A First Course in String Theory.

Solutions for problems in Part II.

Chapters 14, 15, and 16.

The following pages contain the solutions for all the problems to be found in Chapters 14,
15, and 16 of Part II of the textbook A First Course in String Theory. The handwritten
solutions are due to Jeffrey Goldstone. The rest of the solutions have been typeset. They
were mostly written by me. In chapters 14 and 15 the solutions of problems related to string
models were based on those of Daniel Gulotta and Clayton Featherstone.

Barton Zwiebach
MIT
Cambridge, MA
September 2004
 Quick Calculations 14.4 to 14.7.
QC14.4 #(
1 ,
2 ) = −2. The intersection points on the torus are (0, 0) and ( 12 , 12 ).
2 is rotated
by −π/2 with respect to
1 (clockwise rotation), so the sign is as expected.
QC14.5

QC14.6 The points with integer coordinates (lattice points) on the torus Cˆ are copies of the
point (0, 0) on the unit torus, so by the cited ‘known’ fact, there must by a total of I
ˆ One lies on the corners of the parallelogram. Since the vectors
1
lattice points on C.
and
2 are reduced, no further lattice points lie along the edges of the parallelogram.
Therefore the other I − 1 lattice points must lie on the interior of the cell C.
ˆ both
1 and
2 each contain the lattice point represented by (0, 0).
Viewed as lines on C,
They do not contain additional lattice points. The same facts hold for any copy of
1
or
2 , because copying maps lattice points to lattice points. It follows that all copies of

1 and
2 go through interior lattice points. Since each copy contains just one lattice
point on C,ˆ one copy of
1 and one copy of
2 goes through each lattice point on the
interior of C.
QC14.7 Here is a systematic solution. Associated with the vector
= (m, n), with m and n
relatively prime integers, we consider the set of lines parallel to
that go through lattice
points. Such lines have slope n/m, and if they pass through the lattice point (p, q) are
written as nx − my = np − mq. Since n and m are relatively prime, as we vary p and
q, np − mq can take on any integer value (this is a theorem in arithmetic). So the lines
in question are of the form nx − my = k, for arbitrary k ∈ Z. The intersection points
of the lines
1 = (m1 , n1 ) and
2 = (m2 , n2 ) are found by solving the simultaneous
equations n1 x − m1 y = k1 and n2 x − m2 y = k2 , for arbitrary k1 and k2 , and selecting
the solutions (x, y) inside the unit cell.
For our lines (3,2) and (1,2), the equations are 2x − 3y = k1 and 2x − y = k2 , which
gives x = (−k1 + 3k2 )/4 and y = (−k1 + k2 )/2. Plugging in a few values for k1 and k2
we obtain, as expected, four intersections: (0, 0), ( 14 , 12 ), ( 12 , 0), ( 34 , 12 ).

1
 Quick Calculations 15.4 to 15.14.

QC15.4 q+ q+ + q− q − = 12 [(q1 + q2 )(q1
+ q2
) + (q1 − q2 )(q1
− q2
)] = q1 q1
+ q2 q2
.

QC15.5    
√1 − √12 √1
1 0 0
 
 , MT M =  
6 3
M =

√1
6
√1
2
√1
3   0 1 0 .
− √26 0 √1
3
0 0 1

QC15.6 Quantum field theory requires that the charge of the right-handed particle is opposite to
the charge of the left-handed antiparticle. Therefore, the right-handed and left-handed
particles do not have the same charges (chiral fermion) if and only if the left-handed
anti-particles and left-handed particles do not have opposite charges.

QC15.7 The gluons that begin and end on the same brane each have weight (0, 0) since they
have q1 = q2 = q3 = 0. The eight gluon charges are (0, 0), (0, 0), (2, −1), (−2, 1),
(−1, 2), (1, −2), (1, 1), and (−1, −1).
 ū 
QC15.8 uR ∼ (3, 1)2/3 , dR ∼ (3, 1)−1/3 , R
∼ (3̄, 2)−1/6 , e−
R ∼ (1, 1)−1 , νeR ∼ (1, 1)0 , and
d¯R
 ν̄ 
eR
∼ (1, 2)1/2 .
e+R

QC15.9 uL has I3 = 12 and Y = 16

uR has I3 = 0 and Y = 23
dL has I3 = − 12 and Y = 16
dR has I3 = 0 and Y = − 13
e−
L has I3 = − 2 and Y = − 2
1 1
−
eR has I3 = 0 and Y = −1
νeL has I3 = 12 and Y = 12
νeR has I3 = 0 and Y = 0

QC15.10 ūL has electric charge 0 − 23 = − 23

d¯L has electric charge 0 + 13 = 13
νeL has electric charge 12 − 12 = 0
ν̄eL has electric charge 0 + 0 = 0
e−L has electric charge − 2 − 2 = −1
1 1
+
eL has electric charge 0 + 1 = 1
Since the electric charges of left-handed particles and antiparticles are opposite, elec-
tromagnetism does not couple chirally.

