that fractional change in true stress caused by a fractional change in true strain is determined by
the strain hardening exponent (n). Therefore, the stress increases rapidly with strain for a material that
has a large strain hardening exponent, such as 3O 2 stainless steel (n = 0.3) compared to a material
where n is low such as 4.10 stainless steel (n = 0.1).
Plastic Instability
Necking or localised deformation begins at maximum load where decrease in cross sectional area
which hears the load is compensated by increase in strength due in load
dF = 0
Fig. 7
F .A
dF dA A d 0
16
dA
A
length of specimen
dV = 0 = A. dL + dA L
dA
A
d
d
dL
L
dl
L
Problem
Prove that uniform strain is equal strain hardening exponent (n).
Solution:
Fig.
17
P A A . k () n
log
Ao
A
(1)
A0
A
A A 0 e
(2)
u
When true strain
dP K A 0 [e N (u ) n 1 (1) e u n ] 0
n u n 1 u n
u n
Problem 1:
Hollomon equation for a material is given as
1400 () 0.33 .
material.
Solution:
Ultimate tensile strength of a material is measured at maximum load point and where necking begins.
Upto the necking point, deformation is uniform throughout its gauge length. It is a engineering stress
(S u ).
18
True strain for uniform elongation is equal to strain hardening exponent. Therefore u n.
Ultimate tensile strength = S u
[ (1 e) S]
1 u
u log e (1 e u )
u (1 e u )
n
K . u n
Su
K u
e
en
en
=
0.33
2.71
1400
0.33
698.1 N / mm 2
UTS = 698. 1 N / mm 2
This shows that ultimate strength of a material can be calculated from the value of K and n.
Problem 2:
A metal obeys Hollomon relationship and has a UTS of 300 MPa. To reach the maximum load requires
an elongation of 35%. Find strain hardening exponent (n) and strength coefficient (K).
Solution:
UTS = S u = 300 MPa = 300 N / mm 2
Engineering elongation strain = e u = 35% = 0.35
uniform true strain u log (1 e u ) log (1.35) = 0.3
u S u (1 e u )
but n u 0.3
19
405 K (0.3) 0.3
K 581.2 N / mm 2
Deformation work
Work is defined as the product of force and distance. A quantity equivalent to work per unit volume is
the product of stress and strain. The area under the true stress strain curve for any strain 1 is the energy
per unit volume (u) or specific energy, of the deformed material.
Fig. 9
K () n .
20
K 1n 1
n 1
1
n1
K
u K () .d
n
1
0
n
d K n .d
n1
n
K
m 0 0
1 1
1 0 1 (n 1) 1 (n 1)
K 1n
n 1
The work calculated according to above equation assumes that the deformation is homogeneous through
out the deforming part. This work is called ideal deformation work.
21
Example: Ideal work of deformation
Deformation of fully annealed AA1100 aluminium is governed by the Hollomon equation. If a 10 cm
long bar of this material is pulled in tension from a diameter of 12.7 mm to a diameter of 11.5, calculate
the following:
a.
b.
c.
Solutions
a.
A0
d
2 ln 0
A
d
2 ln
12.7
11.5
0.199
d2
4
(0.0127 m 2
0.1 m 1.26 10 5 m 3
For AA1100, K = 140 MPa and n = 0.25. Note that, as n , the deformation is homogeneous
n 1
Wi K 1
V
n 1
140 10 6
N
m6
0.1991.25
1.25
1.26 10 5 m 3 187.5 N ( J )
1n
n 1
140 MPa
0.199 0.25
1.25
74.8 MPa
22
Yield Criterion
Yield point under simplified condition of uniaxial tension is widely known and documented. But such
simplified conditions [1 Pure uniaxial tension 2 Pure shear] are rare in reality. In many situations
complex and multiaxial stresses are present and in this situation it is necessary to know when a material
will yield. Mathematically and empirically, the relationships between the yield point under uniaxial
tensile test and yield strength under complex situations have been found out. These relationships are
known as yield criteria. Thus yield criterion is defined as mathematical and empirically derived
relationship between yield strength under uniaxial tensile load and yielding under multiaxial complex
stress situation.
