INTRODUCTION

1.1

General

The Himalayas and Indian Ocean, two of the most pronounced global feature
surrounding the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, have a common origin. Both are the product
of the geodynamic processes of sea floor spreading, continental drift and collision
tectonics. A plate of the earths crust carrying the Indo-Pakistan landmasses rifted away
from the supper continent Gondwanaland followed by extensive sea floor spreading and
opening up of the Indian Ocean, Lefort (1975). Propelled by geodynamic forces the
Indian Plate traveled 5,000 km northward and eventually collided with Eurasia. The
subduction of the northern margin of the Indian Plate finally closed Neotethys and the
Indian Ocean assumed its present widespread expanse. This collision formed the
Himalayas and adjacent mountain ranges, Molnar (1986).
Northward the Himalayan terrain terminates along the Indus Tsangpo suture Zone
(ITSZ). Molnar (1984, 1988) on the basis of geophysical data indicated that the
continental crust in this region (High Himalayas and Tibetan plateau) is 50 to 80 km thick
which is twice of the normal crustal thickness. This feature has been attributed to the
continued under thrusting and under plating of India Plate beneath Eurasian Plate.

The collision between Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate is a modern example of
continental-continental collision which followed the closing of the Tethys Ocean. The
spectacular elevation of the Himalayas is the geological expression of this collision
(Molnar and Tppoinner, 1975; Molnar, 1986), which is responsible for the tectonic
activity that is continuing at the present time (Devey and Bird, 1970).
The Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS) and Nanga Parbat Syntaxis are also developed by
the collision of Indian and Eurasian plate. The present study area lies in the core of HKS.
A series of thrust faults and strike slip faults have been developed in the study area.

1.2: Regional Tectonics

It was widely accepted that the Himalayan mountain range was created by the
collision between Indian and Eurasian plates (Ganssar, 1964; Lefort, 1975). In northern
India, the Indus Suture Zone is the apparent boundary between the Indian and Eurasian
plates (Ganssar, 1964; Molnar, 1984). However in northern Pakistan the Indus Suture
Zone is bifurcated into Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) and Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT).
(Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Bard et al., 1980; Molnar, 1986).The northern suture zone, the
MKT separates the intrusive the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Eurasian Plate
from the Kohistan terrain, whereas the southern suture zone MMT separates the Kohistan
Island Arc from the Metasediments of northern margin of the Indian Plate. The Island arc
is composed of a sequence of high density rocks, while the continental crustal rocks of
the Indian and Eurasian plates are typically of lower density (Desio, 1979; Tahirkheli,
1982, 1984).

The continued convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plate has been
accommodated by crustal shortening along the different thrusts, with an apparent
progression of the thrusts from northwest (Le Fort, 1975). The present shortening is
occurring through activation of shallow thrust faults within the Indian plate along Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT), Salt Range Thrust and by thrusting of Indian plate under the
Eurasian plate. In western Himalayas the collision of Indian and Eurasian plates formed
south verging folds and thrust belts over the basement rocks of frontal block. Himalayas
are extended from Burma to India and then in Kashmir and Northern Pakistan. In
Kashmir and Northern Pakistan these are bended and formed the Nanga Perbat Syntaxis
and Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (Fig. 1.1).

Project Area

Fig.1.1. Tectonic Framework of Pakistan. MKT = Main Karakoram Thrust,

MMT = Main Mantle Thrust, MCT = Main Central Thrust, PT = Panjal Thrust,
MBT=Main Boundary Thrust, NT = Nathiagali Thrust JF = Jhelum Fault. Compiled bys
Rustam (1994).

1.3

MAJOR TECTONIC SUBDIVISIONS OF HIMALAYAS

Ganssar (1964) subdivided the Himalayas into Higher Himalayas, Lesser

Himalayas and Sub Himalayas from North to South.
1)

Higher Himalayas

2)

Lesser Himalayas

3)

Sub Himalayas

`1.3.1 Higher Himalayas

The higher Himalayas previously referred to as the Great Himalayas (Burrard
and Hayden, 1908), from a relatively wide and high mountain range with an average
altitude of 6,000 m. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) forms the base of huge 1015 km
thick slab of high grade metamorphic rocks which overlie the lesser Himalayas. In the
north of Main Central Thrust (MCT) the region of Higher Himalayas is present. The
rocks of Higher Himalayas are exposed in the north of the project area. The tectonic limit
of this unit is demarcated by Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the south and Main Mantle
Thrust (MMT) in the north.