1
QC15.11 I12 = ((1)(1) − (2)(1))((1)(−2) − (−1)(1))((1)(5) − (−2)(−1)) = 3
I13 = ((1)(1) − (2)(1))((1)(0) − (−1)(1))((1)(5) − (−2)(−1)) = −3
I14 = ((1)(2) − (2)(1))((1)(1) − (−1)(−1))((1)(1) − (−2)(1)) = 0
I15 = ((1)(2) − (2)(1))((1)(1) − (−1)(−1))((1)(−7) − (−2)(2)) = 0
I16 = ((1)(1) − (2)(1))((1)(−4) − (−1)(3))((1)(−5) − (−2)(1)) = −3
I23 = ((1)(1) − (1)(1))((1)(0) − (−2)(1))((−1)(5) − (5)(−1)) = 0
I24 = ((1)(2) − (1)(1))((1)(1) − (−2)(−1))((−1)(1) − (5)(1)) = 6
I25 = ((1)(2) − (1)(1))((1)(1) − (−2)(−1))((−1)(−7) − (5)(2)) = 3
I26 = ((1)(1) − (1)(1))((1)(−4) − (−2)(3))((−1)(−5) − (5)(1)) = 0
I34 = ((1)(2) − (1)(1))((1)(1) − (0)(−1))((−1)(1) − (5)(1)) = −6
I35 = ((1)(2) − (1)(1))((1)(1) − (0)(−1))((−1)(−7) − (5)(2)) = −3
I36 = ((1)(1) − (1)(1))((1)(−4) − (0)(3))((−1)(−5) − (5)(1)) = 0
I45 = ((1)(2) − (2)(1))((−1)(1) − (1)(−1))((1)(−7) − (1)(2)) = 0
I46 = ((1)(1) − (2)(1))((−1)(−4) − (1)(3))((1)(−5) − (1)(1)) = 6
I56 = ((1)(1) − (2)(1))((−1)(−4) − (1)(3))((2)(−5) − (−7)(1)) = 3
It is not difficult to see from the diagram that the string directions in the diagram are
the correct directions for left-handed strings.

QC15.12 Y = − 13 Q1 − 12 Q2 − Q3 − Q5
[24]: Y = − 12 (1) = − 12
[34]: Y = −(−1) = 1
[46]: Y = 0
[25]: Y = − 12 (1) − (−1) = 12
[35]: Y = −(−1) − 1 = 0
[56]: Y = −1

QC15.13 N6 (right Y = 0) 9 incoming quarks from N1 (3 families and 3 colors). 6 outgoing

neutrinos to N4 and 3 outgoing strings to N5 .
N3 (right Y = −1) 9 incoming quarks from N1 (3 families and 3 colors). 6 outgoing
positrons to N4 and 3 outgoing antineutrinos to N5 .
N4 (leptonic Y = 0) 6 outgoing lepton doublets for 12 total strings to N2 . 6 incoming
positrons from N3 and 6 incoming antineutrinos from N6 .
N5 (leptonic Y = −1) 3 outgoing strings doublets for 6 total strings to N2 . 3 antineu-
trinos incoming from N3 and 3 incoming strings from N6 .

QC15.14 If S is a compact
space with
no boundary: ∂S = 0. By the divergence theorem,
Q = S ρ = S ∇ · EdV = ∂S E · dA = 0.

2


15.3. Properties of the string charge Q.
(a) We are told to evaluate



 

d 1
0 , σ) X

(t0 , σ).
Q= d
0
d xj = d x dσ δ
x − X(t
R R 2
To perform the integral we first change the order of integration:


 

= 1


(t0 , σ)
0 , σ) .
Q dσ X dd x δ
x − X(t
2
R  
f (σ)

The integral over R above is just a function f (σ) of σ. The function f (σ) is either zero or

0 , σ) ∈ R and f (σ) = 0 otherwise. As a result, the σ integral
one. We have f (σ) = 1 if X(t
is constrained to the interval σ ∈ [σi , σf ] for which the string is inside R

σf

1

1


 1
Q= dσ X (t0 , σ) = X(t0 , σf ) − X(t0 , σi ) = (
xf −
xi ).
2 σi 2 2
For a closed string contained entirely in R, the σ integral is over the whole range σ ∈ [0, 2π]:



1 2π

(t0 , σ) .
Q= dσ X (1)
2 0

(recall that we assume
Since the integrand is a σ derivative of a well-defined coordinate X
no compactification of space), we have
 
Q
= 1 X(t
0 , 0) = 0 .