Yield Criterion is a law defining the limit of elastic behaviour under any possible combination of
stresses is called yield criterion. Yield criterion is a mathematical expression which unites experimental
observations with mathematical expressions n a phenomenological manner. Yield criteria is primarily
used to predict if or when yielding
will occur under combined stress states in terms of particular properties of the metal being stressed [
0 , K] .
Any yield criterion is a postulated mathematical expression of the stress that will induce yielding or the
onset of plastic deformation. The most general form is
f ( x , y , z, Txy , Tyz , Tzx ) = a constant.
or
For most ductile metals that are isotropic, the following assumptions are invoked:
1.
There is no Bauschinger effect, thus the yield strengths in tension and compression are equivalent.
Bauschinger effect
23
The lowering of yield stress for a material when deformation in one direction is followed by deformation
in the opposite direction, is called Bauschinger effect.
Fig. 10
2.
The constancy of volume prevails so that plastic equivalent of poisons ratio 0.5.
3.
The magnitude of the mean normal stress m 1 2 3 does not cause yielding.
3
The
assumption that yielding is independent of m (also called hydrostatic component of the total state
of stress) is reasonable if plastic flow depends upon shear mechanism such as slip or twinning. In
this context, yield criterion is written as
F[(1 2), (2 3), (3 1)] = C
which implies that yielding depends upon the size of the Mohrs circle and not their position. It is
shown that if a stress state ( 1, 2, 3) will cause yielding, an equivalent stress state (1 , 2 , 3 )
will cause yielding, if,
Two widely used yield criterion:
1. Tresca criterion or maximum shear stress criterion.
2. Von Mises criterion or distortion energy criterion.
1.
Tresca criterion
Tresca found that plastic flow in a metal begins when tangential stress attains a value.
24
Assume that a body is subjected to triaxial stresses. 1 , 2 , 3 are principal stresses and 1 2 3
(algebraically).
Then maximum shear stress
3
Tmax 1
2
when Tmax exceeds a certain value c, specific to that material, yielding will occur. To find the value
of c, the material is subjected to uniaxial tensile test and find out yield point strength ( 0 ).
For uniaxial tensile test, stress situation is
1 0 , 2 3 0
3 0
Tmax 1
c
2
2
3 0
1
2
2
or
1 3 0
2 0 3 k
k k 0
0
2
0.5 0
Application:
x , y, Txy
x y
2
x y
(Txy ) 2
25
ii)
x y
x y
2
2
(Txy ) 2
1 0
when 3 0
1 3 0
when 3 0
2 2 (1 2 )
3
2 1
2
Shortcomings
1.
An essential short coming of this criterion is that it ignore the effect of intermediate principal stress
( 2 ).
2.
Since pastic flow depends upon slip phenomenon which is essentially a shearing.
Slip is
practically absent in brittle materials. Therefore application of this criterion is limited to ductile
materials. This criterion is not applicable to crystalline brittle material which cannot be brought
into plastic state under tension but yield a little before compress fracture in compression.
3.
Failure of/ yielding of a material under triaxial pure tension condition where 1 2 3 can not
be explained by this criterion.
4.
It suffers from a major difficulty that it is necessary to know in advance which are maximum and
minimum stresses.
5.
Moreover, the general form of this criterion is far more complicated than the Von Mises criterion.
Therefore Von Mises criterion is preferred in most theoretical (not practical) work.
26
Von Mises Criterion
According to this criterion, yielding will occur when shear strain energy per unit volume reaches a
critical value. The shear strain energy per unit volume is expressed terms of three principal stresses:
e
1
( 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
G 1
1 3
2
2 0
3 k
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
(k 0 0) 2 (0 k 0 ) 2 (k 0 k 0 ) 2 2 0 2
k 02 2 y2
y
3
= 0.557 0
This is the relationship between shear yield strength and tensile yield strength of the material as per Von
Mises criterion.
27
k 0.5 0 2
Tresca criterion
k 0 0.577 0
Von Mises criterion satisfy the experimental data better than Tresca and therefore k
y
3
value is
normally used.
Advantages of Von Mises criterion
1.
It overcomes major deficiency of Tresca criterion. Von Mises criterion implies that yielding is not
dependent on any particular normal stress but instead, depends on all three principal shearing
stresses.