1.3.2

Lesser Himalayas

Lesser Himalayas with an average altitude of 3,700 m, is bounded to the north by

the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and to the south by MBT. In it western part, this zone is
comprised of Precambrian to Late Paleozoic meta-sediments (including carbonates with
Rephean stomatolites), and Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks. These metasediments have been over ridden by thrust napes of high grade gneisses derived from the
Central Crystalline (Valdiya, 1980; Sinha, 1981). The high complicated structure of the
lesser Himalayas and the difficulties in stratigraphic correlation has led to different
interpretations by various workers.

1.3.3

Sub Himalayas

The Sub Himalayas forms the foothills of the Himalayan Range and is essentially
composed of Miocene to Pleistocene molasses sediments derived from the erosion of the
Himalayas. These molasses deposits, known as the Murree formation (Miocene) and
Siwaliks (Pleistocene), are internally folded and imbricated. Traces of active fault the
Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) cut the alluvium in the foothill region. According to
(Nakata 1989) this fault is comprises of a series of en-echelon fault which run parallel to
the strike of the hills between Punjab and Assam. In north this sequence is terminated by
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), which marked the boundary between the Sub-Himalayas
and Lesser Himalayas. The elements of Sub-Himalayas are present in the core of Hazara
Kashmir Sytaxis (HKS).

1.4

Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis

Syntaxis is generally the name given to the aggregation of fold axis along a point.
The syntaxial bend at the western end of Himalayas is one of the most important
structures to be accounted for in any analysis of the Pakistan fold belt. The Hazara
Kashmir Syntaxis is located to the south of Kohistan constitute a great regional bend
which has cause inflection of the rocks of the western Himalayas and Hindu Kush.
Wadia (1931) suggested that, these syntaxial fluxtures are the result of compressional
folding about the Naze of Indian shield, which has involved the entire width of
Himalayas of over 200 Km. Ganssar (1964) considered that the bending of western
Karakoram from SE-NW to the EW trending Hindu Kush is the reflection of northern
syntaxis. The HKS is considered as result of

interaction between three

tectonic

elements,(a) The Himalayas (b) The Indo-Pakistan shield (c) Salt Range, each of which is
moving independently. The spectaculaular structural feature of the Himalayas was first
discussed in detail by Wadia (1931) who referred to it as the Northwest Himalayan
Syntaxis. Since then several authers have proposed different names e.g. Punjab

Oroclinal (Caray, 1958), Abbotabad Syntaxis (HSC, 1960), Western Himalayan

Syntaxis (Ganssar, 1964), Punjab Re-entrant (Johnsen et al., 1976), Kashmir
Santaxis (Crawford, 1974), Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (Calkins et al., 1975; Desio,
1976) and Jhelum Re-entrant (Visser et al., 1978)
In recent years most workers have referred to it as the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis
(Sarwar et al., 1979; Bossart et al., 1984, 1989; Ghazanfar et al., 1986; Ottiger, 1986;
Wells et al., 1987; Greco et al., 1993).

The Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis is a major bend of strike at the western end of
Himalayas (Fig. 1.1). The Himalayas having traveled miles in northwest direction
suddenly north and then bend backward to the south ro make this tectonic feature of the
area. This syntaxial bend at the western end of the Himalayas is unique in the sense that
quite competent rocks have strongly undergone flexuring over relatively short distance
along it. At this bend the regional trend curve through nearly 90 from SE Himalayas
trend to the NE trend of the Salt Range and locally individual fault can be traced through
180 (Wadia, 1931; Calkins et al., 1975). The Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis should probably
be considered as the result of interaction between three tectonic elements, (a) The
Himalayas (b) The Indo-Pakistan Shield (b) Salt Range, each of which is moving
independently. The Project area lies in the core of Hazara Kashmir Sytaxis (HKS)
(Fig. 1.2).

Seeber and Armbruster (1979) on the basis of seismic data suggested that the
tectonics of the region is extremely complex. They distinguished two NW-SE trending
Seismic Zones i.e The Indus Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ) and Hazara Lower Seismic
Zone (HLSZ). These Seismic zones are well defined by deeper crustal seismicity and
they are discordant to the exposed arcuate structural trend of the Hazara Arc. The Indus
Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ) is more active as compare to the Hazara Lower Seismic
Zone (HLSZ). Rustam (1994) marked the Bagh Basement Fault (BBF) between Indus
Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ) and Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ). He suggested

that SW-SE ward shortening developed in the eastern and western limb of Hazara
Kashmir Sytaxis (HKS) respectively due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plate.

The core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis comprises of Hazara Formation of Precambrian age
and Muzaffarabad Formation of Cambrian age, whereas in the southern part, the Murree
Formation and Siwaliks Group are exposed on the surface. In the south of study area
along Salt Thrust Front, the rocks of Precambrian to Eocene age are exposed on surface
whereas in the east of the study area in Kotli, the rocks of Paleocene to Pliocene age are
exposed on the surface.