0 , 2π) − X(t
2

(b) Let g(x) be an arbitrary function of x. Consider a volume R which encloses the entire
region where
j 0 = 0 so that
j 0 = 0 on the boundary ∂R of R. By the divergence theorem,
we have


d

d x ∇ · (g j ) =

0
dd−1 x g(n̂ ·
j 0 ) = 0.
R ∂R
Hence we also have




d



·
j 0 ,
0= d x ∇ · (g j ) =

0
d x (∇g) · j + g(∇ · j ) =
d
0
0
dd x (∇g)
R R R

since by assumption
j 0 is divergenceless.
=
ei , the unit-vector

g = xi , we have ∇g

Setting
in the ith direction, and we obtain 0 = R dd x (
j 0 )i . Since this holds for all values of i:


Q
= dd x
j 0 = 0 .
R

1
(c) We can still apply equation (1) from part (a)

2π

= 1

(t0 , σ) .
Q dσ X
2 0

Let x1 , . . . xd , denote the list of spatial coordinates. Assume x1 , . . . , xd−1 are not compactified,
and that xd ≡ x is the coordinate curled up into a circle of radius R. It follows that the string
coordinates X 1 , . . . , X d−1 are all single-valued while X d ≡ X is multivalued (X ∼ X + 2πR).
By the same argument used in (a) the first d − 1 components of Q
vanish. The string charge
therefore takes the form

= (0, 0, . . . , 0, Q) ,
Q
where
2π
1
Q= dσ X
(t0 , σ) .
2 0
The above integral is unchanged under possible reparameterizations of σ. We can therefore
evaluate it using the simple parameterization X = Rσ. This parameterization indeed rep-
resents a wrapped closed string: as σ goes from 0 to 2π the coordinate X changes by 2πR.
Despite the fact that the coordinate increases in value throughout the string, because of the
identification, the endpoint coincides with the original point. Since X
= R, the integral
gives
1
Q = · 2π · R = πR.
2
(It is also possible evaluate the integral by writing X(t0 , 2π) − X(t0 , 0) = 2πR.) The string
charge Q is proportional to the length of the string. This is similar to the fact noted in
(15.72): the Maxwell charge associated to a wrapped D-brane is proportional to the volume
of the brane. We will see in Problem 17.3 that a string wrapped on a circle represents an
electrically charged state for a lower-dimensional observer.

2
15.4. Kalb-Ramond field of a string.
We recall equation (15.36)



= κ2

H · d
B j
0 · d
a ,
Γ S

and (15.38), which gives the only nonvanishing component of j
0 for an infinite string stretched
along the x axis:
1
j 01 = δ(y)δ(z) .
2

Consider a circular contour Γ of radius r (= y 2 + z 2 ) lying on the x = 0 plane and centered
at y = z = 0. Since the current is along the x axis, the ”magnetic” field B
H is tangential
to the circle and has a magnitude BH (r) which is constant on the circle. The two equations
above then give


1 κ2
2πrBH (r) = κ 2
dydz j 01 = κ2 → BH (r) = .
2 4πr

The direction of B
H is given by the right hand rule: the current is along the positive x axis

H circulate from the positive y axis to the positive z axis. The cartesian
so the lines of B
components of B
H are therefore
2  

H = κ
B 0 , −z, y .
4πr2
Using H 0kl = klm BH m ((15.33)) we find
y
H 012 = 123 BH 3 = BH 3 = κ2 ,
4πr2
z
H 013 = 132 BH 2 = −BH 2 = κ2 ,
4πr2
H 023 = 231 BH 1 = BH 1 = 0.

The above, together with H ijk = 0 complete the specification of H µνρ . We can confirm that
equation (15.14),
1 ∂H µνρ
= j µν ,
κ2 ∂xρ
has been fully satisfied. When both µ and ν are space indices the right hand side vanishes
and the left hand side vanishes because all H fields are time independent and H ijk = 0.
When either µ or ν is zero, the equation is of the form (15.32):

1 ∂H 0kl
= j 0k .
κ2 ∂xl
1
Although we solved this equation using the magnetostatic analogy, let’s check our answers.
The right-hand side vanishes for k = 2 and for k = 3. For k = 2 the left-hand side is

∂H 02l ∂H 021 ∂H 023

= + = 0,
∂xl ∂x ∂z
because H 023 = 0 and no field has x dependence. For k = 3 the left-hand side is

