Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Fertigation
A Tool for Efficient Fertilizer
and Water Management
U. Kafkafi and J. Tarchitzky
The publication can be downloaded from IFAs and IPIs web site.
To obtain paper copies, contact IFA.
Printed in France
Cover photos: Haifa (left), Yara International ASA (middle and right)
Contents
Acknowledgements 9
List of abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols
10
Summary 13
1. Introduction
14
2. Fertigation
2.1. Definition
2.2. Fertigation equipment
2.3. Fertilizer dosing in fertigation
2.4. Suitability of fertilizers for fertigation
17
17
17
19
19
23
23
24
25
27
28
29
29
29
31
31
31
31
32
32
33
33
33
33
35
35
35
36
36
36
39
40
40
41
4.8. N uptake
41
43
43
43
44
44
45
46
5.6. P uptake
49
51
51
51
52
52
53
54
55
56
56
56
57
8. Micronutrients
8.1. Visual observations
8.2. Micronutrients in fertigation
8.3. Forms of micronutrient fertilizers used in fertigation
8.3.1. Boron (B)
8.3.2. Chlorine (Cl)
8.3.3. Copper (Cu)
8.3.4. Iron (Fe)
8.3.5. Manganese (Mn)
8.3.6. Molybdenum (Mo)
8.3.7. Zinc (Zn)
58
58
58
58
59
59
60
60
61
62
62
62
63
63
63
65
70
70
71
71
73
73
76
76
76
83
83
85
87
87
12.2. Tomatoes
12.2.1. Greenhouse-grown tomatoes
12.2.2. Salinity
12.2.3. Fertigation of tomato for processing
12.2.4. Tomato industrial quality
87
88
90
92
93
93
96
98
99
104
104
104
106
107
107
107
108
108
108
108
108
109
109
109
110
112
113
113
116
15.2.1. Soil
15.2.2. Growth media and drainage monitoring
116
118
118
122
Bibliography 123
This book on fertigation is a joint project of the International Potash Institute (IPI)
and the International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) intended for the fertilizer
industry, scientists, extension workers and policy makers as a source of information
on soil-water-fertilizer interactions during fertigation. The authors attempted to bring
together various knowledge and information on plant physiology, plant nutrition and
irrigation, which they synthesized into practical information in relation to fertigation
of field and greenhouse operations. Through fertigation, the principles of the 4Rs (right
source, at the right rate, right time and right place) are reaffirmed as the reader is given
advice on the selection of appropriate fertilizer products for fertigation in growing
various field and horticultural crops. The suitability of some fertilizers for fertigation is
explained from the point of the plants physiological demand at various growth stages,
the soil or growing media type, climatic conditions and irrigation water quality.
Throughout his entire academic career, Uzi Kafkafi has taken a particular interest
in various aspects of root activities in field and in solution culture. In this work, he
developed the study of root activity of field crops using an innovative radioactive
placement method in the field to map root zone activity and introduced the course on
root activities to the curriculum of The Hebrew University. He also joined his colleagues
as an editor of the book Plant Roots- the Hidden Half to which world experts on
root studies contributed their works. This highly successful collaboration has resulted
in three successive editions of an internationally recognized text. Although he officially
retired from active teaching in 1999, Uzi Kafkafi is still involved in teaching PhD
students, consulting in Israel and in China and in writing scientific papers.
Jorge Tarchitzky
Born 1951 in Baha Blanca, Argentina, Jorge Tarchitzky graduated as an Agricultural
Engineer in Argentina in 1974. He completed his MSc studies in Soil and Water
Sciences, in the Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot in 1980. His PhD thesis, the
Interactions between humic substances, polysaccharides and clay minerals and their
effect on soil structure was awarded in 1994 by The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
In 1980, he was appointed as a Regional Advisor in the Field Service for Soil and Water
in the Extension Service of the Ministry of Agriculture, Israel, advising farmers in
irrigation and fertilization management of crops and fertigation systems. In 1992, he
was appointed as National Advisor for Salinity and Effluent Water Irrigation where he
was in charge of training regional extension agents and consultants on water quality,
soil and water salinity, wastewater use for crop irrigation, agricultural and municipal
solid wastes usage for crop nutrition and soil amendments. From 1998, he served as
the Advisor on Environmental Quality in Agriculture to the management board of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. In 2006, he was appointed as Head of
the Soil and Water Field Service Department, in the Extension Service, of the Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development.
In 2008, Jorge Tarchitzky joined the Department of Soil and Water Sciences in the
Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences of the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem and currently is a Senior Associate Researcher. He
is responsible for teaching a graduate course on Treated wastewater re-use for crop
irrigation and its environmental impact. As well as teaching MSc and PhD students, he
also serves as a consultant for governmental institutions and private companies in the
field of water quality and environmental issues in agriculture.
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
ADP
adenosine di-phosphate
APP
ammonium polyphosphate
ATP
adenosine tri-phosphate
BOD
biochemical oxygen demand
CEC
cation exchange capacity
cm centimeter
cubic centimeter
cm3
centimole charge
cmolc
C/N
carbon/nitrogen ratio
DAS
days after sowing/seeding
DM
dry matter
deci-Siemens per meter
dS m-1
DTPA
diethylene-triamine-pentaacetic acid
EC
electrical conductivity
EDDHA
ethylene-diamine di ortho-hydroxyphenylacetic acid
EDTA
ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid
g gram
ha hectare
HAP hydroxyapatite
HDP
hydroxydicalcium phosphate
kg kilogram
kilogram per hectare
kg ha-1
kPa
kilo Pascal
L liter
lb pound
pound per acre
lb a-1
cubic meter
m3
meq milliequivalent
millequivalent per gram
meq g-1
(note: cmol per 100g is now used to replace meq in CEC)
mm millimeter
mg
milligram
milligram per liter
mg L-1
11
MKP
mono potassium phosphate
mL milliliter
mmol millimole
mM millimolar
mol mole
MOP
muriate of potash (also known as potassium chloride)
pH
H ion concentration (measure of acidity or alkalinity)
ppm
part per million
SAR
sodium adsorption ratio
SAT
soil aquifer treatment
SDI
sub-surface drip irrigation
SOP
sulfate of potash or potassium sulfate
TSS
total suspended solids
TWW
treated waste water
tonne per hectare
t ha-1
Acronyms
EPA
USA
EU
Symbols
Al aluminum
B boron
boric acid
B(OH)3
B(OH)4- borate
Ca calcium
CaCl
calcium chloride
calcium carbonate
CaCO3
calcium nitrate
Ca(NO3)2
5 Ca(NO3)2 NH4NH310H2O calcium ammonium nitrate
Cd cadmium
Cl chloride
CO(NH2)2 urea
Cu copper
Fe iron
ferrous ion
Fe2+
ferric ion
Fe3+
hydrogen ion
H+
HCO3 bicarbonate
HPO42-
hydrogen phosphate
dihydrogen phosphate
H2PO4-
phosphoric acid
H3PO4
K potassium
KCl
potassium chloride
potash
K2O
monopotassium phosphate (MKP)
KH2PO4
potassium nitrate
KNO3
potassium sulfate
K2SO4
Mg magnesium
magnesium nitrate
Mg(NO3)2
manganese ion
Mn2+
N nitrogen
Na sodium
NaCl
sodium chloride
NH3 ammonia
ammonium ion
NH4+
ammonium carbonate
NH4CO3
monoammonium phosphate (MAP)
NH4H2PO4
ammonium nitrate
NH4NO3
ammonium hydroxide
NH4OH
ammonium sulfate
(NH4)2SO4
Ni nickel
NO
nitric oxide
nitrate ion
NO3-
nitrous oxide
N2O
P
phosphorus
Se selenium
Si silicon
SO42- sulfate
Zn zinc
13
Summary
The aim of this book is to provide the advanced grower and extension personnel with a
broad spectrum of expertise and knowledge on fertigation. In the 16 chapters presented
here, the reader is given advice on appropriate selection of fertilizer compounds used
in fertigation for growing various field and horticultural crops in particular locations
based on soil type and climatic conditions, which synchronize the crops nutrient
demand with fertilizer supply throughout its growth in effect applying the 4R principles.
The book is mainly focused on the interactions of fertilizers in the soil and their ability
to supply nutrients to plants. Fertigation is a tool to supply the plant with its daily
demand of water and nutrients as required by its specific growth stage throughout its
development to achieve maximum efficiency of the fertilizer applied. Using this spoon
feeding approach to fertilization, the units of fertilizer application in fertigation are
calculated on the basis of individual plant demand expressed in units of milligram of
nutrient (N, P or K) per day over the entire growing period. By adopting this approach,
readily soluble nutrients can be supplied directly to the root volume thereby maximizing
nutrient efficiency and minimizing over fertilization and leakage to underground
water with possible damage to the environment. The authors have attempted to bring
together knowledge of plant nutrition and physiology from many research centers and
laboratories throughout the world and to integrate this information with actual fertilizer
application in field and greenhouse commercial operations. A detailed discussion of soil
water and its distribution has purposely been avoided partly because of shortage of
space but also because there are many excellent earlier reviews on this topic, which the
authors have cited in describing fertilizer transport in the soil. The authors extensive
experience of fertilizer usage in the field and in greenhouse cropping systems is reflected
in their treatment of specific case studies and from their wide knowledge of the many
referenced citations covering more than half a century of publications from all over the
world. The fertilizers suitable for fertigation are explained from the viewpoint of the
plants physiological demand at various growth stages, the soil and the growing media
type, climatic conditions and irrigation water quality. Fertigation has enabled growers
to use sand dunes for crop production which, in the past, were classified as non
agricultural lands. The introduction of well tested and efficient fertigation techniques
into the world will help turn vast areas of desert soils into productive agricultural areas
as well as saving precious water from being wasted in conventional agricultural systems.
1. Introduction
1. Introduction 15
The reactions of soil particles with the various chemical compounds delivered
in the trickle irrigation solutions, however, are very complex. They involve chemical
interactions between the constituents of soil particles which carry permanent electrical
charges on their surfaces, precipitation reactions with calcium carbonate (lime) in basic
reactive soils and with aluminum and iron in acid soils.
Nitrogen (N) in fertilizer solutions is available mainly in three forms:
AmmoniumN: that has a positive electric charge (cation).
NitrateN: that has a negative electric charge (anion).
UreaN: that is a non-charged molecule.
These N compounds encounter a highly complex environment when they come in
contact with the soil. The ammonium cation is adsorbed to the negatively charged clay
particles and is slowly oxidized by soil bacteria to nitrate-N. The nitrate-N enters the
soil under the dripper into a water saturated zone, devoid of oxygen, which contains
soil bacteria that actively seek an oxygen source to meet their respiratory demands.
As a result, before it can be taken up by the plant, part of the oxidized nitrate present
in the soil may be reduced to nitrous oxide (N2O) or dinitrogen (N2) to return in
gaseous form to the atmosphere. Another part of the nitrate moves with the water and
accumulates to a very high concentration at the boundary between the wet and dry soil
zones. Most important is the fraction of nitrate-N taken up by plants from the fertilizer
N supplied, which is a key factor in successful economic fertigation. Urea, the noncharged molecule, is able to travel considerable distances in the soil with the moving
water. Once in contact with the ubiquitous soil enzyme urease, however, this molecule
is rapidly converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia, which upon dissolving in
water, results temporarily for a few days in a local rise in soil pH.
Phosphate soluble fertilizers are prone to precipitation reactions with calcium (Ca)
and magnesium (Mg) already in the irrigation line when the solution has a pH above
7 or when soluble iron (Fe) is present at low pH. Thus, even before the phosphorus (P)
emerges from the trickle, it has to be protected from precipitation both inside the trickle
lines and in the fertilization tanks. Once in the soil, the distance travelled by P is the
smallest of all nutrients supplied by fertigation. Phosphorus fertigation has to take into
account water quality, soil chemical composition and plant age.
Potassium (K) is the most stable form of all the major nutrients supplied by fertigation
always remaining in the same chemical form as a monovalent cation (K+).
Sand dunes, highly calcareous, saline and alkali soils occupy vast areas in arid zones
of the world (Richards, 1954). These soils are characterized by low available nutrient
content and low to medium water-holding capacity of the upper soil surface. These
features result in low vegetation density under arid climatic conditions. Desert sand
dunes were hardly used for farming under regular sprinkler irrigation, or by flood
irrigation as they are usually located far away from water sources and have very low
water holding capacity. The introduction of fertigation had a major impact in turning
these desert sand dunes and highly calcareous desert soils into productive agricultural
soils for high cash crops (Kafkafi and Bar-Yosef, 1980). In desert areas, fertigation
allows the cultivation of date tree plantations where irrigation water is delivered to
each individual tree, thus preventing losses of large amounts of water due to direct
evaporation from open soil spaces. Similarly, the trickle irrigation technique allows the
cultivation of crops in marginal soils never before done under productive agriculture.
Several reviews deal with the technical aspects of fertilizer incorporation into
irrigation water and the essential properties of fertilizers used in fertigation.
The main purpose of this manuscript is to explain the basic behavior of soluble
fertilizers supplied by trickle irrigation in growing different crops on various soil types
under varied climatic conditions. Fertigation enables the grower to select and use high
quality fertilizer most suitable for his soil, irrigation water source, crop and climatic
conditions to produce high quality crops and, at the same time, prevent environmental
pollution.
17
2. Fertigation
2.1. Definition
The practice of supplying crops in the field with fertilizers via the irrigation water is
called fertigation (Bar-Yosef, 1991). Fertigation - a modern agro-technique, provides an
excellent opportunity to maximize yield and minimize environmental pollution (Hagin
et al., 2002) by increasing fertilizer use efficiency, minimizing fertilizer application
and increasing return on the fertilizer invested. In fertigation, timing, amounts and
concentration of fertilizers applied are easily controlled. The incorporation of fertilizers
into the irrigation system demands the following basic requirements:
Equipment
In pressurized irrigation systems, the injected fertilizer solution has to be greater
than that of the internal pressure.
A filter to prevent dripper clogging by any solid particles from reaching the dripper
(Elfuving, 1982).
A back-flow preventing valve.
Fertilizers
Solubility of the fertilizers in the indigenous water source: irrigation water contains
various chemical constituents some of which may interact with dissolved fertilizers
with undesired effects.
The degree of acidity of the fertilizer solution has to be considered in relation to its
corrosiveness to the irrigation system components.
groups, according to the means employed to obtain the higher pressure for the fertilizer
solution:
Injection by a Venturi device: This is a unit that makes use of the Venturi suction
principle by using the pressure induced by the flowing water to suck the fertilizer
solution from the fertilizer tank into the irrigation line. A conical constriction in
the pipe induces an increase in the water flow velocity and a pressure decrease to an
extremely low value which causes fertilizer suction (through the filter screens) from
the supply tank through a tube into the irrigation system. A valve can be adjusted to
control the difference between the water velocities across the valves.
Injection by differential pressure: This system utilizes an air tight pressure metal tank
with anti-acid internal wall protection in which a pressure differential is created by
a throttle valve that diverts part of the irrigation water into the tank. This is the only
fertigation system that enables the use of both solid and liquid fertilizers. The entire
fertilizer amount in the tank is delivered to the irrigation area. The concentration
at the water emitter end is kept constant as long as a solid fertilizer is present in
the tank and solubility of the fertilizer is quickly achieved. Once the solid fraction
is completely dissolved the fertilizer concentration is reduced at an exponential
rate. In practice, when four tank volumes have passed through it, only a negligible
amount of fertilizer is left in the tank. This equipment was used in the early stages of
fertigation development. A limited area can be irrigated at a time according to the
tank volume. The use of solid fertilizers must be handled with care. Fertilizers that
have endothermic reaction when dissolved, like KNO3, Ca(NO3)2, Urea, NH4NO3,
KCl and 5Ca(NO3)2NH4NH310H2O decrease the temperature in the tank and when
added during cold hours in the early morning before irrigation, part of the solution
can freeze, leading to unexpected changes in the nutrient concentrations.
Injection by positive pressure: Injection pumps are able to raise the pressure of the
liquid fertilizer from a stock solution tank at a predetermined ratio between fertilizer
solution volumes to irrigation water volume, hence achieving a proportional
distribution of nutrient in the irrigation water. The advantages of using injection
pumps are the lack of pressure loss of the irrigation water, its accuracy and the ability
to provide a determined concentration through the irrigation cycle. Two types of
injectors are commonly used in fertigation: piston pumps and diaphragm pumps.
The most common power sources for fertigation pumps are:
Hydraulic energy: The device uses the hydraulic pressure of the irrigation water
to inject nutrient solution while the water used to propel it (approximately three
times the volume of solution injected) is discharged. These pumps are suitable for
fertigation in areas devoid of sources of electricity.
Electric dosing pumps: The device activates the fertilizer pump. These are
common in glasshouses and in areas where electricity is available and reliable.
2. Fertigation 19
Ammonium sulfate
Calcium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
Potassium chloride
Potassium sulfate
Ammonium phosphate
Magnesium sulfate
Phosphoric acid
Sulfuric acid
Nitric acid
Ammonium
sulfate
Calcium
nitrate
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium
nitrate
Urea
Urea
Potassium
nitrate
Potassium
chloride
Potassium
sulfate
Magnesium
sulfate
Phosphoric
acid
Sulfuric Nitric
acid
acid
2. Fertigation 21
pH of the
solution
Insolubles Comments
(%)
Ammonium nitrate
NH4NO3
195
201
5.62
Ammonium sulfate
(NH4)2SO4
Mono-ammonium
phosphate MAP
Di-ammonium
phosphate DAP
Potassium chloride
KCl
Potassium sulfate
K2SO4
Mono-potassium
phosphate MKP
Potassium nitrate
KNO3
43
15
4.5
0.5
40
20
4.5
11
60
20
7.6
15
34
7.09.02
0.5
11
8.59.52
0.442
213
5.5+/-0.5
<0.1
31
10.8
0.1
Urea
1
2
9.5
negligible
Solution temperature drops to 0C, hence it takes longer for all material to dissolve.