Fig. 1.2: Generalize Tectonic map of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis in Northern Pakistan &
Kashmir. MT = Manshern Thrust PT = Panjal Thrust, MBT Main Boundary
Thrust, KBT = 9Kashmir Boundary Thrust, RT = Riwat Thrust, KT = Kahutta
Thrust, HLSZ = Hazara Lower Seismic Zone and BBF = Bagh Basement
Fault. Complied by Rustam (1994).

1.5

The Main Central Thrust (MCT)

The

main

tectonostratigraphic

Central
slab

in

Thrust
the

separates
north

from

the
the

Higher

Himalayas

Lesser

Himalayas

tectonostratigraphic slab in the south. Auden (1973) and Heim and Gansser
(1939), while working in Garhwal and Kumaun (1978), defined a major thrust
between the sedimentary formations and moderately metamorphosed rocks and
they gave it the name Main Central Thrust (MCT). Valdiya (1980) has shown that
it lies at a high level than originally proposed and occurs within an inverted
metamorphic sequence. According to some Himalayan geologists (Le Fort, 1975;
Valdiya, 1980) MCT forms a ductile zone associated with the main phase of
Himalayan deformation. At several the MCT lies above a more brittle and
younger thrust known as Jologh or Manssiari Thrust which is responsible for
over- thrusting of the crystalline outliers of the lesser Himalayas. The central
crystalline complex has been intruded by two-mica leucogranite.

1.6

Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)

A hairpin-shaped system of faults truncates the Murree Formation on the east,

north and west. Main Boundary Thrust has special significance for northern Pakistan,
because seismotectonic investigation Hazara and adjoining regions have yielded
information on deep crustal tectonic alignment between the MBT with Pattan in
Kohistan.
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the lesser Himalayan pre-collision in
the eastern limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS) from west to east Murree Thrust,
Koral Thrust, Kathmandu Thrust and Gondonwana Thrust are generally considered as the
continuation of Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). In this area Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) is less deform as compared to the western limb where a series of southeast
verging parallel thrust fault (NE-SW to E-W) off shoot from the northwest trending
strike-slip fault (JF) along the river Jhelum . Some recent workers suggested the name of

Murree thrust on both the limbs of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS) as the Main
Boundary Thrust (Treloar et al., 1989, 1990 and Greco, 1991). This fault trending northwestward near Nauseri in Neelum valley and turns westward near apex of the Syntaxis
and then bends southward towards Balakot. This fault is exposed very well between
Islamabad and Rara (Muzaffarabad). In the north of Rara, Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
is not exposed on the surface.

1.7

Panjal Thrust

The Panjal Thrust runs parallel to Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) on the eastern
limb of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). In eastern limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis
(HKS), PT runs parallel to the MBT whereas in the western limb MBT follows an
oblique course. In this area the gap between the MBT and PT is wider as compared to its
eastern counterpart. According to Wadia (1931), Calkins et al. (1975), Bossart et al.,
Greco (1984,1991), the two faults join about 5 km north of Balakot. Greco (1991) used
the name Mansehra Thrust for PT in the western limb of HKS. He suggested that PT
separates from MBT about 6km south of Balakot and continues SE ward under alluvium
up to Ghari Habibullah. In this area PT is not exposed on the surface.

1.8

Jhelum Fault

The Jhelum Fault is a left-lateral strike slip fault and lies in the eastern part of the
Potwar Plateau. Kazmi (1977) pointed out that the fault along the west of the axial zone
of the Syntaxis was a strike-slip fault and he named it as the Jhelum fault. The blocks of
Panjal volcanic and Triassic Limestone have been dragged several kilometers southward.
The Jhelum Fault apparently dislocates the MBT and terminates the eastward
continuation of some of the structures of NW Himalayan fold and thrust belt which
shows that it is the youngest major tectonic feature. Rustam (1994) on the basis of
geophysical data marked the Jhelum strike-slip fault in the south of Muzaffarabad.