∂H 03l ∂H 031 ∂H 032

= + = 0.
∂xl ∂x ∂y
Finally, for k = 1 we have  
1 ∂H 012 ∂H 013
+ = j 01 .
κ2 ∂y ∂z
Equivalently  
1 ∂BH z ∂BH y 1
2
− = δ(y)δ(z) . (1)
κ ∂y ∂z 2
This is explicitly the x component of “Ampere’s law” for B
H . To see how the left-hand side
gives the delta function that appears on the right-hand side we use

∂  κ2  ∂  κ2 
BH z = ln r , BH y = − ln r . (2)
∂y 4π ∂z 4π

The left-hand side of (1) becomes

 2 
∂ ∂2 1 2 1
+ ln r = ∇ ln r , (3)
∂y 2 ∂z 2 4π 4π

where ∇2 is the two-dimensional Laplacian. It is a familiar result that in two dimensions

∇2 ln r = 2πδ 2 (
x) (you can prove this by integrating both sides of this relation over a small
disk centered at the origin, using ∇2 f = ∇ · (∇f ), and the divergence theorem). It follows
that the last term in (3) is equal to the right-hand side of (1). This concludes our explicit
verification that all equations have been satisfied by the solution.
We search for a B µν that is independent of time. We assume B ij = 0, so the only
nonvanishing components are B 0k = −B k0 . We then have

H 0kl = ∂ 0 B kl + ∂ k B l0 + ∂ l B 0k = −∂ k B 0l + ∂ l B 0k . (4)

We now further assume that only B 01 = −B 10 is nonvanishing and that it is x independent.

With these conditions (4) gives nontrivial information if either k or l, but not both, are 1:
y z
H 012 = ∂y B 01 = κ2 , H 013 = ∂z B 01 = κ2 .
4πr2 4πr2
2
These equations are solved by
1 2
B 01 =κ log r. (5)
4π
This solution can be understood through a magnetostatic analog. We introduce an analog

H by
vector potential A
H ≡ B
Am m0
,
and equation (4) becomes

H 0kl = klm BH m = ∂ k AlH − ∂ l AkH .

This equation states the familiar fact that the magnetic field can be written as the curl of a

H = ∇ × A
vector potential: B
H . The solution in (5) corresponds to a vector potential whose
only nonvanishing component is A1 :
1 2
A1H = B 10 = − κ log r.
4π

3
15.5. Explicit checks of current conservation.
Since the only x dependence in the formula for the current j µ (x) appears on the delta
function, taking a derivative we find

 ∂  dxµ (τ )
µ
∂µ j (x) = qc dτ δ (x − x(τ ))
D
. (1)
∂xµ dτ

To evaluate this and show it is equal to zero we first note that for an arbitrary function h of
a single variable:
∂ ∂
h(x − y) = − h(x − y) .
∂x ∂y
This result holds when h is any function, even a delta function, so we can rewrite (1) as

 ∂  dxµ (τ )
∂µ j (x) = −qc dτ
µ
δ D
(x − x(τ )) . (2)
∂xµ (τ ) dτ
For any quantity A(x(τ )) we have

dA ∂A dxµ (τ )
= .
dτ ∂xµ (τ ) dτ

Hence the integrand in the right-hand side of (2) is simply a total τ derivative:


d
∂µ j (x) = −qc dτ δ D (x − x(τ )) .
µ
dτ

It is reasonable to have a parameterization where τ ∈ (−∞, ∞), so

 
∂µ j µ (x) = −qc δ D (x − x(∞)) − δ D (x − x(−∞) .

Since time is parametrized by τ we have x0 (τ = ±∞) = ±∞. It follows that δ(ct − x0 (±∞))
vanishes for any finite t. As a result, the above right-hand side vanishes. We thus conclude
that ∂µ j µ = 0 for any finite time and arbitrary x. The current is conserved.
We now perform a similar analysis for the string current (15.11):

 ∂  ∂X µ ∂X ν
1 ∂X ν ∂X µ 
µν
∂µ j (x) = dτ dσ δ D
(x − X(τ, σ)) −
2 ∂xµ ∂τ ∂σ ∂τ ∂σ