These figures are the ranges found in shipping analyses and refer to different sources of supply.
KNO3
21
31
46
KCl
31
34
37
K2SO4
9
11
13
NH4NO3
158
195
242
Urea
84
105
133
23
Figure 3.2. One drip irrigation line for three rows of pepper in Southern Israel
( Hillel Magen).
Frequent and small water applications with drip irrigation lead to shallow and
compact root systems (Sne, 2006) in comparison with a deeper and extended root
systems in sprinkler or flood irrigated crops. In contrast, because of improved aeration
and nutrition in the transition zone of the drip irrigated soil volume, the density of the
fine roots is significantly higher than the density of root systems growing under sprinkler
irrigation (Figure 3.5; Sne, 2006). Hence growers activities during soil preparation need
to avoid the creation of compacted soil in the planting zones (Huck, 1970).
Figure 3.3. Partial wetting of the soil surface with fertigation of a citrus plantation ( Yara International ASA).
Figure 3.4. Partial wetting of the soil surface with fertigation of a banana
plantation in South China ( Hillel Magen).
Figure 3.6. Salt distribution in the wetted soil volume below the emitter
(Adapted from Kremmer and Kenig, 1996).
P in sprinkler irrigation is accumulated in the upper few centimeters of the soil profile,
which quickly dry-off between irrigation cycles.
water to leach the chlorides. In frequent irrigation cycles, the proportion of evaporation
loss of water from the upper wet soil layer is higher, leaving the salt to accumulate on
the soil surface.
Another strategy of fertigation for field grown crops has been described by Scaife and
Bar-Yosef (1995), in which the actual daily amounts of nutrients and water supply follow
the transpiration demand as it develops with time during plant growth. In fertigation,
the daily water and nutrients requirements by the crops have to be supplied by the
grower. This growing procedure is more environmentally friendly but needs daily care
from the farmer to follow plant demand for water and nutrients. Using a daily feeding
technique in growing maize under micro gravity trickle system allowed nutrients to be
supplied to the plant, as was evident by the ability of the plants to take up all nutrients,
leaving no excess to the neighboring plants (Abura, 2001). In well-equipped farms,
where a computer is programmed to control water and nutrient sources, it is possible
to follow the daily nutrient demand and, thus, save a significant amount of water and
nutrients.
The characteristics of basic or alkaline soils are: the presence of active Ca-carbonate,
excess of soluble Ca ions, a rapid nitrification rate, and mild fixation of additional P
from fertilizers. All types of N fertilizers are suitable to be added with the irrigation
water. Even urea, which is completely soluble and causes an initial increase in pH due
to the activity of urease in the soil, is safe to use in trickle irrigation as no local increase
in urea concentration is expected in the soil. In alkaline soils, the clays are mainly of
the 2:1 type and ammonium is adsorbed to the clay, and does not cause ammonium
toxicity to roots since it is diluted by the irrigation water. The same reasoning applies to
all ammonium-based fertilizers. The soil pH has no influence on any priority selection
for K, secondary nutrients and all the micronutrients that are supplied in chelated
forms, except for Fe2+. Since Fe-EDTA is not stable above pH 6.5 in basic soil, Fe-DTPA
is recommended for soils with a pH up to 7.5, while Fe-EDDHA is recommended in
extremely high pH soils since it is stable up to pH 9.
Acid soils are characterized by active aluminium (Al) ions, shortage of Ca, slow
nitrification rate, and strong fixation of additional P from fertilizers. The use of nitrate
fertilizers as N source as suggested in Table 3.1, increases the pH in the rhizosphere due
to nitrate nutrition (See chapter 4 for full description). The increase of the pH in the
rhizosphere alleviates Al ions toxicity and allows root elongation.
Table 3.1. Recommended fertilizers for fertigation in neutral - alkaline (6.5-8.5) and acid (4.56.5) soils.
Soil pH
Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
ammonium polyphosphate
phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Potassium
Secondary nutrients
B as boric acid
Mo as sodium molybdate
EDTA complex with Cu, Zn, Mo, Mn
Fe-EDDHA
Fe-DTPA
Fe-EDTA
31
Urea [CO(NH2)2] does not carry an electric charge when dissolved in pure water. Once
urea comes in contact with the soil, it is transformed very quickly (within 24-48 h after
application) into ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2). This rapid transformation
is brought about by the enzyme urease, which is present in most soils. The ammonia
produced interacts immediately with water to give ammonium hydroxide (NH3 +
H2O = NH4OH), which results in a localized increase in soil pH. The immediate field
observation (within a day) after urea application is an increase in soil pH near the site
of urea incorporation into the soil (Court et al., 1962).
When spread as urea prills on the soil surface, losses of NH3-N directly to the
atmosphere is well documented (Black, 1968; Hoffman and Van Cleemput, 2004). The
main soil factors influencing ammonia volatilization after urea application are:
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Soil pH
CaCO3 content
Moisture content
The CEC is a direct function of the clay content of the soil. Ammonia losses from the
soil decrease with an increase in CEC. Ammonia losses are significant in soils where the
CEC is below 10 cmolc kg-1 (Volk, 1959), but becomes negligible in clay soils (in excess of
100 cmolc kg-1 ). The reason for lower loss from clay soils is that the ammonia produced
during urea hydrolysis is strongly adsorbed to clay particles and is not released into the
atmosphere provided the urea is incorporated into the soil.
Soil pH is the second major factor regulating ammonia loss during urea hydrolysis
(Hoffman and Van Cleemput, 1995 and 2004), the extent depending on urea
incorporation into the soil (Terman and Hunt, 1964). Spreading urea on the surface of
a soil with a pH of 5.2 resulted in N losses of up to 70% of the applied urea. This figure
was increased to 82% when urea was applied to the same soil after it had been limed to
pH 7.5. However, when the urea was mixed together with the original soil at pH 5.2,
only 25% of the urea applied was lost (Terman and Hunt, 1964).
In fertigation, applied urea travels with the water in the soil. Its distribution in the soil
wet zone depends on the timing of its incorporation with the irrigation water. When
added during the third quarter of the irrigation cycle, followed by the flushing of the
remaining irrigation cycle, the fertigated urea on reaching the boundaries of the wet
zone becomes susceptible to volatilization. Evaporation from the soil surface results
in increased urea concentration near the soil surface. This residual urea at the soil
surface is also certain to be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia. Such losses are difficult
to monitor under field conditions, but many works that have measured N recovery
by plants suggest this as an avenue for direct N loss (Haynes, 1985). When either
ammonium or urea is used as nitrogen source in fertigation, significant gaseous losses
as N2O and nitric oxide (NO) have also been recorded (Hoffman and Van Cleemput,
2004). Another concern about urea is the potential problem related to harmful effects
of biuret, an impurity normally found at low concentrations. During germination and
early growth of seedlings, biuret levels of up to 2% can be tolerated in most fertilizer
programs recorded (Tisdale et al., 1985).
4.2.2. Ammonium
Ammonium (NH4+) carries a positive electric charge (cation) and is adsorbed to the
negatively charged sites on clay and can also replace other adsorbed cations on the clay
surfaces. These are mainly Ca and Mg that constitute the major sorbed cations in the
soil. As a result of these interactions, ammonium is concentrated near the trickle and
the displaced Ca and to a lesser extent Mg, travels with the advancing water. Within a
few days, the soil ammonium is usually oxidized by soil bacteria to the nitrate form that
is dispersed in the soil with further irrigation cycles.
4.2.3. Nitrate
Nitrate (NO3-) carries a negative electric charge (anion). It cannot, therefore, bind to the
clay particles of basic and neutral soils which carry negative charges. However, nitrate
binds to positively charged iron and aluminum oxides present in acid soils. As in the
case of urea, nitrate travels with the water and its distribution in the soil depends on the
timing of its injection to the irrigation line. Nitrate is a strong oxidizing agent. Under the
trickle, there is usually a certain soil volume that is saturated with water and, therefore,
lacks oxygen (anaerobic conditions) (Silberbush et al., 1979; Bar-Yosef and Sheikolslami,
1976; Martinez et al., 1991). Under such conditions, many soil microorganisms use the
oxygen from the nitrate ion instead of molecular oxygen for their respiratory needs,
resulting in the loss of nitrous oxide and dinitrogen gases to the atmosphere. This
mechanism, the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrous oxide or dinitrogen (usually
termed as denitrification) is responsible for some losses of N applied. In an irrigated
maize field on clay soil, a continuous irrigation of 70 mm resulted in a loss of 250 kg N
ha-1 as gaseous dinitrogen. The combined effect of excess water with factors that cause
shortage of oxygen is responsible for large N2 gaseous losses usually unnoticed by the
grower (Bar-Yosef and Kafkafi, 1972). These factors include high soil clay content and
high soil temperature in the presence of active roots, which provide the condition for
the microorganisms in the rhizosphere to use nitrate in respiration.
soil, nitrate would be a better N source as compared with urea because the high pH
generated during urease activity might produce toxic concentrations of ammonia.
Sandy soil has a low water holding capacity and low CEC. Soils with high CEC hold the
ammonia produced during urea hydrolysis as adsorbed ammonium, thereby preventing
ammonia from damaging the root.
Consideration of the N forms and their reaction products and their behavior in
various soil types is basic to the understanding of the potential benefits or otherwise
toxic effects on the growing plant as discussed later. In a field experiment, the movement
and transformations of N from ammonium, urea and nitrate in the wetted soil volume
below the trickle emitter was studied by Haynes (1990) who compared ammonium
sulfate, urea and calcium nitrate. During a fertigation cycle (emitter discharge of 2 L h1),
the applied ammonium was concentrated in the upper 10 cm of the soil immediately
below the emitter, and little lateral movement occurred. In contrast, because of their
greater mobility in the soil, urea and nitrate were more evenly distributed down
the soil profile below the emitter and had moved laterally in the profile to a 15 cm
radius from the emitter. The urea-N applied, converted to nitrate-N more rapidly than
the ammonium-N applied as ammonium sulfate. Haynes (1990) suggests that the
accumulation of large amounts of ammonium below the emitter probably retarded
nitrification. This observation means that, under these circumstances, plant roots must
take up ammonium and not nitrate under field conditions with its consequences on plant
physiology and root growth. Following conversion to nitrate-N, fertigation with both
ammonium sulfate and urea caused acidification in the wetted soil volume. Acidification
was confined to the upper 20 cm of soil in the ammonium sulfate treatment. However,
because of its greater mobility, fertigation with urea (2 L h1) resulted in acidification
occurring down to a depth of 40 cm. Such subsoil acidity is likely to be very difficult to
ameliorate, and in non-calcareous soils, might induce aluminum toxicity. By increasing
the trickle discharge rate from 2 L h1 to 4 L h1, lateral spread of urea in the surface soil
layer was encouraged. As a consequence, acidification was confined only to the surface
(020 cm) soil.
Choosing the most suitable N fertilizer to suit local soil, plant type and climate
conditions are key decisions a grower and the fertilizer adviser must make. For example,
when the same fertilization treatments as used above by Haynes (1990) in calcareous
soil with irrigation water that contains bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), the same reactions of
the N fertilizer are expected, but the high basic soil condition will prevent a significant
change in soil pH.
In orchards, the trickle lines remain at the same place for many years. The soil and
plants are exposed to the same type of fertigation for several years, and the accumulated
N effects on soil and roots can be detrimental. Zhang et al. (1996) studied the effects of N
fertilization methods on root distribution and mineral element concentrations of White
Marsh grapefruit (Citrus paradise MacFadyen) trees on sour orange (C. aurantium
Lush) rootstock on a poorly drained soil. At the 0-15 cm soil depth, root density was
significantly greater for trees receiving 112 kg N ha-1 yr-1 as dry granular fertilizer
broadcast than those receiving the same amount of N supplied through fertigation.
With fertigation, of the total roots in the top 60 cm soil, >75% were found at 0-15 cm
and <10% at 30-60 cm. Root density was greatest near the emitter. N concentration
of roots was greater for the trees which received fertigation as compared to the trees
which received dry fertilizer broadcast or no N. Such a study stresses the point that
plant root morphology results from the response of roots to local concentrations of
specific nutrients supplied by fertigation. The accurate study on the exact location of
each N form in the soil volume is of no practical value, as the roots respond and develop
in the suitable soil volume and extract the available N compounds present.
4.5.1. Ammonium-nitrate
The distribution of ammonium and nitrate concentrations in the soil was measured
under different fertigation strategies that varied in the order in which water and nutrient
were applied. In the solution emitted from the dripper, the concentration of ammonium
was equal to that of nitrate. Just below the trickle, an extremely high soil ammonium
concentration exists because of adsorption to the clay particles in soil. At the same time,
nitrate ions moves to the boundaries of the wetted zone. This observation suggests
that in field practice, flushing of the remaining fertilizer solution in the drip pipeline
system should be as short as possible after nitrate dose injection has ended, to avoid
the potential loss of nitrate from the root zone. Zhang et al. (2004) recommended the
following fertigation procedure for nitrate fertilizer:
Apply only water for one-fourth of the total irrigation time.
Apply nitrate fertilizer solution for one-half of the total irrigation time.
Apply water for the remaining one-fourth of the total irrigation time.
This procedure maintained most of the nitrate close to the trickle emitter.
4.5.2. Urea
Soluble urea moves with the water in the soil. The timing of fertilizer injection to the
irrigation line has a vital influence on N distribution in the wet soil. For the same
irrigation amount, if urea is applied in the first quarter of the irrigation cycle, the urea
will continue to travel with the later supplied water, pushing the urea to the far end of
the wet zone. If urea is injected to the irrigation line in the last quarter of the irrigation
period, however, the urea will be found closer to the trickle. As mentioned above, the
secondary reactions in soil for nitrate and urea should not be neglected.
0
0
10
15
20
25
Rice
Barley
Maize
Conventional
Sorghum
Constant pH
NH4+ solution
Bean
TOPS
Tomato
Constant pH
ROOTS
Cucumber
Conventional
NH4NO3 solution
Lettuce
Constant pH
NO3- solution
Conventional
Figure 4.1. Effect of nitrogen source on plant growth (Adapted from Moritsugu and Kawasaki, 1983).
Carrott
Radish
TOPS
50
40
20
30
15
20
10
10
0
0
10
Cucumber
0
0
5
Tomato
Cabbage
Chinese C.
Spinach
Radish
ROOTS
Figure 4.2. Effect of nitrogen source on plant growth by the nitrogen-restricted culture method
(Adapted from Moritsugu et al., 1983)
With ammonium nutrition, the sugar content was lower at each root temperature in
comparison with nitrate fed roots. In practice, the sensitivity to the N form by different
plants in different root temperatures explains many cases and problems especially in
plastic potted plants growing during warm periods in the field and mainly in nurseries.
The reason for the differences found between plants in their sensitivity to ammonium in
the root zone results from variation in distribution of sugar between shoots and roots.
The monocotyledonous plants are less sensitive to ammonium N concentration than
the leafy dicotyledonous plants which are highly sensitive to ammonium concentration
(Moritsugu et al., 1983).
Nitrogen assimilation in plants (Marschner, 1995) occurs both in the roots and in
the leaves. When nitrate-N is taken up, between 70 to 90% is transported as nitrate
to the leaves (van Beusichem et al., 1988). In the leaf, nitrate is reduced to ammonia.
Ammonia toxicity in the leaf is prevented as ammonia combines immediately with sugar
to produce an amino acid, usually glutamine (Marschner, 1995). The sugar produced
in the leaf cells is in close proximity to the site of its consumption and is used in the
detoxification of ammonia in the leaf cell. However, when ammonium enters the root,
all the ammonium-N is completely metabolized in the root, consuming the sugar that is
transported to the root by the phloem flow (Marschner, 1995). In the root, there are two
main consumption sinks for sugar: (i) cell respiration and (ii) ammonium metabolism.
When the root temperature increases, its sugar concentration is reduced due to increase
When ammonium is the N source, the concentrations of Mg and Ca in the plant are
lower as compared to nitrate (Van Tuil, 1965). During the vegetative growth, a slight
reduction in Ca and Mg concentration in the xylem transport within the plant is
hardly seen in sensitive plants like tomato (Chio and Bould, 1976). However, during
fruit development, ammonium induced Ca deficiency causes severe blossom end rot in
tomato fruits. In pepper, Xu et al. (2001) reported that supplying up to 30% of the total
N as ammonium until flowering did not cause any reduction in plant development.
However, after fruit setting only nitrate treatment was free of blossom end rot. To
explain these observations, it is suggested that ammonium reduces the internal root
pressure that is responsible for the turgor pressure and fruit expansion during the night.
As Ca is delivered to the expanding fruits by the root pressure during the night, in the
presence of ammonium, less Ca reaches the developing fruit.
Nitrogen partitioning in rose plants over a flowering cycle was studied by Cabrera
et al. (1995). Lowest N uptake by greenhouse roses were found when shoots were
elongating rapidly and highest when flower shoots had ceased elongation. In order to
study the partitioning of recently absorbed N and the dynamics of total N within the
plant, fertilizer labeled with 15N was supplied at different stages of one flowering cycle
to hydroponically grown Royalty rose plants. It was observed that during the period
of rapid shoot elongation, N uptake from the nutrient solution supplied only 16-36% of
flower shoot N. The remainder, representing most of the N in the growing shoots, came
from N stored in other plant organs, particularly old stems and leaves. The increased
N uptake that occurred later in the flowering cycle was sufficient to meet flower shoot
N demand and to replenish the N supply in the old foliage and woody tissues. These
organs continued to accumulate N until the subsequent bud break, when it became
available for the next cycle of flower shoot development.