10

1.9

Kashmir Boundary Thrust

Kashmir Boundary Thrust is also named as Himalayan Frontal Thrust. This is the
fault along which earthquake of 8th October 2005 struck. Rustam (2003) pointed out that
KBT is a shallow thrust fault developed due to the stresses caused by the collision of
Indian and Eurasian plates and the presence of Kuldana Shales which acts as a
decollement for the overlaying sedimentary wedge. From Bagh to Chikar this fault is
running between Murree Formation and Siwaliks and in the north-east of Chikar,
Siwaliks has been eroded and the Murree Formation is exposed o the surface. Kashmir
Boundary Thrust (KBT) south of MBT emplaces the Cambrian Muzaffarabad Formation
on the Miocene Murree Formation. The tilted terraces, linear landslides, active alluvial
fans, and Km brittle shear zone are present along fault. It dies out in the northwest of
Balakot and the extends Southeast of Sudhangali towards Bagh. The northwest-trending
and 60-85 northeast dipping imbricate active rupture zone extends 80 Km from Balakot
to Sudangali.The rupture zone passes through Balakot, Muzaffarabad, Kardalla, Bandi
Karim Haidershah, Sarain, Chikar and Sudhangali.of Murree Formation.

1.10

Project Formulation

The project area lies in the core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). The main
purpose of this study is to delineate the surface and subsurface structural features in the
core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). The project was formulated to have gravity
study in the area bounded by latitude 324500 and 333000 N and longitude 730826
and 740000E. For this study we take the gravity data of project area to generate
gravity models to explain the subsurface structural elements and thickness of the crust.
The gravity observations were made in project area where no geophysical work has been
done so far. The important step during the field operation is the establishment of main
station and auxiliary base station. The location of the base station for the gravity
measurement is based primarily to pick the signals from the major structures. The area
under the investigation was easily approachable and a bit difficult in some areas. The

11

readings were taken in a closed interval of 2 km to delineate the subsurface geological

structures. These structural features are Jhelum Strike Slip Fault, Riwat Thrust Fault,
Kahota Thrust Fault and Salt Dome.

1.11

Previous Geophysical Work

Geodetic measurement has been made in the Himalayas for over 125 years and it
has been of great importance in the determination of the deep structure of the earths
crust. From the 1800s the Trigonometrical survey of Indian and subsequently the survey
of India have been continuing gravity and geodetic measurements in the Himalayas.
These data provide the basis for suggesting a thickening or doubling of the continental
crust under the Himalayas and Tibet (Qureshi et al., 1974; Chaudhry, 1975; Kono, 1974;
Mishra, 1982).

In the northern Pakistan gravity measurements have been done primarily by

various researches under the direction of Ardito Desio and Antonio Marussi (Marussi,
1976). Malinconico (1986), has conducted gravity and magnetic survey across the Main
mantle Thrust (MMT) and Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT). He is the first worker who
analyzed two dimensionally the terrain-corrected gravity data. He suggested that the
Indian plate is being thrusted under Eurasian plate and that the major structure in this
region dip towards north. The northern structure being older, dip steeper than those of the
south which are younger.

In the south, Farah et al. (1977) analyzed the Precambrian basement of the Punjab
plain and Potwar plateau by gravity modeling. They suggested that the shield elements
with increasing sediments cover can be followed northward movement beneath the
southern thrust of Himalayas.
Rustam and Ali (1994), on the basis of the gravity and magnetic data delineate
the subsurface structures along the MBT and NT in the western limb of HKS. The
purpose of the present study is to delineate surface and subsurface elements and thickness

12

of the crust in the core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. These structural features are Jhelum
Strike Slip Fault, Riwat Thrust Fault, Kahota Thrust Fault and Salt Dome.

13

14

GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

2.1

Geological units of the project area

The geological units of the study area are ranging in age from Precambrian to
Pliocene. The geology of the project area with brief description of each rock unit of the
study area is given in Table-2.1, which is approved by Stratigraphic Committee of
Pakistan (1977)

15

Tabel 2.1 Geological Succession of the study Area:

Formation

Age

Thickness
Description
in meters
Unconsolidated deposits of clay, silt, gravel.
--

Alluvial
Recent
Terraces
Unconformity.
Poorly sorted conglomerates consisted of
Mirpur
Pleistocene 20
pebbles, cobbles of igneous, sedimentary and
Formation
metamorphic rocks.
Unconformity.
Soan
Brown, yellowish grey clays and claystone,
Pliocene
600
Formation
grey sandstone.
Grey, fine to medium grained, medium to thick
Dhok Pathan Late
1720
bedded sandstone with clay and siltstone
Formation
Miocene
sandstone 60% and clays 40%.
Greenish grey to light grey, massive medium
Nagri
Late
to coarse gained sandstone, siltstone and
1160
Formation
Miocene
mudstone. The sandstone alternate with clays.
It includes 40% clays and 60% sandstone.
Red to purple, greenish grey, ash grey
Middle to
Chinji
sandstone and siltstone, purple and reddish
Late
933
Formation
brown mudstone. 60% clays and 40%
Miocene
sandstone.
Early
to
Sandstone,
clays
and
intraformational
Kamlial
Middle
261
conglomerates.
Formation
Miocene
Murree
Early
Clays, shales and sandstone. Sandstone is fine
682
Formation
Miocene
to medium grained red and purple red.
Kuldana
Middle to
Variegated shales, clays with subordinate
150
Formation
Late Eocene
sandstone.
Chorgali
Early
Shales,
nodular
limestone,
dolomitic
50
Formation
Eocene
limestone, clays and quartzite.
Margalla Hill Early
Mainly nodular limestone with shales, highly
22
Limestone
Eocene
fossiliferrous.
Patala
Late
70
Mainly shales with interbedded limestone.
Formation
Paleocene
Hangu
Early
10
Laterite, bauxite and fireclay.
Formation
Paleocene
Muzaffarabad
Dolomitic limestone, cherty dolomite and chert
Cambrian
254
Formation
bands.
Unconformity.
Salt Range
Precambrian 1000
Salt, Marl and Gypsum
Formation
Precambrian Basement rocks
16