 
1 ∂ ∂X ∂X ν
µ
∂X ν ∂X µ 
= dτ dσ δ (x − X(τ, σ))
D
−
2 ∂X µ (τ, σ) ∂τ ∂σ ∂τ ∂σ

 ∂X ν ∂
1 ∂X ν ∂  D
= dτ dσ − δ (x − X(τ, σ)) .
2 ∂σ ∂τ ∂τ ∂σ

1
Note that
 ∂X ν ∂ ∂X ν ∂   ∂ ∂X ν ∂ ∂X ν 
− ( ··· ) = − ( ··· ),
∂σ ∂τ ∂τ ∂σ ∂τ ∂σ ∂σ ∂τ
∂ ∂
where the partial derivatives ∂τ
and ∂σ
act on everything to the right. The extra terms in
the right-hand side cancel
∂2X ν ∂2X ν
− = 0.
∂τ ∂σ ∂σ∂τ
Hence, we can write

   
1 ∂ ∂X ν D ∂  ∂X ν D
µν
∂µ j (x) = dτ dσ δ (x − X(τ, σ)) + δ (x − X(τ, σ)) ,
2 ∂τ ∂σ ∂σ ∂τ

and the total derivatives give

 ∂X ν τ =∞
 ∂X ν σ f
1 1
µν
∂µ j (x) = dσ δ (x − X(τ, σ))
D
+ dτ δ D (x − X(τ, σ)) . (3)
2 ∂σ τ =−∞ 2 ∂τ σi

The first term on the right-hand side vanishes for any finite time (X 0 (τ + ±∞, σ) = ∞).
The second term vanishes for closed strings, since σf and σi represent the same point on the
string. Thus for closed strings we have ∂µ j µν (x) = 0.
For open strings the second term on the right-hand side of (3) vanishes when ν is an
index for a coordinate orthogonal to the D-brane where the string endpoint lies. The term
does not vanish when ν is an index for a coordinate along the brane. The current is only
conserved when we include the contribution to the string current from the Maxwell fields on
the D-brane (see the discussion at the end of section 15.3). We do not attempt to prove this.

2
15.8. Intersection numbers and formal variables.
(a) (b)
(a) Consider two lines
i = (mai , nai ) and
i = (mbi , nbi ), and the product
(mai xi + nai yi )(mbi xi + nbi yi ) = mai mbi xi xi + mai nbi xi yi + nai mbi yi xi + nai nbi yi yi .
With the stated rules for products of the formal variables xi and yi , we have
(mai xi + nai yi )(mbi xi + nbi yi ) = mai mbi · 0 + mai nbi · 1 + mbi nai · (−1) + nai nbi · 0 .
Therefore,
(a) (b)
(mai xi + nai yi )(mbi xi + nbi yi ) = mai nbi − mbi nai = #(
i ,
i ) . (1)
Consider now two D6-branes on T 6 , each defined by three lines
(a) (a) (a)

1 = (ma1 , na1 ) ,
2 = (ma2 , na2 ) ,
3 = (ma3 , na3 ) ,
(b) (b) (b)

1 = (mb1 , nb1 ) ,
2 = (mb2 , nb2 ) ,
3 = (mb3 , nb3 ) .
We now compute the product of the polynomials Πa and Πb associated with the branes
Πa (xi , yi )Πb (xi , yi ) = (ma1 x1 + na1 y1 ) (ma2 x2 + na2 y2 ) (ma3 x3 + na3 y3 )
·(mb1 x1 + nb1 y1 ) (mb2 x2 + nb2 y2 ) (mb3 x3 + nb3 y3 ) .
Since the xi ’s and yi ’s commute with the xj ’s and yj ’s for i
= j, the factors can be grouped
as follows
Πa (xi , yi )Πb (xi , yi ) = (ma1 x1 + na1 y1 )(mb1 x1 + nb1 y1 )
(ma2 x2 + na2 y2 )(mb2 x2 + nb2 y2 )
(ma3 x3 + na3 y3 )(mb3 x3 + nb3 y3 ) .
Using equation (1) and (14.103) we finally have
(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)
Πa (xi , yi )Πb (xi , yi ) = #(
1 ,
1 )#(
2 ,
2 )#(
3 ,
3 ) = Iab .


(b) Equation (15.128) states that a Na Πa = 0. Multiplying by Πb from the right gives
 
Na Πa Πb = Na Iab = 0 .
a a

Na is the number of branes of type a and |Iab | is the number of times that each of the a
branes intersects any b brane. The terms in the sum over a with Iab > 0 gives the number
of left-handed states from strings that originate at any b brane. The terms in the sum with
Iab < 0 gives minus the number of left-handed states from strings that end at any b brane.
The sum over all a is therefore the number of outgoing minus the number of incoming strings
at any b brane. Since the sum is zero, the two quantities are equal. This also holds for the
full collection of b branes.

1
15.9. An intersecting brane model with the particle content of the
Standard Model.

(a) We recall that (m, n) ↔ [m, n + m2 ], so we immediately derive that [r, s] ↔ (r, s − 2r ).
(1) (2) (3) (4)
This gives:
3 = (1, 0),
3 = (1, 1),
3 = (0, 1),
3 = (1, −2).