2.
Von Mises criterion conforms the experimental data better than Tresca and therefore more realistic.
3.
Since it involves squared terms, the result is independent of sign of individual stresses. This is an
important since it is not necessary to know which is the largest and the smallest principal stress in
order to use this criterion.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x y ) ( y z ) ( z x ) 6 (T xy T yz T zx ) 2 0
Effective stress
With the yield criterion, it is useful to define an effective stress denoted as which is function of the
applies stresses. If the magnitude of reaches a critical value, then the applied stress will cause
yielding.
For Von Mises criterion
(
2
1 2 )
( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
1/ 2
28
3 k .
2k
Von Mises
Tresca
Two
principal stresses
x y
x y
1
2
2
x y
2
x y )
1
1 ( 2 )
E
1
2 ( 1 )
E
1
0 ( 1 2 )
E
Txy 2
Txy 2
1
1 ( 2 3 )
E
1
2 (1 3 )
E
29
3
1
3 (1 2 )
E
let 2 0 2 (1 3 )
3
1 , 1
, 3
2
3
1 1
1 3
3
2
( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
3
1 . 3 2 2 0 2
2
1 3 ) 2
0 '0
'0 1.155 0 =
30
Yield criterion
Maximum shear stress
Maximum distortion
Criterion (Tresca)
Plane
Plane
Pure
Stress
Strain
Shear
2 0, min 2
2
1
2
1 3 k 2 0
1 0 ..... 3 ve
1 3 0
1 3 0
1 3 0 3 ve
2 k = 0
k=
Plane stress
Plane strain
12 3 2 1 3 0 2
Pure Shear
13
2
1 3
Tresca criterion
1. This criterion is also known as
phenomenon
yielding
slip
maximum shear
to
1
0
3
0
2
stress exceeds a
exceeds
certain
value
which
characteristic
1 3 0
of
the
is
material.
31
where 1, 2 , 3 are principal
stresses, and 1 2 3 .
(
2
2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2
( 3 1 ) 2 1 / 2
Or
0
1
( y ) 2 ) 2 ( y z ) 2
2 x
( z x ) 2
( 2 xy 2 yz 2 zx )
materials
and
1/ 2
hence
materials.
3.
4.
32
Superimposed
6. Von Mises criterion is preferred where
6. Tresca criterion is preferred in analysis
for simplicity.
2 0
33
Fig. 11 : Tresca yield locus. In the six sectors, the following conditions apply:
I
3 1 0, so 3 Y
II
3 1 0, so 3 Y
III 1 0 3 , so 1 3 Y
IV 0 1 3 0, so 3 Y
0 3 1 , so 1 Y
VI 3 0 1 , so 3 1 Y
For a biaxial plane stress condition ( 2 0) the Von Mises criterion can be expressed
mathematically,
12 3 2 1 3 0 2
Fig. 12
semiaxis is
34
\Comments
1.
Yielding will occur if the point representing the given stress is plotted and is on the boundary or
outside the boundary.
2.
The yield locus of maximum shear stress criterion [Tresca criterion] fall inside the maximum
distortion energy criterion [Von Mises] yield locus.
3.
Two yield criteria predict the same yield stress for conditions of uniaxial stress and balanced
biaxial stress (1 3 ). The greatest divergence between the two criteria occurs for pure shear
(1 3 ).
4.
The yield stress predicted by the Von Mises criterion is 15.5% greater than the yield stress,
predicted by Tresca criterion.
Derive a mathematical expression for Von Mises yield criterion applicable to plane strain stress
condition:
Solution:
Von Mises yield criterion is stated as
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
where 1 , 2 , 3 are three principal stresses and 0 is the yield strength of material. In plane strain
stress condition, the intermediate principal stress is arithmetic mean of other two.
1 2 3 , we can write
3
2 1
2
1 3
3
2
3 1 2 2 0 2
(1 3 ) 2 (1 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
2 02
4
4
1
Assuming
35
(1 3 ) 2
2 02
4
(1 3 ) 2 8 / 6 0 2
1 3
2
3
0 0'
0 ' is called constrained strength of material and is 115 times the yield strength under uniaxial tensile
test.