PLANNING ACQUISITION AND REDUCTION OF

GRAVITY DATA
3.1

Planning of Gravity Survey

Proper planning is very important for any kind of geophysical survey to solve the
problems pertaining to the field work and quality of data. Therefore it means that
planning should not only provide better information and good results, but it must also
enhance the signals to noise ratio. A preliminary planning is necessary for conducting
such type of geophysical work, for obtaining better results and to take other problems
faced during the survey. The purpose of survey and the topography of the area were,
considered during the survey. The working condition of the instrument was checked
everyday during the survey. The main consideration during the field operation is the
establishment of the base stations, auxiliary base station and there pattern in the study
area.

3.2

Data Acquisition

As mentioned earlier profile pattern gravity survey has been carried out. The
national and auxiliary base stations have been established in the study area. The data was
collected by occupying station at an interval of 1 to 2 km. The gravity and elevation
measurements were made at base station at least twice during a day. The drift in the
behavior of the gravity meter was very low. At each station, relevant geological and
topographic information was also recorded. This information helped us to understand the
structural trend of the study area.

17

3.2.1

Gravity Measurement

The gravity measurements were made with CG-5 Autograve (Photo 3.1). The
maximum measuring range of CG-5 gravity meter is 1000m gals, with residual long-term
drift less then 0.02 mgals per day.

3.2.2

Elevation Determination
The elevation measurements were made by using Global Positioning System

(GPS).

3.2.3

Establishment of Base Station

The main base station for the gravity survey was established in Rawalpindi. It is
national base station. It was precisely connected by looping system with the international
gravity station. The gravity at the national base station in Rawalpindi has previously
been tied to the Teddington and Washington Pendulum station (Farah and Mirza, 1964).
The auxiliary base station was established in Chella Bandi. Therefore all the
measurements in this study have been tied into the international gravity network. The
value of gravity at base station is shown in the Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 National, main and auxiliary gravity base stations in the study area.

Stations

National Base St.(Rawalpindi)

Gravity

Elevation

Latitude

Longitude

(mgals)

(meters)
33 58 60 N

73 03 34E

493

33 34 61 N

73 08 24E

414

33 08 92N

73 4502E

9799350.30 511

Main Base St. (University Guest House 979356.81

Pakistan Town Rawalpindi )
Auxiliary Base St. (Roopyal Hotel Mirpur) 979340.25

18

Photo 3.2 Showing CG-5 Autograv.

19

3.2.4

Profile Layout

Since the purpose of survey is to delineate the subsurface geological structures

more clearly. Therefore it was decided to conduct the regional profiles pattern gravity
survey across the geological structures in the projected area. The station interval was
generally kept 2 km in regional gravity survey and is carried out along different profiles
as shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Profile layout

Profile No.
1.

3.3

Roads
Rawalpindi to Sri Alamgir

Data Processing

The main object of the data processing is to improve the signal to noise ratio of
the observed data for reliable interpretation. Gravity data has been reduced to the sea
level by applying conventional correction such as Free Air Correction, Bouguer
Correction and Drift Correction, Latitude Correction; however the instrument itself for
the gravity data corrects Terrain Correction.

The data reduction process involved errors due to inaccurate measurements of

heights, density and co-ordinates of the observed points.
Different stages of data reduction and processing are described as follows;
1. Bouguer Anomaly Determination.
2. Free-Air-Anomaly Determination.
3. Profile Making.

20

3.3.1

Bouguer Anomaly Determination

Bouguer Anomaly is simply the result of variations in the subsurface density. The
field observations of gravimeter are the gravity differences between an arbitrary reference
point and a series of field stations. These differences are removed by applying corrections
on the observed data.