In apples, Millard and Neilsen (1989) demonstrated that increasing the N supply
increased leaf growth but had no effect upon root mass which altered the root/leaf dry
matter ratio. Plants receiving no fertilizer N had to rely entirely on stored reserves of N
for their seasonal growth. Initially, this N was used for leaf growth, which stopped after
a few weeks. Thereafter, in the N-deficient plants, some of the N from the leaves was retranslocated to support root growth. Increasing N supply had little effect on the amount
of N remobilized for growth, although well-fertilized plants accumulated N in their
leaves, which was not re-translocated to support root growth. This work showed that
the major forms of N remobilized during growth were protein rich in asparagine and
arginine. These results demonstrate the importance of internal N cycling for the growth
of young apple trees and of N cycling in all deciduous trees (Millard and Neilsen, 1989).
Mattos, Jr et al. (2003) studied biomass distribution of 6-year-old Hamlin orange trees
[Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] on Swingle citrumelo [Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. x C.
x paradisi Macfad.] rootstock, grown in a sandy soil under low volume irrigation in
Florida. About 70% of dry matter biomass of trees was aboveground. Most of the feeder
roots were concentrated at a depth of 0-15 cm below the soil surface, and their density
varied from 1.87 to 0.88 cm cm-3 at 0.5 and 1.5 m distance from the trunk, respectively.
Total recoveries of 15N by the trees were 25.5% for urea and 39.5% for ammonium
nitrate at fruit harvest, 280 days after fertilization. Mean accumulation of applied 15N
in recent leaf flush was 4.2% and that of older leaves was 2.5%. However, accumulation
of 15N was low in woody tissue. The fruit represented the largest sink for N (10.2 and
18.4% recovery of 15N applied as urea and ammonium nitrate, respectively). Their work
confirmed the importance of N fertilization in citrus before fruit development.
In apples (Frith and Nichols, 1975), various proportions of the roots were subjected to
nutrient stress by placing some of the roots in zero N solution. Under optimum lighting
it was found that, if part of the root system was deprived of N, then the remaining
root system that received N partially compensated for this deficiency by increasing its
uptake. This adaptation is, however, substantially reduced under low levels of lighting.
From a fertigation viewpoint the results of these experiments demonstrate that it is not
necessary to evenly distribute the fertilizer in the soil since the roots compensate for low
presence of nutrient in one part of the soil by excessive uptake from locations in the soil
with high fertilizer concentration.
When nitrate is the sole N source in flowing solution culture, the net rate of N uptake
by un-nodulated soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. cv Ransom) plants, cycles between
maxima and minima with a periodicity of oscillation that corresponds with the
interval of leaf emergence (Henry and Raper, Jr., 1989). During a 21-day period of
vegetative development, net uptake of ammonium was also measured daily. The net
rate of ammonium uptake oscillated with a periodicity that was similar to the interval
of leaf emergence. Instances of negative net rates of uptake indicate that the transition
between maxima and minima involved changes in influx and efflux components of net
ammonium uptake. Therefore, it can be concluded that the actual uptake of N by plants
is controlled internally by mechanisms within the plant, whereas the growers role is to
maintain sufficient available N near the root through proper fertigation supply.
4.8. N uptake
The uptake of all mineral nutrients throughout plant development must be adequate for
particular nutrients at specific growth stages to meet plant demand. For example, K is
stored in juicy fruits like grapes (Conradie, 1981), sugar beet, cassava, potatoes, citrus
and most juicy fruits. Potassium, therefore, is removed from soils by the harvested
part of the crops. Grain seeds mainly remove the N and P when harvested but are not
considered as exporters of K from the field unless the harvest is taken at peak green dry
matter production at heading, or when the straw is also removed from the field.
Changes in function as an individual root ages has important implications for
understanding resource acquisition, competitive ability and optimal lifespan. Both
nitrate uptake and root respiration decline rapidly with increasing root age as reported
on fine roots of grapes (Volder et al., 2005). The decline in both N uptake and root
respiration corresponded with a strong decline in root N concentration, suggesting
translocation of N from the roots. The main decline in root uptake occurs within five
days of the fine roots activity. These findings emphasize the importance of maintaining
fertile soil conditions to allow uninterrupted root growth and adequate nutrient
acquisition to stimulate plant growth. Measured N demands in field grown crops are
given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Nitrogen uptake by various field and vegetable crops with respect to relative time of
growth (Kafkafi and Kant, 2004).
Crop
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100
Total
uptake
(g plant-1)
Plants
(no. ha-1)
Expected
yield
(t ha-1)
Uptake* (g plant )
-1
Cotton
0.20
(6)
1.80
(58)
3.80
(123)
2.20
(71)
1.60
(52)
9.60
(62)
25,000
1.3**
Maize
0.25
(11)
1.58
(70)
1.00
(44)
0.83
(37)
0.50
(22)
4.17
(37)
60,000
Tomato
0.50
(19)
0.75
(28)
2.50
(91)
4.25
(156)
3.25
(119)
11.25
(83)
20,000
100
Sweet pepper
0.40
(20)
1.80
(90)
1.10
(55)
0.70
(35)
0.60
(30)
4.60
(46)
50,000
55
Potato
0.08
(4)
1.00
(50)
1.08
(54)
0.50
(25)
0.17
(9)
2.83
(28)
60,000
50
Muskmelon
0.20
(10)
0.60
(30)
1.60
(80)
2.80
(140)
0.80
(40)
6.00
(60)
25,000
50
Watermelon
0.83
(41)
1.67
(84)
3.33
(166)
6.67
(333)
2.50
(125)
15.00
(150)
12,000
75
Cabbage
0.10
(8)
0.20
(16)
0.80
(63)
1.90
(150)
0.60
(47)
3.60
(56)
50,000
29
Cauliflower
0.10
(8)
0.20
(16)
0.50
(40)
2.00
(157)
1.40
(110)
4.20
(66)
50,000
Eggplant
0.50
(14)
3.25
(89)
2.00
(55)
2.50
(69)
1.50
(41)
9.75
(54)
20,000
40
*The numbers in parentheses are the daily amounts of N (mg N plant-1 day-1) to be added with drip
fertigation during the respective relative time of growth. This amount includes 10% additional N for root
consumption.
**Seed cotton (lint) yield
43
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 also written as PO(OH)3 has three hydroxyl groups that
actively interact in the soil with the Ca (usually present as carbonate) in basic soils and
with Al and Fe hydroxides in acid soils to form many potential combinations which
are pH dependent. The main phosphate ions soluble in water in the pH range of 5 to
9 are: H2PO4- and HPO42-. While the total P in solution remains constant, the relative
distribution between mono and divalent P ions is pH dependent as shown in Figure
5.1. At pH=7.2, 50% of the P is present as H2PO4-. As the pH increases above 7.2, the
proportion of the divalent P increases very quickly, while below pH 7.2, the monovalent
P anion is the major constituent.
Plants take up only the monovalent P as H2PO4- (Marschner, 1995). It is clear from
Figure 5.1 that the availability of P in the solution decreases as solution pH increases.
For example, if a container holds 1 g of P in the solution at pH 5, all the P is fully
available (100%) to the plant. However, if the pH in the container is increased to about
8, only 0.1 g P (10%) is then available despite the fact that the total amount of P in the
container has not changed. When plants take up ammonium, the surrounding roots
become acidic, whereas when nitrate is taken up, the root excretion is basic (Marschner,
1995). The N form taken up by the plant, thus, controls the pH near the roots. As a
result, the soil that is in direct contact with the root is the main source of P. Diffusion of
P in the soil is rather slow as compared to the rate of root elongation, unless a huge local
concentration of P is introduced (Lewis and Quirk, 1965).
120
100
HPO42-
H2PO4-
% dissociation
80
60
40
20
0
-20
pH
10
Figure 5.1. The relative concentration of the mono and divalent P (H2PO4- : HPO42-) ions as a
function of soil solution pH (Based on the 2nd pK=7.2 of H3PO4).
32
(NH4)2SO4
24
(NH4)2CO3
16
None
12
Days after emergence
18
24
Figure 5.2. Maize uptake of radioactive P when placed in a band of acid or a basic nitrogen fertilizer
(Redrawn from Duncan and Ohlrogge, 1957).
facilitate the transport of P in subsurface flow by coating the active sites for P adsorption
(Pierzynski et al., 1994). Kirkby et al. (1997), working on a pedological research on a
catchment slope, demonstrated the deep percolation of P if the water can travel through
macropore cavities in the soil.
Phosphoric
acid (75%)1
Urea
phosphate
MKP2
Acidulated
MKP3
MAP (4)
H3PO4
(NH2)2COH3PO4
KH2PO4
KH2PO4+H3PO4
NH4H2PO4
1.8
4.5
2.2
4.3-4.5
P2O5 (%)
52-54
44
51.5
60
61
K2O (%)
34
20
N-NH2 (%)
17.5
N-NH4 (%)
12
Comments
Avoid metal
parts
Avoid metal
parts
Safe to
metal parts
Phosphoric acid is usually used in industrial processes such as cleaning metal surfaces. It
is supplied in plastic containers with a specific gravity of 1.6. In fertigation, phosphoric
acid is used to clean fertigation lines from inorganic precipitates as well as opening clogs
in drippers, and at the same time supplying P to growing plants. It is safer to handle as
compared with concentrated nitric or sulfuric acids. However, as phosphoric acid is a
concentrated acid, care in handling should still be taken such as wearing of goggles and
gloves to protect from spills on skin and clothing. Since it is a highly concentrated P
source, a separate delivery pump is used in the field.
The term poly means that molecular structure of the substance contains more than
one P atom. Compounds having only one P atom are termed orthophosphates.
By heating and removing the water molecule, a P molecule containing two P atoms
is produced, and is termed pyrophosphate, and when three and more P atoms are
present in the molecule, the term used is polyphosphate. Pyrophosphate is the main
form of condensed P in the liquid fertilizer ammonium polyphosphate (APP). When
APP is applied to soil, the pyrophosphate is hydrolyzed to orthophosphate.
In the fertilizer industry, polyphosphate fertilizers are produced in the presence of
ammonia to give concentrated liquid P fertilizers with compositions of 10-34-0 or 1137-0. The relative high P concentration is an important parameter for transportation
costs. However, the only form of P taken up by the plant is the anion H2PO4-, which
means that the polyphosphate fertilizer must revert to the mono P form before the
plant can take it up. This reaction needs an acidic environment for the supply of H+
ions (protons). The major supplier of protons is the root itself, which releases H+ ions
into the soil solution during the uptake of ammonium-N. This production of H+ ions
decomposes the polyphosphate and reverts it to mono-phosphate, which is available
to the plant. In calcareous soil, the time needed to degrade 50% of the P (half life) was
found to be 14-21 days (Khasawneh et al., 1974 and 1979). This half life is very long
since about five half life periods (i.e. 70-100 days) are needed for 90% of the material
to revert to plant-available forms (McBeath et al., 2006). In the soil, the pH varies and
changes constantly over microscopic distances from the roots, so that the bulk pH
as measured in the laboratory on air dried, then rewetted soil, does not necessarily
describe the micro events near the roots. Lombi et al. (2004) compared liquid MAP to
granular MAP fertilizer in a highly calcareous soil in Australia. The liquid P source
enhanced P uptake and increased yield compared with granular P fertilizer, which was
applied at the same rate. Their results indicated that P from liquid MAP diffused more
rapidly and was more available than P supplied as granular MAP. Careful study of the
MAP granules indicated that a significant percentage (12%) of the initial P remained in
the granules even after five weeks of incubation in the soil. The enhanced P availability
of liquid P source observed in the field trials as compared with granular forms could be
a result of many differences in the dissolution, diffusion and reaction processes in soils.
In the USA, alfalfa was fertilized with liquid APP (10340) as compared to solid
MAP (11520) fertilizer (Ottman et al., 2006). In their study, the higher cost of liquid
APP compared with granular MAP was not recovered by the slight increase in yield.
However, they claim that at low P rates, APP solutions may be more economical than
top dressed MAP due to its low application cost. Therefore, the cost of the fertilizer itself
and its application costs are the main consideration in the choice. In fertigation via
trickle line, it is possible to control P application with automatic remote control systems,
which growers favor due to the savings in application cost. The fertigation technique
supplies an easy solution to a practical problem.
Urea phosphate is a chemical adduct between urea and phosphoric acid molecules. It
contains a minimum of 17.5% N and 44% P2O5. It is used in the fertigation of soilgrown crops under neutral and alkaline conditions. Urea phosphate is easy to handle
and safer to use, compared to liquid acids, as it is a free-flowing, dry acid in crystalline
form. Furthermore, after dissolution, 6.3 mol H+ per kg UP is released, which makes
it a concentrated acidifier. Due to its acidic action, it helps to keep tank solutions clear
and prevent clogging of the fertigation equipment. Urea phosphate reduces the pH of
the irrigation water and soil, which improves nutrient availability and nutrient uptake
efficiency. In calcareous sodic soils, UP reacts with calcium carbonate, the calcium
ion replacing sodium from the soil complex, which improves the soil structure (less
compaction). After flushing with sufficient water, sodium is washed out of the rooting
zone. As a result, water infiltration is improved and sodium levels in the rooting zone
are reduced (Ryan and Tabbara, 1989). The risk of N volatilization is reduced with UP
(Mikkelsen and Bock, 1988). The use of UP has resulted in early flowering and yield
(Becker et al., 2004). Earliness of yield is important for growers as, in general, prices are
highest for those first to market.
This is a new fertilizer introduced recently to increase the P concentration to 60% P2O5
and to increase acidity to prevent P precipitation and clogging of the irrigation lines
when hard water (high Ca content) is the irrigation water source.
Mono ammonium phosphate fertilizer contains 61% P2O5 and 12% N in ammonium
form. It is commonly used in fertigation field practices. In hydroponic systems, it can
maintain acidic solution pH when ammonium is not toxic to the plants. Growers of
crops sensitive to ammonium, like lettuce in hydroponic system, should take care when
using ammonium in the solution. In substrate grown plants such as peat or soils, where
nitrification prevails, this fertilizer is usually safe.
5.6. P uptake
Measured phosphorus demand in field grown crops are given in Table 5.2.
The patterns of P uptake by plants as shown in Table 5.2 demonstrate the differences in
P demand at different physiological plant growth stages. Usually, the peak in P demand
is during the early growth toward the differentiation of the generative organs. The cobs
in maize demand high P transport so a high dose of P is given within 30-40 days after
emergence. In tomato (for industry), most of the P is present in the fruit seeds, at 60-80
days after germination and, in a short period, all the harvested fruits are developed from
the second flowering cycle. Trickle irrigation is the only method (Kafkafi, unpublished
results) that can minimize P fixation, as it can be delivered when maximum P supply
is needed by the plant, and by that, minimizing the time of contact of fertilizer P with
the soil before being taken up by the plant. Using radioactive P supply at the middle of
a row of cotton demonstrated that surface roots in the wet zone take up P immediately
after its supply.
Table 5.2. Phosphorus uptake by various field and vegetable crops with respect to relative time
of growth ( Kafkafi and Kant, 2004).
Crop
80-100
Total
uptake
(g plant-1)
Plants
(no. ha-1)
Expected
yield
(t ha-1)
20-40
40-60
60-80
Uptake* (g plant )
-1
Cotton
0.17
(5.2)
0.24
(7.7)
0.80
(25.8)
0.44
(14.2)
0.17
(5.2)
1.80
(11.6)
25,000
1.3**
Maize
0.07
(2.9)
0.30
(13.2)
0.28
(12.1)
0.25
(11.0)
0.10
(4.4)
1.00
(8.8)
60,000
Tomato
0.03
(1.1)
0.05
(1.8)
0.17
(6.2)
0.45
(16.5)
0.25
(9.0)
0.95
(7.0)
20,000
100
Sweet pepper
0.03
(1.5)
0.10
(5.0)
0.20
(10.0)
0.08
(4.0)
0.04
(2.0)
0.45
(4.5)
50,000
55
Potato
0.01
(0.5)
0.05
(2.5)
0.10
(5.0)
0.14
(7.0)
0.09
(4.5)
0.39
(3.9)
60,000
50
Muskmelon
0.02
(1.1)
0.08
(4.0)
0.20
(10.0)
0.32
(16.0)
0.20
(10.0)
0.82
(8.2)
25,000
50
Eggplant
0.03
(0.8)
0.12
(3.3)
0.18
(5.0)
0.42
(11.5)
0.35
(9.6)
1.10
(6.0)
20,000
40
*The numbers in parentheses are the daily amounts of phosphorus (mg P2O5 plant-1 day-1) to be added
with drip fertigation during the respective relative time of growth. This amount includes 10% additional P
for root consumption.
**Seed cotton (lint) yield
51
by the fertilizer might impact crops in sensitive to Cl like tobacco (Xu et al., 2000), in
which Cl interferes with the burning quality. In most other crops, KCl is an acceptable
fertilizer. It is also used by producers of compound fertilizers as the cheapest source of
K.
Potassium sulfate, K2SO4, is widely used under saline conditions. Due to the presence
of SO4, it is used when the water available is low in Ca, i.e. only when soft water is
available for irrigation. The presence of high Ca in the water can result in gypsum
precipitation in the irrigation lines, clogging the drippers.
Mono potassium phosphate can be a source of K but it is more of a source for P in
fertigation. Since the amounts of P needed by plants are only about 1/10 of the amount
of K uptake, this fertilizer is considered mainly as a P source in fertigation.
Potassium nitrate is highly soluble in temperatures above 20 C and presents an
optimum ratio of K:N from a nutrient uptake viewpoint. At low night temperatures,
this fertilizer can precipitate in the tank so special care must be taken when open field
storage of KNO3 containers are left overnight.