(b) In order to have Iii∗ = 0 it suffices that one of the three lines that defines the brane i
is not changed by the operation of sign reversal of the second entry. For the first brane we
(1) (1)∗ (2) (2)∗ (3) (3)∗
have
1 =
1 , for the second brane
2 =
2 , for the third brane
2 =
2 , and for the
(4) (4)∗
fourth brane
1 =
1 . Therefore none of the branes intersects its mirror image.

(c)
I12 = ((1)(−1) − (0)(0)) ((5)(0) − (1)(1)) ((1)( 32 ) − ( 12 )(1)) = 1
I12∗ = ((1)(1) − (0)(0)) ((5)(0) − (−1)(1)) ((1)( −32
) − ( −12
)(1)) = 2
I13 = ((1)(3) − (0)(4)) ((5)(0) − (1)(1)) ((1)(1) − ( 2 )(0)) = −3
1

I13∗ = ((1)(−3) − (0)(4)) ((5)(0) − (−1)(1)) ((1)(−1) − ( −1 2

)(0)) = −3
−3
I14 = ((1)(0) − (0)(1)) ((5)(1) − (1)(1)) ((1)( 2 ) − ( 2 )(1)) = 0
1

I14∗ = ((1)(0) − (0)(1)) ((5)(−1) − (−1)(1)) ((1)( 32 ) − ( −1 2

)(1)) = 0
I23 = ((0)(3) − (−1)(4)) ((1)(0) − (0)(1)) ((1)(1) − ( 2 )(0)) = 0
3

I23∗ = ((0)(−3) − (1)(4)) ((1)(0) − (0)(1)) ((1)(−1) − ( −3 2

)(0)) = 0
−3
I24 = ((0)(0) − (−1)(1)) ((1)(1) − (0)(1)) ((1)( 2 ) − ( 2 )(1)) = −3
3

I24∗ = ((0)(0) − (1)(1)) ((1)(−1) − (0)(1)) ((1)( 32 ) − ( −32

)(1)) = 0
−3
I34 = ((4)(0) − (3)(1)) ((1)(1) − (0)(1)) ((0)( 2 ) − (1)(1)) = 3
I34∗ = ((4)(0) − (−3)(1)) ((1)(−1) − (0)(1)) ((0)( 32 ) − (−1)(1)) = −3 .
These intersection numbers are indeed reflected by the numbers and orientations of strings
in Figure 15.8.

(d) We begin by computing the polynomials that enter into the relation:

Π1 = x1 (5x2 + y2 )(x3 + 2 y3 ) 
1



Π1 + Π1∗ = 10x1 x2 x3 + x1 y2 y3



Π1∗ = x1 (5x2 − y2 )(x3 − 12 y3 ) 


Π2 = −y1 x2 (x3 + 32 y3 ) 

Π2 + Π2∗ = −3y1 x2 y3


Π2∗ = y1 x2 (x3 − 32 y3 )

1
 
Π3 = (4x1 + 3y1 )x2 y3 

Π3 + Π3∗ = 6y1 x2 y3

Π 3∗ = (4x1 − 3y1 )x2 (−y3 ) 


Π4 = x1 (x2 + y2 )(x3 − 32 y3 ) 

Π4 + Π4∗ = 2x1 x2 x3 − 3x1 y2 y3

Π4∗ = x1 (x2 − y2 )(x3 + 32 y3 ) 
Collecting the above results


4
Ni (Πi + Πi∗ ) = 3(10x1 x2 x3 + x1 y2 y3 ) + 2(−3y1 x2 y3 )
i=1
+(6y1 x2 y3 ) + (2x1 x2 x3 − 3x1 y2 y3 )
= 32x1 x2 x3
= 4ΠO6 .

This is what we wanted to show.

(e) Examining the uL quark at the intersection of N1 and N2 , we see that it leaves N2 and
goes to N1 , hence, Q2 = −1 and Q1 = 1. So Q̂ = Q1 − 3(Q3 + Q4 ) = 1. But, we know that
Y = 1/6 for a uL quark, so we expect Y = Q̂/6. Indeed, the Q̂ charges are:
uL and dL have charge 1 − 0 = 1
ūL has charge −1 − 3 = −4
d¯L has charge −1 + 3 = 2
νeL and e−L have charge −3 − 0 = −3
ν̄eL has charge 3 − 3 = 0
e+L has charge −3 − 3 = −6
For all these particles Q̂ is six times the hypercharge.