B.A =

3.3.2

(gobs

DC

B.C

F.A.C) Th. value of g at each station

Free Air Anomaly Determination

Free Air Anomaly is the result of variations in the distance of field stations from
the earths centre than the datum plane.

F.A.A = (gobs

3.4

F.A.C) Th. value of g at each station

Gravity Data

The field gravity measurements, which vary from place to place, are largely
affected by elevation difference, latitudinal change and the gravity meter drift. Therefore
to recover the density related gravity variations the field data need to be corrected to
compensate the effects of the influencing factors.
Two corrections were made to neglect the elevation factor;
I. Bouguer Correction (to eliminate the gravity effect of the rock mass
between the observation point and the datum).
II. Free-air-Correction (to compensate for variation in distance of the
measurement point from the Earths center).
These corrections were applied relative to a vertical datum i.e. sea level.

21

3.4.1

Drift Correction (D.C)

The CG-5 Autograve provides software based automated method to determine

the drift constant and update the internal correction information automatically. This
method provides a convenient way to determine the drift constant that is accurate for
most applications. For the highest accuracy dump the data and process it offline. The rate
of drift is calculated by the following formula;
Drift Rate = R2-R1/T
Where R1 and R2 are the initial and final readings and T is the total time.
The Drift correction is calculated by using formula;
Drift Correction = Drift rate T2-T1
Where T1 and T2 are the initial and final time.

3.4.2

Free Air Correction (F.A.C)

The Free Air correction is correct for decrease in gravity with the increase of
height from the sea level at the rate of 0.3086 mgal/m and vise versa. Thus, to reduce the
observed field gravity data to a datum plane passed through the mean sea level. The
heights of the observed gravity stations from the mean sea level are multiplied with the
given factor 0.3086 to estimate Free Air correction. This correction is added for positive
elevation differences and vise versa. It is opposite to the Bouguer correction.
F.A.C = 0.3086h/m
3.4.3

Bouguer Correction (B.C)

Generally spaces filled with some rock masses whose density may vary from
place to place. This correction is made to remove this effect by approximating the rock
layer beneath the observation station to an infinite horizontal slab with a thickness equal
to the elevation of observation station above datum. On land the Bouguer correction must

22

be subtracted as a gravitational attraction of the rock between observation point and

datum must be removed for the observed gravity value. The correction is calculated using
the factor 0.04193h/m where is the density of the material (2.65 gm/cm) and h is
the height difference in meter.
B.C = 0.0419 h/m

3.4.4

Latitude Correction (L.C)

The earth gravity field varies systematically with the change of latitude because of
non-spherical shape of the earth and angular velocity i.e. it is minimum (978049 m gals)
at the equator and maximum (983221.3 m gals) at the poles. Thus gravity increases in all
stations north of the reference latitude passing through the main base and decreases on
the southern stations. To compensate this effect on station the latitude correction was
evaluated directly from the International Gravity Formula of 1924.
g = 978.049(1+ 0.0052884 Sin2 - 0.0000059 Sin 2)
Where g is the value of theoretical gravity in gals at latitude of the observed stations
on the ellipsoid.

3.4.5

Terrain Correction (T.C)

Appling all the above mentioned corrections convert the observation into what is
simply known as the Bouguer Anomalies. Since the surface is seldom horizontal at the
elevation of the station, terrain correction is applied to compensate the effect of attraction
to topographic features surrounding the observation station within a radius of 72,000ft.
The nearby hills and depression equally cause a reduction in the gravity measurement, so
the terrain correction is always added.

For the present survey, all terrain correction was computed for (2.65 gm/cm) a
density value 2.65 gm/ cm this is known to be the average density of Indian Lithospheric
mass.

23

Free Air Anomaly and Bouguer Anomaly were finally determined by the
following equations;

F.A.A = (gobs

D.C

S.B.A = (gobs

D.C

B.A = (gobs

D.C

F.A.C) Th value of g at each station

B.C
B.C

F.A.C) - Th value of g at each station

F.A.C ) - Th value of g of each station

Where gobs and Th value of g are the observed and theoretical gravity values
at the base station and F.A.A, S.B.A and B.A stand for Free Air Anomaly, Simple
Bouguer Anomaly and Bouguer Anomaly of each station respectively.

24

4.1

Talwani Method

Many geological structures are approximately liner, and the problem connected with
them can be solved with two dimensional forms of analysis (Fig. 4.2).
Let ABCDEF diagram, as shown (Fig. 6), be a given polygon with n sites in a
coordinate system and let P be the origin of this system and polygon lies in the XZ
plane. Let Z be defined as positive down wards and let be measured from the positive
X-axis toward the positive Z-axis.