Figure 6.1. The effect of K concentration in the soil solution on color and lycopene of experimental processing tomato cv. 8687 (Sosnitsky, 1996).
the plant takes up much more K than sulfate). Chloride is an essential element but
is needed by plant only in micro quantities (Marschner, 1995), yet if present in the
solution around the root, it is taken up by the plants and competes with nitrate uptake
(Xu et al., 2000). Therefore, for high cash greenhouse crops and quality premium crops
that are irrigated by drip irrigation, daily supply of KNO3 fully satisfies the plants need
for K and partially satisfies the plants need for N. When using sulfate or chloride-K
fertilizers, an extra source of N should be supplied.
6.6. K uptake
Table 6.1 shows K uptakes by different crops, converting the absolute number of growing
days of each crop to a relative value as a % of the total time needed from seeding to
harvest.
Table 6.1. Potassium uptake by various field and vegetable crops with respect to relative time of
growth between seeding (0%) and harvest (100%) (Kafkafi and Kant, 2004).
Crop
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100
Uptake* (g plant-1)
Total
uptake
(g plant-1)
Plants
(no. ha-1)
Expected
yield
(t ha-1)
Cotton
0.60
(20)
2.00
(65)
3.60
(117)
0.60
(20)
0.20
(7)
7.00
(45)
25,000
1.3**
Maize
0.25
(11)
1.83
(80)
1.00
(44)
0.33
(14)
0.08
(4)
3.50
(31)
60,000
Sugarcane
0.50
(11)
0.60
(13)
0.70
(15)
1.80
(40)
0.60
(13)
4.20
(19)
50,000
140
Tomato
0.70
(25)
0.80
(30)
3.50
(128)
7.00
(256)
4.50
(165)
16.50
(121)
20,000
100
Sweet pepper
0.50
(25)
2.00
(100)
1.40
(70)
1.40
(70)
0.40
(20)
5.70
(57)
50,000
55
Potato
0.20
(10)
0.80
(40)
1.80
(90)
1.50
(75)
0.40
(20)
4.70
(47)
60,000
50
Muskmelon
0.40
(20)
1.20
(60)
4.00
(190)
4.40
(220)
2.00
(100)
12.00
(120)
25,000
50
Eggplant
0.75
(21)
5.00
(138)
3.00
(82)
1.75
(48)
1.00
(28)
11.50
(64)
20,000
40
*The numbers in parentheses are the daily amounts of K (mg K2O plant-1 day-1) to be added with drip
fertigation during the respective relative time of growth. This amount includes 10% additional K for root
consumption.
**Seed cotton (lint) yield
55
The term secondary nutrients refers to nutrients such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)
and sulfur (S), which are of secondary importance compared to the primary nutrients
nitrogen (N), potassium (K) and phosphorus (P). However, the amount needed by some
plants for Ca, Mg and S are similar or sometimes even greater to that of phosphorus.
The typical amount of absorbed secondary nutrients by plants is presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. Typical plant absorption of calcium, magnesium and sulfur.
Element
Symbol
Calcium
Ca
Ca+2
5 (0.5%)
Magnesium
Mg
Mg+2
2 (0.2%)
SO4
1 (0.1%)
Sulfur
Uptake form
-2
In most basic and less acid soils, the availability and transport of Ca and Mg to plant
roots occurs via mass flow in the soil solution. The amounts of Ca and Mg that reach
the plant roots by mass flow are usually more than the rate of uptake by the root, by
a factor of several hundreds. As a result Ca and Mg accumulate near the plant roots
(Barber, 1962). Some of the secondary nutrients are supplied through the application of
macronutrient N, P and K fertilizers as shown in Table 7.2.
In soil applied macronutrient fertilizers used at pre-plant, sulfate and Ca are given
in quantities greater than the N and P content in these fertilizers, while their uptake by
the plant is less than that of N, such as in ammonium sulfate. Single superphosphate
contains more Ca and S by weight than P. Therefore, the addition of Ca, Mg and S to
agricultural crops is secondary in importance. However, the addition of Ca, Mg and S
should be given first priority in acid soils where acute Ca deficiency and high fixation of
P can often occur (Marschner, 1995).
Table 7.2. Secondary nutrients supplied with commonly used N, P and K fertilizers.
Fertilizer
Superphosphate simple
P2O5
Triple superphosphate
P2O5
Ammonium sulfate
SO4
Potassium sulfate
K2O
SO4
8. Micronutrients
8.1. Visual observations
Micronutrient deficiencies are first observed in the younger apex leaves, in contrast
to macronutrient deficiencies (N, P and K), which first occur in the lower, mature
leaves of the plant. The macronutrients in a growing plant are concentrated in the
young developing tissues. When a shortage in macronutrients occurs in the plant, the
meristems of the young developing plant mobilize the macronutrients from old tissue
cells into the newly developing organs. In accordance with this explanation N deficient
plants show yellowing (sometimes called chlorosis) of the lower, mature leaves while
a deficiency of iron (a micronutrient) is evident from chlorosis in the upper, younger
leaves of the apex.
8. Micronutrients 59
Unlike the metal micronutrients discussed above, B is not present in any enzyme,
but a shortage of B strongly depresses plant growth and development. For example,
root elongation stops completely within 100 hours after transfer to a solution without
B (Chapman and Jackson, 1974). Furthermore, B is absolutely critical for pollen
germination, pollen-tube elongation and generative cell mitosis (Jackson and Linskens,
1978). Boron is also important for efficient calcium (Ca) metabolism and utilization by
plants. In a pure fertigation solution, B is present as boric acid [B(OH)3] or as the borate
anion [B(OH)4-]. Inside the plant cytoplasm (at pH 7.5), more than 98% of the B is in the
form of B(OH)3 and, at pH 5.5, in the vacuole, 99.95% of the B is in the form of B(OH)3
(Brown et al., 2002). The pH around the root affects B uptake. The relative uptake as
influenced by solution pH is shown in Figure 8.1. Above pH 8 there is a marked and
fast decline in B uptake, suggesting that the form in which B is taken up is as B(OH)3.
0.003 mM B
0.465 mM B
0.930 mM B
100
80
60
40
20
0
8
9
Solution pH
10
11
Figure 8.1. Relative uptake of boron as a function of solution pH. Uptake at pH 6 = 100% at each
supply concentration (Adapted from Oertli and Grgurevic, 1975).
plants. In saline water, which can contain large amounts of Cl, toxicity may occur due
to Cl accumulation in the leaves, causing edge necrosis in sensitive plants like avocado
(Xu et al., 2000; Bar, 1986) (Figure 8.2).
8. Micronutrients 61
present in leaves even though deficiency still affects the plant and, therefore, its function
in the leaf must be retarded (Rmheld, 2000).
The plant kingdom has developed two strategies to take up Fe (Marschner, 1995):
Strategy I is found in all plants except grasses. The first stage is a reduction of Fe3+
to Fe2+, which is carried out by a root plasma membranebound enzyme called
Fe-chelate reductase. Then, the Fe2+ is transported across the root epidermal cell
membrane. This was demonstrated early on for soybean by Chaney et al. (1972).
Strategy II is only found in grasses. Compounds called phytosiderophores, which are
Fe3+ specific ligands, are released by root cells of grasses in response to Fe deficiency.
In fertigation, most of the metal micronutrients such as Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn, are
supplied in a chelated form, mainly as EDTA [ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid]
(Moran, 2004). In this form, most of the metal-chelate compounds are stable below pH
7.0 (Lehman, 1963). Stable Fe chelates for alkaline soils (pH>7.5) are usually EDDHA
[ethylene-diamine di ortho-hydroxyphenylacetic acid] based (Barak and Chen, 1982).
Iron chelate compounds are indispensable to fertigation.
Molybdenum serves as a cofactor in the enzyme nitrate reductase (Sagi et al., 2002). In
this role, it is essential to the metabolism of nitrate by plants. In terms of uptake by the
plant, about one molybdate anion enters the plant in comparison to one million nitrate
anions (Lucas and Knezek, 1972). It is usually not included in any fertilizer formulas
unless a specific demand is identified due to plant deficiency symptoms (Loue, 1986).
Zinc deficiency is frequently due to low availability of Zn rather than the absolute
total Zn content of soils. High pH>7.5 and calcium carbonate content, poor levels of
organic matter and low soil moisture are the factors predominantly responsible for low
availability of Zn to plant roots (Kalayci et al., 1999). Zinc is critical in the production
of auxins for plant tissue elongation and expansion. Symptoms of Zn deficiency include
stem and branch rosetting and little-leaf where leaves remain small and stunted.
Iron
4.0-6.5
Manganese
5.0-6.5
Zinc
5.0-7.0
Copper
5.0-7.0
Boron
5.0-7.5
Molybdenum
7.0-8.5
Chlorine
Indifferent to pH
63
In fertigation management, fertilizer choice and irrigation water quality are the two
most important considerations. The water characteristics influencing the fertigation
operation are ion composition, water salinity level, pH, bicarbonate concentration and
redox potential.
Two main aspects are of importance when water quality is considered in fertigation:
The effect of water quality on plant nutrition;
The fertilizer-water interactions in the irrigation system.
10
8
6
4
2
0
40
80
120
160
200
[Na+]
(nM)
Figure 9.1. Na inhibition of root elongation and relieving Na effects by increase in Ca ions in the
solution (Adapted from Yermiyaho et al., 1997).
Chloride (Cl)
Aside from the salinity effects of Na+, the chloride ion (Cl-) is abundantly present in
saline solution, and is taken up by all plants in large quantities. Certain components
in some fertilizers can counteract the deleterious effects of water salinity. For instance,
potassium nitrate (KNO3), or calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), when constantly applied
in the saline solution, can reduce Cl- uptake by plants (Xu et al., 2000). Leaf Clconcentration increases with time during plant growth and can reach very high internal
concentrations that might cause scorching and complete leaf death in extreme cases.
Bar (1990) demonstrated that, by elevating the nitrate concentration in the nutrient
solution, Cl uptake was reduced and even very sensitive plants to Cl- such as avocado
survived a concentration in irrigation solution of 568 g Cl- per m3 (16 mM). At 2 mM
NO3 (28 g NO3 m-3), the lower avocado leaves showed Cl accumulation and scorching
symptoms (see Figure 8.2 in chapter 8). Increasing the nitrate concentration to 16 mM
NO3 (224 g NO3 m-3) in the solution, prevented Cl accumulation in the leaves.
Population
(million)
Water sources
Natural
replenishment
Treated
wastewater
Desalination
Total
1995
5.6
1710
245
1960
2000
6.0
1720
360
20
2100
2010
7.0
1725
520
75
2320
2020
8.0
1740
780
160
2680
Total irrigation
water
Overall total
Demand
Agriculture
Year
Urban sector
1995
Natural
Treated
wastewater
730
980
250
1230
1960
2000
850
900
350
1250
2100
2010
1060
760
500
1260
2320
2020
1330
600
750
1350
2680
Nitrogen
(total as N)
Typical
domestic
wastewater
Secondary
treatment
after SAT1
Tertiary
treatment
Filtered
effluent
Secondary
treatment
85
NH4-N
<0.02
0.55
NO3-N
0.28
9.34
7.74
0.08-20.6
2.2
<0.05
1.6
3.8-14.6
6-15
18
24
15.5
13-31.2
30-120
Gori et al.,
2004
Asano,
1989
National
Wastewater Survey,
2004
Phosphorus
(as P)
20
Potassium
(as K)
Source reference
Secondary
treatment
before SAT1
FAO, 2002
Icekson-Tal
et al., 2003
Icekson-Tal
et al., 2003
30-60
TWW
Cations
Potable
TWW
N-NO3
0.05
0.01
2.9
10
Anions
N-NH4
0.03
0.22
1.75
HCO3
Ca
1.5
1.75
0.03
0.21
Mg
1.5
1.7
Cl
8.5
11.8
Na
5.6
12.9
8.85
21.1
11.48
22.02
Sum of cations(+)
Micronutrients in mg L-1
Fe
0.001
0.079
Mn
0.0001
0.02
Zn
0.04
0.05
Cu
0.0001
0.003
0.18
0.49
Cd
0.0001
0.0009
Ni
0.0001
0.016
EC dS m
1.1
2.5
pH
7.4
7.7
-1
2006). There is a 100 fold increase in ammonium concentration, eight fold increases
in K and seven fold increases in P in the TWW. However, these are all in a range of
concentrations suitable for plant growth.
9.1.2.3. Variation in nutrient content in TWW
The TWW composition changes with season, source and water treatment processes
before final usage. Sewage water is produced daily by urban populations, but irrigation
demand is concentrated during the cropping season, which is also affected by winter
rain accumulation in the soil before the irrigation season. As a result, large open surface
reservoirs have to be built to accumulate the winter city effluent production.
Typically after secondary treatment, ammonium concentration in the water might
vary between 10 and 50 g N m-3. Since this ammonium is available to plants and
comparable with N fertilizer, with supplemental 3000 m-3 water ha-1, it can contribute a
significant amount of 30 to 150 kg of N ha-1. Depending on the soil initial concentration,
N fertilization might be needed or the content in TWW can completely satisfy a good
cotton crop. It is the local content of nutrients in the TWW that has to be measured
at each location to make a decision about the need for additional fertilizers. In waste
water treatment plants (WWTP), enhanced biological P removal treatment is employed
to significantly reduce algal bloom in the system. A part of the P can be eliminated
by chemical precipitation. In experiments with inactivated sludge containing relatively
high concentrations of dissolved Ca (~ 1.5molm3) and P (~1molm3), a pH-sensitive
and partly reversible precipitation of calcium phosphates was observed at below pH
8.0. The following reactions: (i) fully reversible precipitation of hydroxydicalcium
phosphate (HDP) (Ca2HPO4(OH)2 as an intermediate; (ii) formation of hydroxyapatite
(HAP) (Ca5(PO4)3OH) from HDP, have to be considered when P concentration in the
TWW is an important issue (Maurer et al., 1999).
In a study by Vangush and Keren (1995), for about 10 years after introduction of
TWW to the aquifer, almost no change in water composition was observed. However, a
continuous increase in Na, Cl, HCO3, Ca, Mg and SO4 was monitored; K hardly changed,
and there was no P data available. The use of TWW in fertigation needs continuous
monitoring and should take into account the variable amounts of plant nutrients found
in the TWW before additional fertilization is made.
9.1.2.4. Salinity factors in recycled or TWW
The Na, Cl, and B contents of TWW (originating from household waste water sources)
are the main considerations when using recycled water or TWW for agriculture. For
example, high Cl levels were reported in palm dates irrigated with TWW (El Mardi et
al., 1998). Continuous use of TWW without monitoring can cause accumulation of Na
in the soil and deterioration in soil structure. In citrus, leaf Na, Cl, and B concentrations
were noticeably higher in plots using reclaimed water or TWW than in those of well
water (Zekri et al., 1994). However, in Central Florida, well-treated and managed waste
water has been found to be a very safe and good option for additional water supplies. In
well-treated wastewater, most nutrients are removed and thus, when used for irrigating
field crops would demand additional fertilization.
The use of TWW as an alternative water source for irrigation of citrus in Spain was
studied to evaluate its effect on different soils and crops (Reboll et al., 2000). Young
citrus trees were irrigated with TWW from a sewage treatment plant during three
consecutive seasons and the growth, leaf mineral status and fruit quality were measured.
Some differences were found between groundwater and TWW composition. Na, Cl, B
and organic matter concentrations were always higher in the TWW. However, levels of
Na, Cl, and B in the leaf tissue were below the toxic levels for citrus. Leaf N content was
in the optimal range and no significant difference was observed between samples from
trees irrigated with TWW and groundwater. Both growth and fruit quality parameters
were unaffected by the high levels of Na, Cl, and B in the TWW. After three years of
study, no detrimental effects were found on young citrus trees irrigated with TWW. High
nitrate levels were found in groundwater, probably due to aquifer contamination. In all
the seasons studied, the values of soil-plant nutrients analyzed were within the optimal
ranges for citrus. Fertilizer rates could be lowered significantly without compromising
yields or affecting leaf nutrient levels when using TWW. Reboll et al., (2000) concluded
that TWW appears to be a suitable alternative water source for citrus tree irrigation.
However, studies on the quality of wine as affected by the use of TWW for grapevine
irrigation in Australia showed that the chemical composition of wines has been altered.
Na and Cl levels in wines from TWW treatment were considerably higher than normal
for Australian red wines. The higher concentrations of total N, P, K and Mg found in
wines from vines receiving 135 liters of TWW per week (compared with 45 liters TWW
per week or 135 liters fresh water per week), were not much above the range reported
for Australian Shiraz wines (McCarthy and Downton, 1981).
The findings of intensive research on the use of recycled water have been published
for grapevines (Prior et al., 1992a, and 1992b; Walker et al., 1996). Sensitivity of citrus
trees on a variety of rootstocks was reported by Maas (1993) and for stone fruits by
Catlin et al. (1993). In Australia, sensitivity has been recorded in pear trees (Myers et al.,
1995) and in peaches (Boland et al., 1993). Sensitivity of vegetables to saline water was
reviewed by Shannon and Grieve (1999). All natural salinity sources pose a long term
threat due to accumulation of Na and Cl on the soil clay particles. The long-term use of
city and industrial sewage water sources is dangerous because of accumulation of B and
heavy metals to toxic levels. Future use of city recycled water will depend on preventing
B contamination and accumulation of industrial and household chemicals in the
sewage system and diluting it with de-ionized water before application to commercial
agricultural irrigation systems.