2
15.10. Symmetry breaking by recombination of intersecting branes.
(a) The first brane is represented by a straight line from (0, 0) to (m1 , n1 ). In the process
of recombination the beginning of the second brane is joined to the end of the first brane.
Therefore, the second brane, initially represented by the straight line from (0, 0) to (m2 , n2 )
can be viewed as the straight line from (m1 , n1 ) to (m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 ). The combined branes
are represented by a composite line beginning at (0, 0) and ending at (m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 ),
with a corner at (m1 , n1 ). This line can be deformed into a straight line from the origin (0, 0)
to (m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 )
The line from (0, 0) to (m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 ) with a corner at (m2 , n2 ) can also be deformed
into the straight line from (0, 0) to (m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 ). Thus attaching brane one to the end
of brane two gives the same final result. In both cases the final brane is represented by the
vector addition of
(1) and
(2) . The order does not matter: vector addition is commutative.
(b) Below are five frames showing the recombination of the branes (1, 0) and (0, 1). In the
first frame we show the both branes, with a little piece of the end of the (1, 0) brane (the
first brane) removed and a little piece of the beginning of the (0, 1) brane (the second brane)
removed. The second frame shows a gluing that joins the end of the first brane to the
beginning of the second brane. The third and fourth frames show successive deforemations.
The fifth and final frame shows the brane (1, 1) resulting from the recombination.

Figure 1: Recombination of (1, 0) and (0, 1) branes.

(c) We consider the branes defined by (m1 , n1 ) and (m2 , n2 ), the recombined brane Σ =
(m1 + m2 , n1 + n2 ), and a brane i defined by (mi , ni ) that intersects the previous branes.
Using the triangle inequality we then have
|Ii1 | + |Ii2 | = |mi n1 − m1 ni | + |mi n2 − m2 ni |
≥ |mi n1 − m1 ni + mi n2 − m2 ni |
= |mi (n1 + n2 ) − (m1 + m2 )ni |
= |IiΣ | .
This is what we wanted to show.

1
16.1. Review of statistical mechanics.
(a) Suppose the system is in the state α with energy Eα (V ). The work done by the system
when changing the volume by dV is pα dV , where pα denotes the pressure of the system in
the state α. This work is equal to minus the change in energy of the system:
∂Eα ∂Eα
pα dV = −dEα = − dV → pα = − .
∂V ∂V
The pressure p is the average of pα over the equilibrium distribution of states

∂Eα 1
∂Eα −βEα (V ) 1 1 ∂
−βEα (V ) 1 ∂ ln Z

p=− =− e = e = .
∂V Z α ∂V Z β ∂V α β ∂V

(b) We use F = Ē − T S. Since we know Ē in terms of derivatives of Z, we need a formula

for S in terms of Z. As hinted, we consider
∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z
d ln Z(β, V ) = − dβ + dV
∂β ∂V
= −Ēdβ + β pdV
= −d(β Ē) + β(dĒ + pdV )
= −d(β Ē) + βdQ ,

where we used the first law of thermodynamics. Since dQ = T dS, we find

1 1  
d ln Z(β, V ) = −d(β Ē) + dS → dS = d ln Z(β, V ) + β Ē .
k k
By integration, we obtain
S
= ln Z + β Ē . (1)
k
There is no integration constant, as can be verified by taking a T → 0 limit and checking
that (1) correctly gives S/k = ln Ω0 , where Ω0 is the number of ground states (assumed to
be separated by a gap from the excited states). Finally, using (1)

1S 1
F = Ē − T S = Ē − = − ln Z ,
βk β
as we wanted to prove.

1
16.6. Partition function of the relativistic particle.

We are asked to evaluate the integral (16.83) for the partition function:


2 d dd
u −βm√1+u2
Z(m ) = V m e .
(2π)d

Since the integrand only depends on the length u of
u, we can use

d d−1 d−1 2π d/2 d−1

d
u = Vol(S )u du = u du .
Γ(d/2)

With this formula

∞ √
2π d/2 1
2
Z(m ) = V m d
ud−1 du e−βm 1+u2
.
Γ(d/2) (2π)d
 0
 
I(z)

Using the following change of variables and definitions

1
u = sinh t , z ≡ βm , ν ≡ (d − 1) ,
2
the integral I(z) becomes

∞
I(z) = e−z cosh t (sinh t)2ν cosh t dt .
0

We then have


d ∞
2ν d  −ν 
I(z) = − e−z cosh t (sinh t)2ν dt = −Γ(d/2) √ z Kν (z) ,
dz 0 π dz

where we used the integral representation cited in the statement of the problem. Back to
Z(m2 ), the gamma functions cancel and with a small rearrangement we get:

 m d/2
 2 d  
−ν
2
Z(m ) = V m d/2
− z Kν (z) . (1)
2π π dz

We evaluate the term in parenthesis using the expansion (see correction web-page)