It has been shown that the vertical and horizontal components of gravitational
attractions due to such a two-dimensional body of density and at the origin P is;
V = 2G zd -------------- (1)
H = 2G xd --------------- (2)
Where is the density and G is the universal gravitational constant. Therefore, the
integral zd and xd for the given polygon can be evaluated.
Let PQ = ai
Now Z = X tan --------------- (3)

For any arbitrary point R (x, z) on BC

Z = (X ai) tan -------------- (4)

From equation 3 and 4

Z = ai tan tan

--------------------- (5)

tan tan
The contribution to zd from the site BC of the polygon can be first computed
produce CB to meet X axis at Q at an angle .

25

c ai tan tan
zd = _____________ d = Z
tan tan

BC

ai tan + tan

Similarly xd = _____________
B

d = X

tan tan

From equaton 1 and 5 we found:

n
V = 2G Z
=1

n
H = 2G X
=1
The general solution of the integral Z and X , are:

Cos (tan - tan )

Z = ai Sin Cos ( +1) +tan + loge _______________________
Cos +1(tan +1 - tan )
Cos (tan - tan )
X = ai Sin Cos tan (+1- ) + loge _____________________
Cos +1(tan +1 - tan )

26

X
P

a1

Z
B

(Xi, Zi)

C (Xi+1, Zi+1)

Z
Fig. 4.2

27

Where,

-1
= tan Z
X

-1
1= tan

Zi+1-Zi
Xi+1-Xi

-1
+1 = tan Zi+1
Xi+1

ai = Xi+Zi+1 Xi+1-Xi
Zi-Zi+1

It is to be noted that , +1, and ai can all be explicitly expressed and terms
of the Xis and Zis. Therefore, the vertical component of the gravitational attraction of
the above n sited body can be evaluated from its density and the coordinates of the
adjacent points at the vertices of the body.

28

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Interpretation

For the tectonic study of the area qualitative and quantitative interpretation have
been done incorporation gravity data with previously know structural and geological
informations of Wadia (1928, 1930, 1931), Latif (1970, 1973), Valdiya (1980), Seeber et
al. (1981), Greco (1989), Rustam and Ali (1994), Rustam and Umar (2001), and Rustam
and Khan (2003).

5.1.1

Qualitative Interpretation
The Bouguer anomaly map of the study area has been prepared at the scale

of 1:250000 with contour interval of 5mgals. The density used for the calculation of
Bouguer anomaly was 2.65 gm/cc (Fig 4.1). In the northern part of the study area the
Bouguer anomaly variation is from -165 mgals to -180 mgals, giving a gravity relief of
-15 mgals. In this zone the contours trend is in E-W direction with gravity gradient of 1.51 mgal/km. This high gravity gradient indicates the Riwat Thrust Fault where another
gravity gradient of -0.70 mgals/km in Rata to Gujar khan indicates Kahota Thrust (KT).
In the eastern part of the study area the Bouguer anomaly variation is from -140
mgals to -180 mgals, giving a gravity relief of -40 mgals. In this zone the contour trend
in S-E direction with a gravity gradient of -0.56 mgals/km between Dina and Jhelum
area which indicates Jhelum strike slip Fault.

29

5.1.2

Quantitative Interpretations

In study area gravity modeling have been carried out using Talwani, et al. (1959)
technique using software of Malinconico (1986). The profile A-A/ from Riwat to SriAlamgir has been selected across the different lithological units. Geological structures in
the gravity model are approximated as horizontal prism with finite length and polygonal
cross-section. The gravity model has been computed constrained with previously known
geological information of Rustam and Ali (1994), Rana and Kazmi (1977).

This gravity model delineates surface and subsurface structural elements i.e.
Riwat Thrust (RT), Kahota Thrust (KT), Jhelum Strike Slip Fault (JF) and Hazara Lower
Seismic Zone (HLSZ). In case of this gravity modeling the adjustment of calculated and
observed gravity data is based on three steps modeling, which is the effect of sediments,
effect of Moho and than the combined effect of Moho and sediment with respect to 38
Km thick crystalline crust of Seeber et al. (1979) and Rustam and Ali (1994).