Treated wastewater research demonstrates the intensive effort to adopt the use of
TWW to agricultural production and, therefore, to monitor the long-term effects of
its application to agriculture. One of the main hazards in continuous use of TWW is
the accumulation of B that might reach toxic levels to plants. The source of B in the
sewage water is household detergents and washing powders. In arid climate irrigated
areas, B containing compounds should, therefore, be eliminated from the market since
a low cost removal process of B from the water is not available. High Na in the water
might, in the long run, cause destruction of soil structure. Calcium additions to the soil
can alleviate Na hazard but not for long periods of irrigation. The organic compounds
that are present in the recycled water can accumulate on soil surface and, after drying,
can become hydrophobic in nature that might result in non-uniform soil wetting
characteristics (Tarchitzky et al., 2007). In the cases described above, the importance
of long-term monitoring is indispensible. Accumulation or build-up of negative effects
can be rather slow and can last for a few years, hence a longer period of observations
and testing is needed.
a system can be successfully operated on a daily basis and enables a safe usage of the
water for fertigation.
High concentrations of Ca, Mg and HCO3 in irrigation water (high total hardness)
increase the hazard of clogging, especially when P fertilizers are introduced to the
system (see also 9.2.3). Precipitation of calcium carbonate is common in alkaline water
(high pH) and rich in Ca and HCO3. The scaling deposited in the irrigation system as
the result of such water can cause clogging and malfunction of the system (Feigin et al.,
1991). The reaction is temperature and pH dependent. Scaling problems are more likely
to occur with water pH > 7.5 and bicarbonate content > 5 mmol L-1. Scale deposition
increases with an increase in pH of applied fertilizers through the irrigation system.
<2
< 1.0
2-5
1.0
5-8
2.5
8-11
4.0
73
Figure 10.1. Micro-drip irrigated maize. The daily application of NPK fertilizers
made exactly according to daily nutrient demand by the maize plants, as shown
by the sharp boundary between complete and N deficient (front) treatments
(Abura, 2001).
any excess N to neighboring plants as is evident from the sharp contrast between the
complete and zero fertilized N treatments (Abura, 2001). The total daily water volume
and nutrients were supplied according to the expected demand of the crop, from the
work of Andr et al. (1978).
By silking (appearance of the female flower), 68 days from planting or at about
half way through the growing period, 75% of the K, 66% of the N, and 43% of the P
total uptake at harvest have already been attained, when values are expressed in grams
per plant. Most of the P is taken up by the maize plant one month after silking and
transported to the developing grains. Since most of the P is found in the upper soil
layers, it is crucial to maintain soil moisture (by irrigation or by rain) up to about 40
days after silking to secure P uptake. Any period of dry soil within the five to six weeks
after silking will reduce P uptake by the maize plant and may affect kernel formation.
It is clear that maize yield through the kernel (grain) exports substantial amounts of
N and P away from the field but relatively little K (Table 10.1). On the other hand, silage
maize exports considerably larger amounts of K.
Table 10.1. Average amounts of nutrients (kg) in above-ground plant material in 10 t ha-1 maize
yield grown in the mid-western United States (Voss, 1993).
Element
Grain
Stover
Total
% in grain
kg of nutrient in 10 t ha yield
-1
49.5
28.1
77.6
63.8
10.3
4.3
14.6
71
16.8
43
59
28
Ca
0.3
15.6
15.9
1.9
Mg
3.5
12.3
15.7
22
3.1
3.4
6.5
47.7
Fe
0.05
0.9
0.91
5.5
Zn
0.08
0.08
0.16
50
Mn
0.02
0.12
0.14
14.3
Cu
0.01
0.04
0.05
20
0.02
0.06
0.08
25
0.002
0.001
0.004
50
1.8
32.7
34.5
Mo
Cl
The role of fertigation is to deliver plant nutrients from fertilizers with irrigation
water to the root surface in sufficient quantities to prevent deficiencies during plant
development. Supplying the right amounts of water and plant nutrients daily at the right
time to meet plant needs is crucial in preventing excess supply of plant nutrients and
seepage of nitrate salts to underground aquifers. Precise fertigation can prevent aquifer
pollution and is less costly to farmers.
The timing of irrigation affects water and nutrient distribution in the soil. Ben-Gal
and Dudley (2003) showed that in a sandy soil with very low P sorption capacity, the
highest P concentration was found down to 10 cm below the dripper. With the same
amount of water, but with continued application, P is found below 25 cm. Irrigation
frequency also influences the water content and pH of the soil. It is to be expected that
in heavy clay soils, the distribution of nutrients from a point source differ from that in
sandy soil (Bar-Yosef, 1999). From the viewpoint of P uptake or dry matter production,
the exact P distribution in the soil is not important as can be deduced from the data
of Ben-Gal and Dudley (2003). As most of the P is taken up by maize during grain
formation and maturity, late application of P with low N and K levels might secure high
grain yield with low water application, but with daily P application in small quantities.
Such a combination could save in water pollution and fertilizer wastage. An example of
a planning table for nutrient application during 10-day intervals can serve as a guide to
a practical field fertigation scheme (Table 10.2).
Table 10.2. Fertigation planning calculation for nutrient application based on 10-day intervals
( Andr et al., 1978).
Days
Daily plant N
uptake
(mg)
Nitrogen
kg ha-1 day-1
for 100,000
plants
Daily plant P
uptake
(mg)
Phosphorus
kg ha-1 day-1
for 100,000
plants
Daily K plant
uptake
(mg)
Potassium
kg ha-1 day-1
for 100,000
plants
0-10
1.4
0.14
3.1
0.31
10-20
1.4
0.14
3.1
0.31
11.7
1.17
20-30
12.6
1.26
7.75
0.78
31.2
3.12
30-40
77
7.7
12.4
1.24
156
15.6
40-50
119
11.9
21.7
2.17
253.5
25.35
50-60
140
14
24.8
2.48
253.5
25.35
60-70
63
6.3
34.1
3.41
128.7
12.87
70-80
28
2.8
38.75
3.88
78.0
7.80
80-90
35
3.5
20.15
2.02
62.4
6.24
90-100
35
3.5
13.95
1.40
35.1
3.51
100-110
28
2.8
18.62
1.86
19.5
1.95
110-120
0.7
A detailed study on water uptake by maize with surface and subsurface drip irrigation
was reported by Coelho and Or (1996), who found that root distribution follows water
distribution in the soil in both irrigation systems.
10.2. Cotton
10.2.1. Cotton growth and irrigation
The benefits of irrigation have long been recognized in the cultivation of cotton. The
crop is grown in many parts of the world, in hot climates with high precipitation. Cotton
is a summer crop. Its development can be divided into three periods: (1) seeding to first
flower appearance, about 60 days after seeding (DAS); (2) the main developing period:
60 to 110 DAS; and (3) maturity, 110-160 DAS: bolls maturing and lint development.
Until 1970, trickle irrigation was not used in cotton. The irrigation methods then
employed were furrow (the most common system for cotton), sprinkler, border and
level border or basin (Berger, 1969). Surface irrigation, which is used all over the world,
requires deep soil with high water holding capacity. Using furrow might result in salt
accumulation between ridges.
Drip irrigation of cotton mainly by subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is increasing in
the USA, mainly in California, where dry summers prevail (Robertson et al., 2007). The
benefit of trickle irrigation for cotton is the potential of growing the crop in arid, hot
climate areas, where clouds do not interfere with boll development, and in areas with
shallow soils, which are favorable for cotton production.
Trickle irrigation is applied in Israel using recycled wastewater, especially for nonfood crops such as cotton and silage maize. Furthermore, cotton can tolerate saline
and brackish water. From a public health standpoint, a safe method to deliver these
needed amounts of recycled water is by trickle irrigation. In an irrigation trial in
Arkansas, Robertson et al. (2007), using a new type of low pressure surface trickle
irrigation system, reported 39% water saving on a per unit production calculation. As
water shortage is an increasing problem all over the world, low pressure (gravity energy)
surface applied trickle irrigation is a more utilized technique. However, this technology
has not been studied using SDI.
The total uptake or removal of nutrients by cotton plants is presented in Tables 10.3 and
10.4.
Typical rates of nutrient uptake (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) where water or nutrients are
not limiting were described extensively by Mendes (1960) and are presented below:
Nitrogen (N)
N uptake by cotton as measured by chemical analysis reveals four linear uptake periods:
10-20 days: by the 20th day, 4.6% of the total N uptake at harvest is found in the tops
of the plant;
Table 10.3. Cotton nutrient uptake/removal macro- and secondary nutrients (IFA, 1992).
Country
Source
Brazil
Malavolta, 1987
China**
USA
Yield of ginned
cotton (kg ha-1)
(kg ha-1)
N
P2O5
K2O
MgO
CaO
40
168
64
(2 500)*
156
36
151
An Yang, 1985
1 421
183
64
156
An Yang, 1985
1 115
153
53
112
93
204
An Yang, 1985
941
128
45
90
Mullins &
Burmester, 1988
19.9
5.2
18.4
* Seed cotton
** Nutrient uptake = all aerial parts plus part of roots
Yield of ginned
cotton (kg ha-1)
Fe
Mn
Zn
(g ha-1)
Cu
Brazil
Malavolta, 1987
(2 500)*
2 960
250
116
120
320
China
An Yang, 1985
1 115
5 000
254
397
71
205
* Seed cotton
20-60 days (from first leaf to square): the daily rate of uptake increases to 1.159% of
the total uptake at harvest;
60-100 days (during flowering): this rate declines to 0.743% of total N uptake per
day;
100-150 days: at the last period during maturation, which lasts about 50 days (about
one third of the total growing period), only 20% of the total N is taken up by the
cotton plant.
N uptake and its distribution in plant organs
The total amount of N taken up has been reported as about 240 kg N ha-1 (Halevy,
1976). The amount of N exported from the field in the seeds, however, is only about
40% of total N present in the whole cotton plant. This value is much lower than in
maize, which removes 68% of the total N present in its dry matter. Cotton is thus, a
much less N depleting crop than maize. During the first two months after seeding, the
plant takes up only about 15 kg N ha-1. During that time, an extensive deep root system
is established (Adams et al., 1942). In the following 55 days, 215 kg N ha-1 are taken
up. This growth pattern suggests that the cotton plant develops its root system early in
the season, which allows it to take up N during the vegetative and flowering stage from
a larger soil volume. In deep clay alluvial soils, the supply of water and N early in the
season affects the balance between vegetative and fruiting stages. Excess N at an early
vegetative stage favors growth of leaves and branches and causes the shedding of bolls
that have developed in the lower lateral buds (Yogev, 1986). As a result, only the late
developed bolls are left to harvest. However, harvesting a late yield in the season might
encounter early winter rains that might damage the lint. Keeping a rate of 1 cm per day
increase in plant height was found to be the best main stem elongation rate to secure
high yield of cotton (Yogev, 1986). Trickle fertigation allows the grower to control the
vegetative growth rate by continuously monitoring cotton height and controlling it by
the irrigation rate and intervals between irrigation as well as by N fertilizer concentration
in the irrigation water. Timing of irrigation for early flower appearance in cotton is
possible only under tight control of N, P and K fertigation. Since only about half of the
soil volume is wet under trickle irrigation of cotton, additions of nutrients are needed to
compensate for the decline in soil volume and hence available nutrients.
Phosphorus (P)
The relative fastest period of P uptake is also found between days 30 and 50 after
germination, with a daily uptake rate of 0.993% of the total P at the end of growth. The
second linear uptake rate period lasts from 50 to 120 days of plant development with
a daily uptake rate of 0.746% of total P uptake. This is the maximum uptake potential
from a nutrient solution with unlimited P availability to the root. The pattern of P uptake
suggests that, in order to keep a constant P uptake rate under field conditions for such
a long period, sufficient moisture and P content in the wet zone must be maintained to
allow P diffusion to the root. Only 15% of the total P uptake occurs in the last month
before harvest.
P uptake and distribution in cotton plant parts
About 44% of the P in the cotton plant is removed by the seeds, as compared with
80% in maize. It is clear that P is being taken up from the soil during the whole period
of boll development and not from internal translocation. This pattern of P uptake is
true for maize, cotton and potatoes. It is the late supply of P to the developing boll
from the soil that is the challenge to cotton growers in arid climates. Since irrigation
is stopped at least six weeks before mechanical harvest, the upper soil that is usually
rich in P is dry and it might be possible that P becomes a limiting factor at the final
stages of boll development in dry climates. Additions of P in trickle irrigation at the
last month of growth might show some advantages. In subsurface trickle irrigation,
there is no limitation to P application late in the season. However, using SDI, there is
water saturation zone around the buried tube, as is evident from the root distribution
around the SDI line (Figure 10.2) (Ben-Gal et al., 2004). If the soil adsorbs the added P,
fertigation would not be efficient and soil application of P prior to cotton seeding might
be effective.
Figure 10.2. Roots exposed on soil profile perpendicular to vine row in vineyard after
seven years of treatment in subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) (Ben-Gal et al., 2004).
Potassium (K)
The rate of K uptake is fastest during leaf formation from days 25 to 47 after germination.
During this period, K uptake accounts for 36.5% of total K that is found in the plant at
harvest. Potassium continues to be taken up at a slightly slower rate during this longer
period of 50 to 111 days after germination, when about 44% of the total K at harvest is
taken up from the soil. Finally, during the last month of growth, only 10% of the total K
in the plant at harvest is still being taken up but at a much slower rate.
K fertilization considerations
K is concentrated in the reproductive organs during plant development. Almost 40%
of total K in the plant is present in the bolls, burs and seeds (Halevy, 1976; Mullins and
Burmester, 1990). Only 25% of the total K in the plant is removed by the cotton seeds
and lint, while the rest returns to the soil with soil preparation unless removed from
the field. Cotton removes relatively more K than maize (in terms of kg ha-1 for average
yields).
From field observations of plots with over 20 years of continuous cropping with
cotton, irrigation is stopped about 6-8 weeks before harvest, leaving the upper 30 cm
of soil devoid of water. Thus, K becomes a limiting factor and K deficiency symptoms
appear on bolls and leaves. Addition of K to the last irrigation could prevent such
deficiencies. This situation occurs due to the specific soil preparations needed prior to
mechanical harvest that stops irrigation six weeks before harvest. After many years of
continuous cotton growing, shortage of K in the deep soil layers develop. Deep plowing
was used in the past to enrich the deep soil layers. With traditional mild soil treatments
and sprinkle irrigation, symptoms of K deficiency appear while upper soil test values
show sufficient K levels. When trickle irrigation on large areas becomes a routine, the
limited root volume will most probably demand continuous application of nutrients
with the trickle system.
Calcium (Ca)
Similar to K, Ca is taken up mainly during early canopy development from day 25 to
day 50 with the square appearance at a daily rate of 1.53% of total uptake. At the end of
flowering, the Ca uptake rate is reduced by half to 0.89% per day. During the last two
months of boll formation, only 16% of all the Ca is taken up.
Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium is taken up at a constant rate of 0.89% in the first 50 days, but from day 50
to the end of boll maturity, the rate of Mg uptake is almost constant at a rate of 0.66 %
per day. Mg uptake rate is parallel with P during the first four months of cotton growth.
Sulfur (S)
Sulfur shows three distinct linear periods of uptake: from days 20 to 50, the rate is 1.36%
per day, in tandem with K and Ca. It declines to 0.73% during days 50 to 90 (at the end
of flowering) but is then taken up at a constant rate until harvest, at 0.38% per day.
Cotton in the USA is usually grown on large areas operated by mechanical seeders
and cotton pickers and, due to heavy traffic, subsurface fertigation is the preferred
system. In other parts of the world, annual drip lines are surface installed about one
month after seeding, allowing the initial seedlings to develop based on soil moisture
stored from the previous winter.
The dry matter accumulation and the cumulative nutrient uptake of cotton during
the growing season were presented by Halevy (1976) (Table 10.5), who also described
the absolute nutrient uptake and the nutrient distribution in the different plant organs.
Table 10.5. Relative dry matter (DM) accumulation and nutrients uptake in cotton along a
growing season that lasted 156 days (Calculated from Halevy, 1976).
Season length (%)
DM (%)
N (%)
P (%)
K (%)
36
46
15
28
18
29
53
36
44
37
56
62
60
72
62
83
71
89
97
92
95
100
100
100
100
100
The main factor affecting cotton yield is shortage of light energy due to shading in
dense plant stands (Eaton, 1955). Yogev (1986) checked the light interception on cotton
using fertigation on cotton grown on scoria tuff (of volcanic origin) filled beds that
prevented roots from penetrating deep into the soil. He checked the distance between
rows of 0.5, 1 and 2 m with no restriction of water or nutrients. His results are presented
in Table 10.6. When more plant parts were exposed to direct sun radiation (2 m between
rows), total yield per plant increased by a factor of 10 and yield per unit area rose by a
factor of 2.5 despite a reduction in total dry matter. If the same nutrition and irrigation
is given with no restriction on root growth, vegetative growth exceeds cotton fiber
development. The practical conclusion from this work is that restriction of vegetative
growth of cotton in rain free summer areas is possible, thanks to trickle irrigation that
can supply water and nutrients needed by the plants and by restraining vegetative
growth. Trickle irrigation of cotton with 2 m between rows under desert conditions can
offer a new cotton production system with minimal water input. This kind of treatment
combined with fertigation experiments needs to be studied in the future.
Table 10.6. Yield parameters at harvest from raised-bed grown cotton at three different
distances between rows (Yogev, 1986).
Plant parameters*
0.5
173 c
145 b
120 a
91.4 a
435.6 b
828.4 c
90.6 a
94.3 a
231.1 b
182 a
529 b
1059 c
364 a
529 b
530 b
50 a
82 b
78 b
Total DM (g m )
1494 c
1116 b
889 a
0.32 a
0.9 b
1.47 c
-1
Earliness (%)
-2
* data with the same letter are not significant at the 0.05 level.
and, on the dried soil after the wheat, seeding cotton with controlled trickle irrigation
(northern hemisphere). Such a system is possible in relatively small plots where silage is
needed on the farm. As silage, wheat removes about 500 kg K ha-1 (Kafkafi and Halevy,
1974), and seeding cotton immediately after removal of green wheat silage may induce
deficiency of K. In order to prevent K and other mineral deficiencies, the cotton grown
with restricted root volume should be supplied with complete NPK given from the first
trickle irrigation. In acid soils, attention should also be given to Ca, Mg and S, if not
present in the irrigation water.