π −z  4ν 2 − 1 
Kν (z) ∼ e 1+ + ... .
2z 8z

1
A computation of a few lines gives

2 d  −ν 
−(ν+ 12 ) −z
 1 
− z Kν (z) ∼ z 1 3
e 1 + (ν + 2 )(ν + 2 ) + . . .
π dz 2z
 d(d + 2) 
∼ (βm)−d/2 e−βm 1 + + ... .
8βm

Back into (1) we get the result

 m d/2  d(d + 2) 
2 −βm
Z(m ) = V e 1+ + ... ,
2πβ 8βm

which gives the first correction to the low temperature partition function (16.89).

2
16.7. Corrections to the temperature/energy relation in the micro-
canonical ensemble.
Equation (16.58) gives us
√ 27
ln p24 (N )
4π N − ln N .
4


For high energy E
N/α
so N = α
E 2 and
S √ 27 √
= ln p24 (N ) = 4π α
E − ln( α
E) . (1)
k 2
We then compute
1 d S  √ 27 1 1 27 1
= = 4π α
− = − . (2)
kT dE k 2 E kTH 2 E
1 1
We see that T
< TH
, so we have the unexpected T > TH . Solving for the temperature,

kTH
kT = .
1 − 27 kTH
2 E

This can only be trusted for high energy. We see that for E → ∞ we have T → TH . For
E = 13.5kTH , which is an energy comparable to the rest mass of the first excited states
of the string (see 16.70), the temperature diverges. This is plausibly an artifact of the
approximation.
For very large energies we have
kTH 27 (kTH )2
kT =
kT H + , for E  kTH .
1 − 27 kTH
2 E
2 E

The specific heat C is readily found at high energies:

dE  dT −1  27 kTH2 −1 2  E 2
C= = = − = − k . (3)
dT dE 2 E2 27 kTH
A negative specific heat is not completely unfamiliar. A Schwarzchild black hole has negative
specific heat: as the energy (mass) increases its temperature goes down.
An alternative approach uses the relation Ω(E)dE = p24 (N )dN to find
dN
ln Ω(E) = ln p24 (N ) + ln = ln p24 (N ) + ln E + constant .
dE
With S = k ln Ω(E) we get
S
= ln p24 (E) + ln E + constant ,
k
1
where the first term on the right-hand side is the previously calculated entropy (see (1)).
With this entropy, the temperature result in (2) and the specific heat result in (3) are changed
into
1 1 25 1 2  E 2
= − , C=− k . (4)
kT kTH 2 E 25 kTH
√
For open strings on a Dq-brane Ω(E)
E −γ exp(4π α
E) with γ = (25 − q)/2. We then
have
S √ 1 1 γ
= ln Ω(E) = 4π α
E − γ ln E → = − .
k kT kTH E
A short computation then gives
dE 1  E 2
C=
− k .
dT γ kTH

Our earlier result in (4) corresponds to open strings attached to a D0-brane.

2
16.9. continued ....
(b) For caution, we note that the Schwarzschild radius R̄ of the black hole of mass M̄ is

1
s
R̄ ∼ GM̄ ∼ g 2
2s ∼ ,
g 4
s g2
so for couplings that are small, so that we can trust the string model, the black hole is much
larger than
s . For such black holes the string model is not expected to be applicable.
(c) As we dial down the coupling the entropy is constant and must match the entropy
S ∼ M
s ∼ N 1/2 of a free string:

M 2
M 4
S ∼ GM ∼ 2
∼N 1/2
→ N∼ . (1)
mP mP
We calculate the size of this string
M
Rstr ∼ N 1/4
s ∼
s .
mP
We are told to evaluate this in terms of the Schwarzschild radius R and the original value g
of the string coupling. With G ∼ 1/m2P , we have
√
s
s R
Rstr ∼ G M
s = (GM ) √ ∼ R ∼ .
G g
s g

For g = 0.1 the size of the free string is ten times the Schwarzschild radius of the original
black hole. The length L of the string would be even larger. Since L =
s N 1/2
L M
∼ N 1/4 = .
Rstr mP

For the black hole at the center of the galaxy M = 2.6 × 106 Msun . Moreover, Msun 
2 × 1030 kg and mP  2 × 10−8 kg. Thus equation (1) gives

2.6 × 106 × 2 × 1030 4
N∼ ∼ (2.6 × 1044 )4 ∼ 4.6 × 10177 .
2 × 10−8