The geological units of the project area are classified as the Siwaliks Group of
Formation of Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene, Murree Formation of Miocene age,
Carbonates of Cambrian to Eocene age, and Salt Range Formation of Precambrian age is
present. The density assigned to these rock units with respect to crystalline crust
(2.95gm/cc. The estimated density for Siwaliks Group is 2.57 0.09 gm/cc and the
density estimated for Soan Formation is 2.570.08 gm/cc. The estimated density for
Dhok Pathan are 2.580.08 gm/cc and estimated density for Nagri Formation is
2.560.08 gm/cc respectively. This model is the outcome of the several attempts, which
were made to have the best fit among the geology, observed gravity and calculated
gravity. The calculated gravity of this model indicates reasonably the observed gravity
effect. This gravity model computed by geophysical experiments attempted along the
profile A-A/ from Riwat to Sri Alamgir demarcated the Riwat Thrust between Murree
Formation of Miocene age and Siwaliks Group of Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene.
The Riwat Thrust dips at an angle of 20 NW. The Kahota Thrust between Lower and

30

Upper Siwaliks, and this fault dips at an angle of 71 SE. The Jhelum Strike Slip Fault
found within Siwaliks, dips at an angle of 87 SE. The model computed 6 km thick
sedimentary wedge in Jhelum area whereas in Riwat area, thickness extends up to 7 km.
The total thickness of crust in the Sri Alamgir area is 45.36 Km and in Riwat area,
thickness extended up to 46.87 Km.
.

5.2

DISCUSSION

The project area lies in the southern part of the core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis.
Seeber et al. (1979), on the basis of seismic data suggested that the tectonics of the region
is complex. He distinguished the two NW-SE trending seismic zones, the northern one is
the Indus Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ) and the Southern one is the Hazara Lower
Seismic Zone (HLSZ). These seismic zones are well defined by deeper crustal seismisity.

Rustam and Ali (1994) on the basis of gravity and magnetic data delineate the
subsurface structures along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Nathia Gali Thrust
(NT) in the western limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). The present geophysical
study delineates the subsurface structures in the core of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, that
are Riwat Thrust (RT), Kahota Thrust (KT), Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ) and
Jhelum Strike Slip Fault.

Rustam (1994) suggest that Jhelum fault (JF) is a strike slip fault which cuts the
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Panjal Thrust (PT) near apex of Hazara Kashmir
Syntaxis (HKS). The western limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis moves southward along
this fault. He also demarcated Jhelum fault 3 Km south of Muzaffarabad which is dipping
80 SW. The Jhelum Fault apparently dislocates the MBT and terminates eastward
continuation of some of the structures of NW Himalayan fold and thrust belt which
shows that it is the youngest major tectonic feature.

31

The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Panjal Thrust (PT) wrape along the HazaraKashmir Syntaxis (HKS). The eastern limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis moves
southwest and western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis moves in southeast direction.
Due to these movements, the compressional stresses developed in the core of HazaraKashmir Syntaxis and a series of thrust faults developed. Rustam & Ali (1994),
demarcated the thick skin pre- developed fault Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ) has
been reactivated due to these stresses,
Rustam and Ali (1994) also demarcated the Bagh Basement Fault between Hazara
Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ) and Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). In the present study,
the E-W contour trend with high gravity gradient between Riwat and Sri Alamgir follows
the trend of Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ) of Seeber et al. (1979).

The thickness of sedimentary wedge is 6 km in Sri Alamgir area and extended up

to 8 km in Riwat area. The study also suggested that the thickness of sedimentary wedge
increased due to the stacking of thrust sheets along the thrust faults developed in the
study area. The collision of Indian and Eurasian Plates are responsible for the
development of these thrust faults.

32

CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn on the basis of gravity data.

1. The Riwat Thrust Fault has been demarcated near Riwat between Siwalik
Group of Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene age and Murree Formation of Miocene age
and dips at an angle of 20 NW up to the depth of 3.4 Km in Murree Formation.

2. In the study area, the geological model computed by geophysical experiments

suggests that the Kahota Thrust Fault lies between Upper and Lower Siwaliks of Early
Miocene to Late Pleistocene age. The Kahota Thrust fault dips at an angle of 71 SE and
penetrated up to the depth of 7 Km in the sedimentary wedge.
.
3. The geophysical study also demarcated the Jhelum Strike Slip Fault within
Siwaliks of Early Miocene to Late Pleistocene age and dips at an angle of 87 SE and
penetrates up to depth of 6.5 km in the sedimentary wedge.
4. The total thickness of sedimentary wedge in Sri Alamgir area is 6 km and in
Riwat area, it extends up to 7 km. The total thickness of crust in the Sri Alamgir area is
45.36 Km and extends up to 46.87 km in Riwat area.
5. The study also suggested that the thickness of the crust increases from south to
north due to the collision of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. In the west of Jhelum Strike
Slip Fault, the fault trend is NE-SW.
6.

The east west contours trend with high gravity gradient demarcated the

Hazara Lower Seismic Zone (HLSZ).

7.

Medium to long range earthquakes are expected in the study area.

33

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38