PROBLEM
A stress analysis of a space craft structural member gives the state of stress as below:
200
Tij 30
0
30
100
0
0
50
If the part is made of aluminium alloy with strength 500 MPa, will it exhibit yielding as per Tresca yield
criterion and von Mises yield criterion? If not, what is the safety factor?
Data given:
x 200 MPa
y 100 MPa
z 50 MPa
Tx y 30 MPa
(1)
x y 2 y z 2 z x 2 6 T 2 T 2 T 2
x y
y z
z x
2
1/ 2
2
2
2
2
2
200 100 100 50 50 200 6 30 0 0
1/ 2
c 224 MPa
The calculated stress ( c ) is less than the yield strength of the material ( 0 ) , yielding will not occur as
per von Mises criterion
36
Factor of safety =
(ii)
0
c
500 MPa
= 2.2
224 MPa
Tzy
20
3
0
20
3
0
I1 =
0
50
0 10
5
3
10
0
Txz
200 30
Tyz 30 100
0
z
0
Txy
y
3
10
0
0
0
5
x y z 20 10 5 25
I2
x
Txy
Txy
y
Tyz
z
+ T
yz
Txz
z
+ T
xz
= 191 50 100
I2 = 41
I 3 Tij
20
10
= 1000 + 45
I3 = 955
f ( ) 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0
10
10
37
3 25 2 41 955 0
f(y) = y3 + py2 + qy + r = 0
p = 25
q = 41
r =
a=
955
1
1
3q p 2 3 41 625
3
3
a = 167.3
1
2(25)
=
27
b=
1
2p 3 9 pq 27 r
27
3
b = 139.25
b
Cos =
a
2
= 99.620
100
139.25
167.3
g = 2
g = 14.94
P
25
99.62
14.94 cos
3
3
3
3
y1 = g cos
y1 = 20.83
38
P
25
99.62
120
14.94 cos
120
3
3
3
3
y2 = g cos
y1 = 5
P
25
99.62
249
14.94 cos
240
3
3
3
3
y3 = g cos
y3 = 9.16
3 = 5 10 = 50 MPa
To apply Tresca criterion;
Tmax =
Tmax <
1 3
2
0
2
208.3 ( 50)
129.15 MPa
2
250 MPa
Factor of safety =
0 / 2
Tmax
250
1.94
129.15
PROBLEM
1.
A thin walled tube with closed ends is to be subjected to maximum internal stress pressure of 0.35
N/mm2 in service. The mean radius of the tube is to be 304.8 mm and it is not to yield in any
region.
a. If the material has 0 = 7 N/mm2, what minimum thickness t should be specified according to
Tresca and von Mises criterion.
b. If the shear yield strength K , were specified as 2.8 N/mm2, find t.
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Soln:
a.
1 =
pr
2t
2 =
pr
2t
hoop stress
axial stress
3 = 0
radial stress
pr
0
t
0.35 304. 8
7
t
t = 15.24 mm
1
2
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
1 1
12
4
6 12
0
2
12
4
12 2 0 2
2 0 2
2
3
p r
0
2
3
0 1 2 2 0 2
60
0.35 304.8
2
7
t
3
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t = 13.19 mm
when 0 is the specified property and t is the unknown, the Tresca criterion is more
conservative.
b.
K = 2.8 N/mm2
= 2K
pr
2K
t
0.35 304.8
2 2 .8
t
t = 19.05 mm
612
4
6K 2
1 2 K
p r
2K
t
0.35 304.8
2 2. 8
t
t = 19.05 mm
NOTE:
When K is the specified property, both criteria predict the same value for t.
2.
Consider the same problem as above except that t is specified as being 25.4 mm and the values of
0 and K are unknown using both yield criteria.
a.
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b.
a.
Tresca criterion:
1 3 0
pr
0
t
pr
pr
; 2
; 3 0
t
t
0.35 304. 8
0
25.4
0 = 4.2 N/mm2
0 3
2
1
2
0.35 304.8
3
2
25.4
0 3.64 N / mm 2
1 2K
b.
4.2
2
K=
K = 2.1 N/mm2
6 1 2
1 2K
K = 2.1 N/mm2
6K2
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