83
11.1. Banana
A series of fertigation studies have been reported for banana in India and Brazil on
acid soils. Banana is a huge consumer of N and K fertilizers. Reddy et al. (2002) and
Badgujar (2004) in India stressed the benefits of fertigation for banana with N and K, at
levels of 200 g N and K per plant day-1 ha-1.
The Crawford Reid Memorial Award to Mr. B.H. Jain in 1997 was a significant
achievement in the promotion of proper irrigation techniques and procedures that
brought major advancement for irrigation systems as an infrastructure industry for his
work on Micro-irrigation for small holder banana growers of Jalgaon, India: A case
study.
In Brazil, soil pH decreased with increasing N rates (Teixeira et al., 2002). The
reported decline in soil pH in tropical areas suggests that ammonium or most probably
urea sources were the main N fertilizer source. Exchangeable K was significantly
reduced due to crop exhaustion. Micro-sprinkler irrigation was used with rates of N
(0, 200, 400 and 800 kg N ha-1) and K (0, 300, 600 and 900 kg K2O ha1). Irrigation
caused a significant increase in fruit yield and the response being attributed to N and K
fertilizers. Despite a high level of exchangeable K, a positive response to K application
was observed on the banana yields in non-irrigated plants. A severe acidification of
subsoil under banana plantation was also reported in Australia (Moody and Aitken,
1997) despite annual surface application of 2.4 t ha-1 of lime. Of all the crop systems they
measured, banana was the major soil acidifier. They used ammonium fertilizers and
this resulted in severe acidification and nitrate leaching due to excessive N application
(Figure 11.1). The only practical way to increase the pH near plant roots is to use nitrate
type fertilizers (see detailed explanation in Chapter 4).
In Spain (Canary Islands), fertigation of banana is by mini-sprinklers, using excess
irrigation (Muoz-Carpena et al., 2002). Soil water balance showed that most of the
drainage (18% of the total irrigation + rainfall) was produced during the crop highest
water demand period and during the short rainy season when no irrigation was applied.
Monitoring the soil solution revealed that very high nitrate concentrations (50120mg
L-1 N-NO3) are present throughout the experimental period. The high water fluxes
and nitrate concentration in the lower part of the soil profile, produced a yearly loss
of 4852% of the total N applied (202218kg N ha-1 per year). Therefore, small, but
more frequent applications of both N and water are recommended to reduce the
environmental impact of the system.
50
40
30
Banana
20
Grass (hay)
10
0
Sugarcane
Grape
Tobacco
-10
Agricultural systems
Figure 11.1. Mean and range (vertical bars) of the acidification rate of several agricultural systems
of eastern Queensland (Moody and Aitken, 1997).
The monthly uptake of N by banana in the Canary Islands (Figure 11.2) shows two
peaks a year: in January and August. Such information on plant uptake is essential to
the grower to minimize N losses and to meet plant demand in the best possible way. The
difference between the minimum and maximum demand is about 20 kg N per month.
Figure 11.2 serves as an example for one location. The rate of appearance of banana
leaves is about 1 leaf per 6 days. Each leaf contains about 100 g of N. Knowing the rate
of leaf production can give the grower an estimate of the weekly N requirements.
50
40
30
20
10
10
0
-10
Aug
Sep
Oct
1995
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
1996
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Figure 11.2. Nitrogen extraction from the soil by the banana crop in Canary Islands, Spain (MuozCarpena et al., 2002).
11.2. Vineyard
Trickle irrigation was first adopted by perennial plantations of vineyards and mature
orchards (Elfving, 1982) without any reduction in plant yields. Early trials in the 1970s
paved the way for worldwide acceptance of fruit tree fertigation for vines (Goldberg et
al., 1971), citrus (Bester et al., 1974), apple (Groot Obbink and Alexander, 1977), pear
(Black and Mitchell, 1974) and plum (Aljibury et al., 1974). New vineyard plantations
all over the world are now using trickle irrigation and fertigation (Figure 11.3).
Nitrogen (N) is the most common fertilizer nutrient applied to vineyards (Christensen
et al., 1978). The recommended timing of N applications varies from before bud break
(Cahoon et al., 1991) to between bud break and bloom (Bates, 2001). In a long season
warm climate, application after harvest was useful (Conradie, 1986).
Grapevines efficiently absorb N from late-season applications in regions with long
growing seasons. Chenin blanc vines in South Africa absorbed up to 34% of their total
seasonal N uptake after fruit harvest (Conradie, 1980, 1991).
In California, vines absorb more of the N that was applied in July (mid season) and
September (post harvest) than fertilizer applied at bud break in March (Peacock et
al., 1989). Late season or post-harvest applications are assumed to be less effective in
short-season regions where there is often a short period of active canopy following fruit
harvest (Bates et al., 2002).
Most new vineyards planted in Australia use trickle irrigation. Only N sources (urea,
calcium nitrate or, in case of K deficient soils, KNO3) are used in the fertigation scheme.
Due to severe natural P deficiency in Australian soils, heavy application of P fertilizer
is incorporated in the soil prior to vineyard establishment, while micronutrients are
usually applied by leaf sprays (Robinson, 2000).
Many new vineyard plantations all over the world use fertigation. Initial fertigation
experiments in Israel in all the vineyards that used trickle irrigation included P in
the fertigation cocktails (Bravdo et al. 1984, 1985; Hepner and Bravdo, 1985). Bravdo
and Hepner (1987) reviewed vineyard fertigation trials in Israel, while Bravdo and
Proebsting (1993) reviewed vineyard fertigation practices worldwide. Trickle lines in
the vineyard are either hung on the railing support below the canopy as shown in the
picture (Figure 11.3), or are laid on the soil along the planted vines as shown in Figure
11.4. A detailed study of the method of leaf analysis, a common method to assess P
status in vines was published by Atalay (1978).
A detailed plant analysis of 26 grape cultivars during the growing season was
published by Christensen (1984) who compared leaf petiole and blade nutrient levels
in 26 raisin, table and wine grape cultivars at five growth stages over three years. The
cultivars were ranked according to total N, NH4-N, NO3-N, P, K, Zn and B. His detailed
study suggest that each cultivar must be studied separately; blade and petiole analysis
can serve in monitoring K and nitrate levels in the plants, but their values have to be
calibrated separately for each cultivar. Once such a study is completed, leaf analysis
could be used as a guide to vineyard fertilization.
Figure 11.4. Trickle irrigation in a vineyard (laid on the soil along the planted
vines) ( Yara International ASA).
87
12.1. Potato
The potato plant is propagated by vegetative tubers and the basic stages in crop
development are profoundly affected by available water and N concentration in the root
zone. The specific growth stages and demand for water and nutrients by the potato crop
are as follows:
Potato growth stages (see Table 12.1):
Above ground vegetative period- ends with flower appearance (initial)
New tuber development (developing to mid-season)
Foliage decline and tuber maturation (bulking to maturation)
Duration of growth stages: Potato varieties have been grouped according to the
length of their growth period (Bald, 1946; Jackson and Haddock, 1959):
Early (90-120 days)
Medium (120-150 days)
Late (150-180 days)
In most commercial potato fields, during the early stages after germination, the soil
from both sides of the row is mounded to form a hill of loose soil medium where the
future underground stolons develop and produce tubers. This operation means that
trickle lines in potato can be established only after hilling is completed. The developing
tuber must stay in a wet soil zone to secure Ca ions from the soil to allow tuber skin
development without interruptions (Marschner, 1995). Thus, sprinkle irrigation is the
most common and practical method of irrigation for large scale potato production.
Tuber yield and quality are reduced by water deficit. Many tuber quality parameters are
influenced by water stress (water shortage) such as tuber grade, specific gravity, heart
necrosis, bruises, hollow heart, and more. Tuber grade is highly sensitive to irrigation
management deficiencies. Irrigation timing based on amount of soil water depletion,
soil water tension and crop evapo-transpiration are used to establish an irrigation
schedule in a particular region (Susnoschi and Shimshi, 1985; Onder et al., 2005). Water
demand varies with the growing stage and climate (Shalhevet et al., 1983) (Table 12.1).
Increasing duration of water stress before tuber initiation reduces tuber set per stem
(MacKerron and Jefferies, 1986).
Table 12.1. Water demand as a function of potato growth stage and climate (Shalhevet et al.,
1983).
Growth stage
Initial
Developing
Mid- season1
Bulking
Duration (days)
20-30
30-40
40-60
20-35
0.4-0.5
0.7-0.8
1.05-1.2
0.85-0.95
Maturation
0.7-0.75
Note: During flowering, water demand is larger than evaporation from free water surface.
% of water evaporation from a class "A" pan.
3.89
1.5
1.18
3.24
3.5
2.10
4.06
6.04
0.44
Phosphorus (P)
High soil P concentration during the first stage of growth stimulates the number of
initiated tubers (Jenkins and Ali, 2000). The plant takes up P during the whole period of
tuber growth, from day 35 to day 95, at a constant daily rate of 51 mg P per plant (Figure
12.1; Carpenter, 1957). In traditional potato growing systems, P is usually applied
with K as a basal dressing during soil preparation, mostly as various forms of organic
manures (van Delden, 2001). This practice is preferred by growers as it minimizes the
risk of nutrient shortages albeit the organic manures supply uncontrolled amounts of N
that result in excessive vegetative growth and delay tuber formation.
To study P in trickle application, Papadopoulus (1992) used a constant concentration
of 40 mg P L1 in the trickle irrigation water throughout the growing period, and thus
0.350
Potato P uptake (g plant-1)
lbs. a-1
Tubers
Tops
Seed
0.300
11.2
9.6
0.250
8.0
0.200
6.4
0.150
4.8
0.100
3.2
0.50
1.6
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
maintained the level of P in the petioles and secured high yield of good quality. The
tubers removed 22 kg ha-1 P from the soil.
Potassium (K)
Potassium mainly accumulates in the upper leaves and vines up to the end of growing
stage II at a rate of 128 mg K per day. During growing stage III, the tuber absorbs K from
the soil and imports K from the vine for tuber development at a rate of about 60 mg K
per plant per day (Figure 12.2) (Carpenter, 1957). Potassium thus accumulates in the
tuber during the entire growing period being supplied both from the vegetative parts
and by direct uptake from the soil.
Calcium (Ca)
Calcium in tuber skin is obtained directly from the soil solution (Marschner, 1995),
which implies that the growing tuber must be surrounded by moist soil at all times. Dry
soil periods between irrigations result in shortage of Ca needed for the development of
new skin tissues, leading to skin rupture and yield loss. With fertigation, it is possible
to provide the wet condition of the soil mound that covers the tubers during the entire
period of tuber growth. Thus, the location of the fertigation line should be on top of
the ridge, above the depth of the developing tuber. Subsurface irrigation lines below
the tuber might result in skin rupture and low quality mature tubers. Sprinklers, center
pivot, and micro sprinklers are used in practice to control water and N application.
Sand and sandy loam are the most favored soils that allow better control of irrigation
and N fertilization during the season as well as ease in tuber harvesting at the end of the
season. Potatoes grown in clay soil are hard to manage and harvest, as mud may stick to
the tuber, reducing tuber quality.
lbs. a-1
Tubers
Tops
Seed
6.0
5.0
192
160
4.0
125
3.0
96
2.0
64
1.0
32
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
16
0
The specific gravity of the tuber is the most important parameter for potato for
industrial use. This was found highest with zero N application, when ammonium sulfate
was applied in fertigation at rates of 35, 70 and 105 mg N L-1. The increase in total yield
observed with increasing N application was due to the increase in tuber size at the
expense of specific gravity (Mohammad et al., 1999).
Spain: Fabeiro et al. (2001) used 10 drip irrigation treatments to examine the effect of
the timing of irrigation deficits on potato yield and water use efficiency. Water shortage
during mid- and late-season tuber bulking was particularly damaging to tuber yield.
High yield was combined with high water use efficiency when irrigation deficits were
restricted early in the season.
Syria: Potato fertigation in Syria was reported by Mussaddak (2007) where tuber
marketable yield of fertigated spring potato was compared with furrow irrigation. At N
fertilizer rates of 70, 140, 210 and 280kgN ha-1 for the fertigated crop, tuber yield were
increased by 4, 2, 31, and 13% for spring potato respectively, whereas, for fall potato
with furrow irrigation, the comparative values were 13, 27, 20 and 35% respectively.
This report demonstrates the delicate interaction between climatic conditions during
potato growth and tuber yield at high N application rates. Drip fertigation improved
field water use efficiency at the bulking and harvest stages. It also increased specific
gravity of potato tubers compared to furrow irrigation, while higher N input decreased
specific gravity of potato tubers under both irrigation methods as was also reported by
Mohammad et al. (1999).
USA: Drip irrigation in potato was introduced only recently to the USA and is as yet
used in only a very small proportion of total commercial potato production. Potato
trickle irrigation trials failed to equal or surpass the yield and quality produced with
sprinkler irrigation in the Pacific Northwest (Shock et al., 1993). The Russet Burbank
potato variety and difficulties in drip tube placement were responsible for the failure
of the trickle irrigation system. Deep drip tape placement resulted in yield and grade
reduction due to several reasons: poorer water supply to the shallow root system of
potato, wetting deficiencies of the external tuber skin and overheating of the tuber at the
relatively dry hill. Shallow drip tape placement in clay soils resulted in water savings, but
also in difficulty in assuring tuber quality because of clay adherence to the tubers during
mechanical picking. Sammis (1980) compared sprinkler, surface drip, subsurface drip
and furrow irrigation for the production of potato in New Mexico. Subsurface drip
irrigation (SDI) with a 20 kPa irrigation criterion was among the most productive
irrigation systems. Shae et al. (1999) studied four options for managing drip irrigation
of potatoes in North Dakota. Automation of irrigation based on a soil water tension
irrigation criterion at 30 kPa had relatively high water use efficiency.
In Florida, Smajstrla et al. (2000) compared automated controlled SDI with
conventional semi-closed seepage sub-irrigation. The need for a change in the old
irrigation system is due to the problem of surface runoff and nutrient contamination
of adjoining waterways. The SDI system as employed by Smajstrla et al. (2000) required
more electrical energy but used 36% less water to obtain the same potato yield. Steyn et
al. (2000) examined irrigation scheduling options for drip-irrigated potatoes. Sprinkler
irrigation at different irrigation criteria was compared to surface drip and SDI with a
range of fertilizer treatments, for potato yield and grade in Minnesota (Waddell et al.,
2000). Surface drip and SDI were among the most productive systems for total and
marketable yield.
The complexity of potato crop maintenance under irrigation and the wide range of
potato production techniques, e.g. for table consumption, against demands for industry
and food chain stores, are slowing down the introduction of drip irrigation systems for
potato production.
Maintaining uniform soil moisture around the tubers during development and, at the
same time, adopting specific irrigation techniques to specific soil types, soil preparation
methods and climate conditions are major considerations in potato production. In
sandy light textured soils, micro sprinklers and fertigation are used with applications
of frequent, even daily or several times a day, small doses of water and nutrients. On
heavy clay soils, sprinkler irrigation lines are used with either basal fertilization only
during soil preparation or splitting the N application with the irrigation schedules until
flowering. Potassium and P fertilizers are usually given during soil preparation, part as
organic manures and part as inorganic fertilizers.
The complexity of potato management under field conditions and the diversity of
the world market dictate the need for site specific solutions to achieve the best possible
commercial yield. Potato cultivars vary differently in their performance under drip
irrigation (Shock et al., 2003). Adopting trickle irrigation and fertigation for potato is,
therefore, a tedious and continuous work that becomes economical only when large
areas and good market exists and when a shortage in water becomes a limiting factor.
However, fertigation using micro sprinklers on sandy soils is an acceptable method.
Nitrogen fertilizer supplied via center pivot irrigation system is also a common practice
using only three to four applications.
12.2. Tomatoes
12.2.1. Greenhouse-grown tomatoes
Greenhouse tomato is trimmed to grow on only one stem. The pattern of growth is: nine
leaves and a truss as the first strata, then three leaves and a truss, which theoretically
can proceed endlessly as long as the apical dominance is kept alive (Figure 12.3). Such
a system is kept throughout the growing period of the plant in the greenhouse. The
rate of uptake of the major nutrients slowly increases in the first three months after
seeding. Once the first nine leaves and a truss are obtained, an almost constant uptake
rate pattern of N, P, K and Ca is observed.
L 17
Strata 4
L 15
L 16
Strata 3
Truss II (T-II)
L 13
L 12
Strata 2
L 11
L 10
L9
Truss I (T-I)
L8
L7
Strata 1
L6
L5
L4
Leaf (L) 3
Stem (S)
Root (R)
De-topping the growing tip of the plant (broken lines; Figure 12.4) stops plant
elongation and nutrient uptake. During the time of linear uptake rate, N uptake reached
4 kg N ha-1 per day.
The distribution pattern of nutrients in the vegetative and fruit parts (Figure 12.5)
demonstrates the internal control of the plant on mineral distribution inside the plant
(Tanaka et al., 1974). 62% of all N taken up by the tomato plant is found in the fruits.
The comparative figure for P is almost 70%, most of which is in the seeds. Potassium
is evenly distributed between fruit and vegetative parts, while less than 5% of the Ca
enters the fruit (Figure 12.4).
300
Non-topped plants (1970)
Topped plants (1972)
N
P
K
Ca
200
100
0
47
75
103
Days after sowing
131
Figure 12.4. Amount of N, P, K and Ca absorbed by the topped and non-topped plants (Adapted from
Tanaka et al., 1974).
100
Fruits
Leaf-blades
Petioles
Stem
80
60
40
20
0
Dry
matter
Ca
Mg
Si
Fe
Mn
Zn
Figure 12.5. Distribution of mineral elements in the tomato plant parts (Adapted from Tanaka et al.,
1974).
kg N
(ha-1 day-1)
kg P
(ha-1 day-1)
kg K
(ha-1 day-1)
1- 10
0.1
11- 20
0.1
21- 30
0.1
3.5
31- 40
0.2
3.5
41- 50
2.5
0.4
5.5
51- 60
2.5
0.6
5.5
61- 70
2.5
0.3
71- 80
2.5
0.3
81- 90
1.5
0.3
91-100
1.5
0.1
0.1
101-110
0.1
0.1
111-120
0.1
121-130
1.5
0.2
131-150
1.5
0.35
1.3
151-180
0.5
3.8
0.3
450
65
710
181-220
Total (kg ha-1)
*cv F-144 (Daniela, planted Sept. 25, at 23,000 plants ha-1, yielded 195 t ha-1 (Bar-Yosef et al.,1992).
Greenhouse tomato can be grown in culture media made from a mixture of organic
sources (i.e. peat and compost) and mineral sources (i.e. perlite, rock and glass wool,
tuff or sand) as well as in hydroponics and nutrient film techniques (NFT). Such systems
expose the roots to the internal greenhouse temperatures. Greenhouses in cold climates
are warmed up and kept heated during the night. In warm climates, greenhouses might
be overheated, where the roots are exposed to higher temperatures than the leaves since
evaporation cools the leaves but the roots cannot escape the greenhouse heat. This
factor is very important in choosing the N form in fertilizers.
The nitrate ion (NO3-) is transported to the leaves as nitrate, where it is transformed
to and assimilated as ammonia. The ammonia is immediately bound to sugar that is
also produced in the leaf by photosynthesis, and both produce amino acids. Ammonia
is a toxic substance in the cell and is eliminated during the production of amino acids,
a mechanism that keeps the plant growing (Marschner, 1995). Ammonium-N is
metabolized in the root to amino acids using the sugar present in the root cells. The sugar
in the root depends on transport from the leaves. When root temperature increases, root
respiration increases and consumes sugar in parallel but independent of N metabolism.
These two metabolic processes, respiration and ammonium metabolism, strongly
compete for sugar in the root. When the sugar is totally consumed by respiration,
ammonia production during ammonium metabolism becomes toxic to cell organs and
impairs root growth and death of the root cells is observed (Ganmore-Newmann and
Kafkafi, 1985) (Figure 12.6). The metabolism of ammonium or nitrate inside a plant
was reviewed by Britto and Kronzucker (2002). They covered the complete metabolic
cycle in different plant families, sensitive and tolerant to ammonium nutrition. The
sensitivity of crops grown to ammonium or nitrate should, therefore, be considered to
select the best N form for a specific crop and climatic conditions.
Figure 12.6. Glasshouse tomato (tomato cv. Money Maker): right - only nitrate
sources; left - increasing levels of ammonium in the recycled nutrient solution
(Kafkafi, 1964).
12.2.2. Salinity
The relationship between fruit dry matter, water transport to the fruit and salinity was
studied by Ho et al. (1987), who showed that the total entry of water into the fruits is
much lower in high salinity treatments resulting in low fruit fresh weight. Since the size
of the tomato fruit is very much dependent on water availability, growers can control
entry of water into the fruit according to the specific target market. Small fruits with
high TSS (Total Soluble Solids) usually contain higher concentration of sugar than large
fruits of the same cultivar grown in the same location but that received higher water
applications. Both table and industrial tomatoes respond in the same way to irrigation
and salinity levels. Total soluble solids in tomato rises with increase in salinity and the
ratio between ammonium and nitrate in the fertilizer solution as demonstrated by the
work of Flores et al. (2003) and the data presented in Table 12.4 adapted from Ben-Oliel
(2004).
Table 12.4. Effect of the N source and salinity on yield and fruit quality parameters in tomato
cv. R144.
*NH4+
(mM)
MY1
BER2
TY3
(g plant-1) (g plant-1) (g plant-1)
BY4
MFW5
(g)
TSS6
(%)
FSEC7
(dSm-1)
TA8
(%)
pH
LAI9
(m2
plant-1)
NaCl - 0 mM
0
5480b
158d
6084b
322b
141a
5.3b
5.3c
0.51b
4.07a
1.8ab
5980a
236c
6814a
368a
143a
5.4b
5.3c
0.48b
4.04a
2.1a
5160b
247c
5906b
325b
140a
5.5b
5.5c
0.53b
4.00a
1.8ab
4430c
356c
4927b
256c
126b
5.2b
5.1c
0.46b
4.04a
1.6b
NaCl - 45 mM
0
2700e
763c
3663e
267c
82d
7.3a
6.9ab
0.67a
4.02a
1.25d
1
2
3820d
821bc
4840d
334b
103c
6.9a
7.2a
0.64a
4.00a
1.7b
2810e
954ab
3914e
282c
89d
7.2a
7.2a
0.64a
3.96a
1.5c
1670f
1183a
2919f
201d
87d
6.9a
6.4b
0.43b
3.98a
1.05e
The effects of increasing ammonium in the nutrient solution at the expense of nitrate
(total 8mM N) with and without sodium chloride, on the growth and fruit quality
parameters of tomato plants was investigated in a greenhouse experiment (Table 12.4).
The plants were grown in 10 L containers filled with perlite (a sponge like siliceous
material) and supplied by a constant stream of the nutrient solution that was drained
continuously. It is clear that high ammonium levels raised the incidence of blossom
end rot (BER) regardless of the presence or absence of NaCl in the nutrient solution.
However, the incidence was much greater in the saline treatment. While the total yield
was severely depressed by high ammonium and high salinity, the TSS value of the fruits
of the saline treated plants increased. Salinity decreased the mean fruit weight (MFW).
As a result, fruit sweetness (sugar concentration) was higher in the small fruits under
salinity due to higher concentration of TSS.
The tomato industry reformed its system of payment by weight of tomato (Santos, 1996).
At present, grower reward is based on the percent level of fruit dry matter. That decision
alone induced significant changes in the management of processing tomato irrigation
systems, with a need to emphasize the technological quality of the marketable product.
Optimization of dry matter production, expected revenues and seasonal applied water
were studied by Santos (1996). The critical factor controlling profit was identified as
yield distribution uniformity of fruit quality. Decreases in fruit dry matter resulted from
increasing levels of seasonally applied water. The optimal irrigation level for high fruit
dry matter production is always lower than that required for maximum fresh yield.
Such interaction suggests an inverse relationship between profit and water applied to
tomato for processing. While TSS yield per ha is the result of the multiplication of fresh
tomato yield per ha by the TSS concentration, lack of water may become the limiting
factor for plant growth, causing reduction of fresh yield, which cannot be compensated
by higher TSS concentrations. The introduction of subsurface trickle irrigation allows
accurate irrigation without overflow controlling the yield quality.
A field study comparing various forms of irrigation and fertigation of field grown
tomato in India was carried out by Hebbar et al. (2004). Fertigation with 100% water
soluble fertilizers increased fruit yield significantly (79.2 t ha1) over subsurface drip
fertigation (76.55 t ha1). Fertigation recorded a significantly higher number of fruits
per plant (56.9) and higher fertilizer use efficiency (226.48 kg yield kg1 NPK) compared
to drip- and furrow-irrigated controls. Since nutrient doses in fertigation are given in
small daily amounts as plant demand increases with growth, lesser leaching of NO3-N
and K to deeper soil layers was observed.
Fertigation schedules used in the USA for processing tomato are given in Tables 12.5
and 12.6 (Snyder and Thomas, 2007).
The main trickle irrigation methods used in the USA is subsurface at a depth of 15-20
cm to secure the irrigation lines from being damaged by mechanical harvesters.
Table 12.5. Suggested fertigation schedule for transplanted tomatoes in Mississippi, using all
fertilizers via fertigation (14-week schedule)*.
Total (lb a-1)
Growth stage
No. of weeks
fertigated
Injection rate
(lb a-1 week-1)
Total injected at
stage (lb)
K2O
vegetative
12
bloom
24
120
120
fruit set
10
70
maturation
14
120
Total
*Note: P fertilizer is not mentioned in these tables because all P should be applied at pre-plant and not
fertigated.
Table 12.6. Suggested fertigation schedule for transplanted tomatoes in Mississippi, using 20
percent of N and K2O pre-plant (12-week schedule)*.
Total
(lb a-1)
Growth stage
No. of weeks
fertigated
Injection rate
(lb a -1 week-1)
Total injected at
stage (lb)
K2O
vegetative
bloom
21
96
96
fruit set
63
maturation
Totals
12
96
*Note: P fertilizer is not mentioned in these tables because all P should be applied at pre-plant and not
fertigated.
Red color intensity and sugar or TSS is directly related to the lycopene content and
quality of tomatoes. The relationship between K concentration of the lower leaves and
lycopene yield is presented in Figure 12.7 (Sosnitsky, 1996) (See also Figure 6.1).
Between day 50 and 65, the main flowering cycle occurs that is marked by minimum
K consumption. Immediately at the end of flowering, fruit development peaks during
two weeks. The supply of K by fertigation must secure enough K in the active root zone
before the peak periods, i.e.: (i) base K application to secure early growth; (ii) increasing
Y = 487.39 + 3874.29x
R2 = 0.53
P < 0.001
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
K bottom leaves content at blooming (mg K cm-2)
0.20
Figure 12.7. Tomato fruit lycopene content as a function of lower leaf K concentration on day 40
after transplant (Sosnitsky, 1996).
39
36
33
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
1000
K consumption (g K plant-1)
0.5
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110
Days from planting
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110
Days from planting
Figure 12.8. Cumulative K uptake (A) and daily K consumption (B) during the growing season of
tomato cv. 8687 (Sosnitsky, 1996).
quantities to secure first fruit wave; and (iii) increasing levels up to 1 g K per plant day-1
to secure final K supply (Figure 12.8 A and B).
The results of the fertilization experiment by Sosnitsky (1996) with processing tomato
elucidate the major principles of fertigation of processing tomato:
Base application of P fertilizer should supply all plant demand on seeding day.
Initial high N levels reduce plant growth rate by competing with P uptake.
K application is needed during all the growing season, mainly starting at first bloom.
Table 12.7 demonstrates that during the early growing stages after direct seeding on
day 37 and day 81, ammonium fertilizer applied before seeding, delayed the vegetative
growth by about 25% relative to the control plots.
The effect of large basal application of P fertilizer (Table 12.8) on processing tomato
is very positive on plant development and fruit yield. Phosphorus increases the number
of tomato flowers, and an initial large amount of P applied during soil preparation
increases fruit yield. In a period of 40 days, the fruit dry matter increases four times
while the vegetative part increases only by about 50%. This procedure is employed in
the USA, where P fertilizers are avoided in subsurface fertigation (Snyder and Thomas,
2007).
During the last six weeks of field grown tomato, the entire N taken up from the soil
is diverted to the developing fruit. The vegetative parts lose N in the control plots in
favor of the developing fruit, starting 40 days before harvest. The initial amount of N
in the soil in the control plots was enough for the first 37 days of growth but could not
supply the yield potential of the tomatoes. Therefore, in general the total amount of P
can be applied during soil preparation, while N should be split during the last 10 weeks
of growth, with its quantity steadily increasing with plant growth (Table 12.9).
Table 12.7. Dry matter yield of field growing tomato affected by N fertilization (Feigin, A., personal communication).
Plant parts
27 May
11 July
30 July
19 Aug
(kg N ha-1)
37 DAS*
81 DAS
100 DAS
120 DAS
Fruits
Vegetative
shoot
905
2429
4143
60
1000
2762
4286
120
1095
2905
4000
180
619
3352
3905
166
2143
2619
3000
60
119
2095
2524
3810
120
95
2048
2905
3619
180
72
1905
2571
3381
166
3048
5048
7143
60
119
3095
5286
8095
120
95
3143
5810
7619
180
72
2524
5924
7286
Total
Table 12.8. Dry matter yield of field growing tomato affected by P fertilization (Feigin, A., personal communication).
Plant parts
Fruits
Vegetative
shoot
Total
Superphosphate
27 May
11 July
30 July
19 Aug
(kg P ha-1)
37 DAS
81 DAS
100 DAS
120 DAS
714
2190
3619
80
905
2648
4000
240
1238
3619
5095
48
1667
2571
3143
80
114
1952
2476
3857
240
190
2286
2905
3381
48
2381
4762
6762
80
114
2857
5124
7857
240
190
3524
6524
8476
Table 12.9. Accumulated N uptake affected by N fertilization (Feigin, A., personal communication).
Accumulated N uptake (kg N ha-1)
Plant parts
(NH4)SO4
27 May
11 July
30 July
19 Aug
(kg N ha )
37 DAS
81 DAS
100 DAS
120 DAS
22
53
94
60
28
76
112
120
34
97
109
180
25
90
118
52
47
37
-1
Fruits
Vegetative
shoot
60
58
53
59
120
60
62
59
180
58
69
65
74
100
131
Total
60
86
129
171
120
94
159
168
180
83
160
182
The effect of P on N uptake is obvious during the early growth stage. In that period,
plant N uptake due to high P application is six times greater than the control. This early
jump start of seedling is reflected in the final N in the fruit (Table 12.10).
Table 12.10. Accumulated N uptake affected by P fertilization (Feigin, A., personal communication).
Plant parts
Fruits
Vegetative
shoot
Total
Superphosphate
27 May
11 July
30 July
19 Aug
(kg P ha-1)
37 DAS
81 DAS
100 DAS
120 DAS
0.0
2.2
8.2
11.7
80
0.0
4.2
10.6
14.7
240
0.0
5.4
11.7
16.9
0.1
3.3
4.5
4.2
80
0.3
4.8
4.4
5.0
240
0.6
4.1
4.8
4.7
0.1
5.6
12.6
16.0
80
0.3
8.9
15.0
19.8
240
0.6
9.5
16.5
21.6
K uptake follows plant and fruit growth. When an initial high dose of N, as ammonium
sulfate (as used in the study) is applied, a decline in plant growth is reflected in the small
amount of K uptake (Table 12.11). As shown for the four tomato cultivars (Figure 12.9),
K in the fruit juice is linearly related to the total fruit dry matter of processing tomato.
Table 12.11. Accumulated K uptake as affected by N fertilization (Feigin, A., personal communication).
Plant parts
27 May
11 July
30 July
19 Aug
(kg N ha )
37 DAS
81 DAS
100 DAS
120 DAS
112
187
-1
Fruits
Vegetative
shoot
Total
12
10
48
60
57
127
212
120
58
146
187
180
42
167
206
56
52
67
60
53
46
77
120
56
58
67
180
50
62
63
104
163
254
60
110
173
288
120
113
204
254
180
92
229
269
8687
70
PETO 81
BRIGADE
6
Y = 0.92 + 0.001891x
R2 = 0.68
P < 0.001
2
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Floriculture for Food Security is promoted by FAO (Baudoin et al., 2007), as flower
biodiversity is being perceived as a potential income source for developing countries. In
most cases, trickle irrigation and fertigation are the methods used to secure production
of these delicate plant species.
Flowers endemic to various parts of the world have developed unique adaptation to
local soil and climatic conditions so that their transfer to commercial culture usually
involves problem responses to culture media and nutrient compositions. Australian
native flowers in particular are sensitive to increase in soil P. Addition of NPK and
micronutrient fertilizer or raising only P concentration in growing one such species,
Safari Sunset, increased total fresh weight and improved plant growth. Clusters of
proteoid roots (dense clusters of rootlets of limited growth) (Watt and Evans, 1999)
developed when very low P was present in the nutrient solution; and no proteoid roots
developed in treatments with P present (Silber et al., 1998).
13.1. Impatiens
Production of high-quality plants demands optimal nutrient supply during growth,
especially with respect to the total N concentration and the ratio between N sources
provided. Impatiens (Impatiens wallerana Hook. F.) is one of the most important
horticultural crops in the United States. A detailed study on the suitable ratio between
nitrate (NO3) and ammonium (NH4+) in the fertigation of this species (Romero et al.,
2006) suggested that shoot fresh and dry weights and flower bud number were at a
maximum with a nitrate to ammonium ratio of 1:3 at a total N concentration of 10.5
mmol L1. Since the media used for plant growth are site-specific, the actual ratio
of nitrate to ammonium in the solution will be affected by the buffer capacity of the
particular growth medium used. As mentioned in Chapter 4, the ratio of nitrate to
ammonium is the main tool used to control the pH of the root media in growing plants.
13.2. Roses
Roses are the most common flower produced and grown in many parts of the world.
Trickle irrigation on volcanic scoria (tuff) bedding, or on other artificial media are
commonly used (Paradiso et al., 2003). The pH near the root (around pH 6.5) is usually
measured daily in the drainage water and is maintained within a narrow range by
controlling the nitrate to ammonium ratio in the feed. The root pH is also affected
by plant age, radiation and growing stage of the plant. A typical composition of a
recirculating nutrient solution for roses is presented in Table 13.1 (Lykas et al., 2006).
Table 13.1. The initial mineral composition of a recirculating nutrient solution for roses (Lykas
et al., 2006).
Element
Concentration (ppm)
Nitrogen as N-NO3
172
Nitrogen as N-NH4
14
Phosphorus as P-H2PO4
31
Sulfur as S-SO4
24
Potassium (K)
250
Calcium (Ca)
160
Magnesium (Mg)
24
Iron (Fe)
1.3
Boron (B)
0.28
Copper (Cu)
0.6
Molybdenum (Mo)
0.027
Manganese (Mn)
0.50
Zinc (Zn)
0.23
13.3. Carnations
Changing the concentrations and rates of nutrients in the soil media can affect quality
of flowers. Calyx splitting and high percentage of stem brittle disorder in carnation
(Dianthus caryophyllus L.), cv. Standard White Candy, grown under fertigation on a
sandy loam soil, in the coastal plateau of Israel, 18 km east, was treated by increasing
K (K2SO4 and KNO3) and the NO3-:NH4+ ratio in the fertigation medium (Yermiyahu
and Kafkafi, 2009). The increase in K levels in the fertigation media was reflected in the
content of K in the plant dry matter (DM). The beneficial effects of the KNO3treatment
probably resulted because of the absence of NH4-N in the fertigation media. These
beneficial effects were expressed in the form of a 17% increase in flower yield and a
reduction in calyx splitting. When compared to the ammonium-containing fertilizer
in the irrigation water, flower quality - as measured by stem brittle - was improved by
the highest level of K supply, irrespective of the K fertilizer form, KNO3or K2SO4.The
findings suggested that maintaining a continuous supply of K at a much higher
concentration in the soil solution above the sufficient level for maximum yield, may
be regarded as an insurance cost against detrimental effects of unexpected climatic
events of cold nights followed by sunny days, which are the main cause of the disorder.
107
Plants growing in containers differ from field growing plants in several respects.
Containers limit root volume development and as a consequence, the requirements for
water, oxygen and nutrients are more intensive. Growers and agronomists use various
natural and artificial growth media to suite specific local conditions, taking into account
the required physical and chemical properties of the media and the plant grown.
However, the depletion of nutrients from the limited rooting zone in soilless culture
necessitates the continuous replenishment of nutrient reserves. Silber et al. (2003)
suggested that the yield reduction obtained at low frequency irrigation (and fertigation)
resulted from nutrient deficiency, rather than water shortage, and that high irrigation
frequency can compensate for nutrient deficiency. Frequent fertigation improved the
uptake of nutrients through two main mechanisms: continuous replenishment of
nutrients in the depletion zone at the vicinity of root interface and enhanced transport
of dissolved nutrients by mass flow, due to the higher averaged water content in the
growth media. The fertigation frequency, the nutrients concentration and the ratio
between them, the irrigation water pH after the fertilizer injection have to be suited to
the growth media characteristics.
In the following sections growth media will be defined, the physical and chemical
characteristics related to nutrient supply and fertigation management will be described.
Natural sources: peat of different botanic origin, peat-moss sphagnum, true moss
(Bryalers Broilers), sedges, pine litter, leaf moulds and woody plants.
Synthetic: organic polymers, non biodegradable, obtained by chemical synthesis
(expanded polystyrene, urea-formaldehyde and polyurethane foams).
Residues or by-products of domestic, industrial or agricultural activity: (most
have to be composted before use in order to obtain a stable material) rice husk, wood
bark, manure, sawdust, coconut fiber, cork residues, municipal solid waste, treated
sewage sludge, etc.
Some of these characteristics are not typical for all growth media but there is the
possibility to introduce some of them by proper irrigation and fertilization. Plants can
be grown in a growth medium composed of a single substrate but, more usually, it is
composed of two or more components that complement each other. As a result, the final
growth media is more effective than its individual components and its characteristics
are balanced.
C/N ratio
Fresh bark
75-110
30-40
30-40
Peat
50
Pine litter
25
Sewage sludge
50-80
The Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total amount of exchangeable cations that a
particular material or soil can adsorb at a given pH. This property plays an important
role in the nutrient reserves available to plants. The adsorbed ions are protected from
leaching and can be released to become available to the plant. The CEC is expressed in
terms of meq per unit weight. The CEC of organic growth media varies with the pH of the
medium. The CEC of humic substances in organic growth media increases by 0.30 meq
g-1 when the solution pH increases by one unit. In comparison, the clay CEC increases
only by 0.044 meq g-1 (Helling et al., 1964). Abad et al. (2005) defined the optimal CEC
for growth media according to the fertigation frequency. Under continuous fertigation
(one or more times a day), the CEC of growth media has no significant effect, thus, inert
140
110
90
110
Peat Sphagnum
130
Peat Sedge
80
Black peat
160
Vermiculite
150
Montmorillonite
100
Perlite
1.5
Fresh bark
40-50
70-75
70-80
120-140
70-80
107
120
150
14.4.3. pH
Plants can grow over a wide pH range (4-8) in the growth media without development of
physiological disorders. However, plant growth and development is depressed in extreme
acid or alkaline conditions. The pH of the medium influences nutrient availability, CEC
and total biological activity. Plants growing in growth media generally require intensive
management. Under these conditions, a limited pH range is recommended. The optimal
saturated extract pH range for ornamental plants is 5.2-6.3, and for vegetables 5.5-6.8.
At high alkaline pH (higher than 7.5-8.0), the availability of P, Fe, Mn, B, Zn and Cu for
plant uptake decreases. In contrast, at lower pH (lower than 5.0) deficiencies of N, K,
Ca, Mg and other nutrients might be found in the plant. Increased solubility of metal
oxides at low pH can result in phytotoxic symptoms (Roy et al., 2006). The pH value of
different commercial growth media is presented in Table 14.3.
Some special considerations are needed in the pH management of growth media. The
pH of new (unused) rockwool might be high (7-8). This condition should be corrected
before planting by using acidified nutrient solutions (pH= 5.0-5.5). Thereafter, a slightly
higher pH (5.5-6.5) is appropriate for many crops (FAO, 1990).
Organic growth media have a higher pH buffer capacity than mineral and inert
substrates (Penningsfeld, 1978). When the pH of an organic medium is not at an
appropriate pH level, adjustment is needed. Ground limestone or dolomite can be used
to increase the pH for acid growth media while sulfur is used to decrease high pH
in substrates. The quantities to be applied depend on the initial pH, the final pH to
be achieved and CEC of the growth media. When neither limestone nor dolomite is
present in the growth media, a substitute source of calcium and magnesium is required
if the concentration of these two nutrients in the irrigation water is not high enough
(Benton Jones, 2005).
The neutral or high pH in inert growth media can be regulated by acidifying the
irrigation solution. The acid dose added to the solution depends on the water quality or
specifically the carbonate and bicarbonate concentration in the irrigation water.
Table 14.3. pH of different growth media (modified from Verdonck (1981) and Verdonck (1983)).
Growth media
pH
Pine litter
3.9-5.5
Bark
6.0-6.8
Perlite
6.5-7.2
Rockwool
7.0
Vermiculite
7.0
Fresh bark
5.5
6.5
6.7
Peat
4.0-5.0
Sewage sludge
7.3-7.6
Pine litter
5.0-5.5
5.8
6.0
6.0
113
Fertigation is an advanced tool that provides the grower with a precise instrument for
fertilization and irrigation according to plant requirements and soil or growth media
conditions. In order to take advantage of the agro-technical benefits of fertigation,
very close monitoring of irrigation water, soil and growth media, drainage and crop is
recommended.
The degree of damage depends on the concentration in the irrigation water, time,
amount, crop sensitivity and crop-water consumption. The most commonly observed
toxic elements are Cl, B and Na.
Usually, in most surface and groundwater sources, P and K are present in negligible
amounts. The nitrate content of groundwater can reach considerable levels and,
therefore, its concentration in the irrigation water should be considered in planning
for fertigation.
Laboratory determinations recommended to evaluate the quality of irrigation water
are listed in Table 15.1. Not all these determinations are essential for all samples and for
all sampling times. It is important, however, to keep records of the results of analysis
for specific water sources and dates and times of sampling such that determination
can be avoided, or the frequency of analysis reduced for some elements. Data have
been included in Table 15.1 to illustrate the concentration ranges in secondary treated
wastewater. However, these data can vary somewhat between countries and regions
depending on factors including: the potable water supplied to the population, industrial
and agricultural sewage inputs, and the processes in the wastewater treatment plants.
An additional monitoring method is to sample the irrigation solution flowing from
the irrigation emitters (dripper, micro-jet or sprinkler). This solution represents the
water quality and the fertilizers added during fertigation. Fertilizer injection by the
different fertigation devices is not continuous but receives pulses of fertilizer with
concentrations higher or lower than the programmed concentration in the irrigation
water. Momentary sampling of only part of the water when the irrigation is running
thus gives a misleading result, higher or lower than the expected average concentration.
In order to avoid this problem, it is recommended that collection of samples of water
emitted by an irrigation device should be made during a complete fertigation cycle. The
vessel to collect the solution must be adapted to the device discharge and the period of
irrigation. Nutrient and salinity factors can be determined in the laboratory, but some
field analysis can also be performed. If the grower knows the electrical conductivity
(EC) of the irrigation water and the contribution of the fertilizers added to the EC,
the overall EC of the irrigation water collected at the emitter can be used to evaluate
the performance of the fertilizer injector and to control the amount of fertilizer that is
injected into the irrigation line.
The increasing use of treated wastewater (TWW) raises the importance of the
assessment of water quality to avoid salinity and sodicity damage, nutrient accumulation
in the soils and crops, and to consider the nutrient value in the water. Sampling and
testing TWW is also performed to evaluate the organic matter content and the presence
of pathogens.
Instructions for collecting TWW for analyses, which are in use by The Israeli
Extension Service (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) are as follows
(Tarchitzky and Eitan, 1997):
For most physical and chemical analyses, a volume of 1 liter is sufficient. It is
recommended to rinse the bottle with the sample water before filling it. All the
necessary details should be written on a sticker attached to the bottle.
If the sample is taken directly from the irrigation system, the valve should be turned
on to allow water to flow for about 20-30 seconds (depending on pipe diameter). This
Table 15.1. Recommended laboratory determinations (marked in *) to evaluate irrigation water quality
(Modified from Westcot and Ayers, 1985 and Feigin et al., 1991).
Water parameter
Symbol
Unit
Electrical Conductivity
ECw
Calcium
Ca
Magnesium
Sodium
Carbonate
CO3
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Sulfate
Boron
Treated wastewater
Fresh
water
Typical range
-1
dS m
0.62-1.71
-1
mg L
20-120
Mg
-1
mg L
10-50
Na+
mg L-1
50-250
mg L
HCO3
-1
mg L
Cl-
mg L-1
40-200
SO4
mg L
mg L
0-1
7.8-8.1
4.5-7.9
2+
2+
2-
-1
2-
-1
-1
pH
Sodium Adsorption Ratio
SAR
[meq L ]
-1
-1
BOD
mg L
10-80
COD
mg L-1
30-160
TSS
mg L-1
10-100
Nitrate-nitrogen
NO3-N
mg L
-1
0-10
Ammonium-nitrogen
NH4-N
mg L-1
1-40
Organic-nitrogen
Org-N
mg L-1
Total nitrogen
Total-N
mg L
10-50
Potassium
-1
mg L
10-40
Ortophosphate-phosphorus
PO4-P
mg L-1
Total phosphorus
Total-P
mg L
6-17
Residual chlorine
Cl2
-1
mg L
mg L-1
Trace elements2
-1
-1
Sodium, calcium and magnesium concentrations need to be transformed to meq L-1 units in order to
calculate the SAR ratio
2
Aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, fluoride, iron, lead, lithium, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, vanadium and zinc
1
is done in order to ensure that the sample does not include water that has been in
the pipe for a long period and may possibly have changed in composition. Samples
should be collected from the control filter and from irrigation emitters (sprinklers,
micro-jet or drippers). Sampling of water should be done only when the fertigation
system is not operating (to avoid fertilizers in the sample).
The samples should be sent as soon as possible to the laboratory. The samples must
be kept in cold picnic boxes (4C) for nitrogen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
or bacteriological analyses.
The same principles can be employed for fresh water sampling.
Two methods can be used when the collection of TWW is made directly from the
reservoirs and not through the irrigation system:
Use of an automatic sampler.
Use of a bottle connected to a heavy object (this system is limited to 1 meter depth).
Samples should be collected away from the reservoir banks to avoid the accumulation
of wind-blown fats and oils. In collecting TWW, it is recommended that sampling should
be carried out as close as possible to the pumping point. If a bottle is used rather than an
automatic sampler, the following points should be taken into account. The bottle should
have a narrow neck, be connected to an extension stick, be tied with a rope and attached
to a heavy object. The bottle should be immersed usually to a depth of one meter and
should be sunk very quickly to ensure minimum collection of surface water.
Types of sampling
Changes in composition may occur often during the day or the week due to supply from
different potable water sources or additions during sewage formation. It is therefore
recommended to use one of the two procedures below, the choice depending on the
information required:
Occasional sampling is done arbitrarily. The results represent the situation at the
time of sampling. When it is known that the source varies with time, sampling at
suitable intervals can illustrate the extent, frequency and duration of those variations
(Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1998);
Composite samples are obtained from collected samples over a period of time,
depth, or at different sampling points, at specific times of the day or night (24 hours).
Composite samples are achieved by using one of the following procedures:
Separate samples are taken, each of equal volume and all the samples are then
mixed together;
By using automatic sampler, samples are mixed together to obtain one composite
sample.
For crops grown in soils, soil sampling and testing are essential tools to manage soil
salinity and in determining nutrient supply. By means of soil tests, deviation between
prevailing and optimum concentrations can be determined and corrective measures
undertaken to restore required concentrations in the soil. Monitoring nutrient status
in soils can be achieved by two approaches (Bar-Yosef, 1992). The first involves soil
sampling at a reference position in the root zone and extraction to determine soluble
and sorbed nutrient concentrations in the soil. The second, for NO3- and Cl- only, is to
sample the soil solution directly by means of vacuum cups inserted permanently in the
soil and to analyze the collected solution.
Frequency of sampling depends on the soil type, water quality and crop growth rate.
In orchards, sampling twice during the year can be enough but, if relatively high salinity
water is used, sampling should be done every 3-4 weeks in order to monitor soil salinity
and to decide about leaching dose applications. In intensive crops like vegetables, the
soil should be sampled frequently (every 2-3 weeks) in order to monitor both the
nutrient concentration in the soil and salinity, and eventually to correct the fertilization
programme or to leach accumulated salts. Instructions for soil sampling of the Israeli
Extension Service (Tarchitzky and Eitan, 1997) are as follows:
Drip irrigation: The sample is taken along the drip lateral, at a distance of 10 cm
from the dripper, to depths of 0-30, 30-60, 60-90 cm. About 20 random samples are
taken from a plot of 2000 m2.
Sprinkler and micro-jet: The distance of sampling from irrigation accessories is
selected according to the discharge and water distribution of the emitter, i.e. distance
of 70-100 cm from a micro-jet or 100-120 cm from a mini-sprinkler or a sprinkler.
Samples are taken from depths of 0-30, 30-60, 60-90 cm, with about 20 random
samples from a plot of 2000 m2.
In general, all the samples from the same depth are mixed well in order to obtain a
representative composite sample. Each composite sample of a certain depth is placed
in a separate bag, and about 1 kg is sent to the laboratory. Identification of the sample
includes name, address, plot number, crop, depth and date of sampling.
The extraction methods are specific for nutrient and the soil characteristics (Hagin
et al., 2002). Water-soluble nutrients are usually determined in saturated-paste soil
extracts and sorbed nutrients by specific extractants (Bar-Yosef, 1992). Some methods
are based on mild acid extractions. Potassium is often measured by the extraction of
the exchangeable fraction or some expression that relates to the soluble K and divalent
cations to the exchangeable phase as Potassium Adsorption Ratio (PAR). The analyses
have to be calibrated with results from field experiments on crop response.
Soil tests for estimation of the available P present in the soil are used as a guide in
decision making on P fertilizer additions via the trickle lines. Because of the immense
variability in the estimation of available P by soil testing methods and the different
extraction methods used by soil test laboratories all over the world, each location has
developed its own method of estimation of soil available P. Intensive vegetable and
glasshouse production systems usually disregard the levels of P detected in soil tests
and use a complete nutrient solution during the whole growing period to make sure
that deficiency is avoided.
Plant analysis is preferred in intensive growing under trickle irrigation, where only
part of the soil is wet and the root volume represents only a small fraction of the total
soil volume.
Knowledge of the nutritional status of all the components of a soilless culture system is
important for two reasons: (i) it is a means by which the grower can judge the success
of the fertigation management practices; whether the planned fertilizer programmes
objectives are followed in terms of nutrient availability; and (ii) it helps to diagnose
nutrient deficiency and correct symptoms that may occur (Johnson, 2008). The methods
used in the analysis of available nutrients in growth media are based on the equilibration
of a sample of the growth media with an extracting solution. Some typical extracting
solutions are: DTPA, ammonium acetate and water (Bunt, 1988). The extraction is
performed during a standard time and with different mass-to-volume ratios of the
growth media to the extractant (1:1.5; 1:5; 1:10). Growth media samples are obtained
from the root zone by taking a representative number of sub-samples and mixing them
prior to their analysis. Growth media solution can be obtained by extracting a prescribed
volume of the substrate in the laboratory or in the field by measuring nitrate-N, K and P
using field kits. Solution samples from rockwool or similar substrates can be extracted
by a medical syringe or a syringe connected to a manometer to extract the solution at
a specific tension.
In nutrient solution circulation systems, it is easy to sample and control nutrient
composition on-line or to obtain a sample for laboratory analysis. In containerized
growth systems, without recycling, the irrigation regime includes a high component
of leached nutrients necessary to avoid any salt accumulation. All the excess nutrients
are drained away from the system through drain holes in the base of the containers.
By installing a solution collecting device below some of the containers, randomly
distributed in the entire greenhouse, these drainage samples can be collected for analysis
or sent to a laboratory for testing. The relative nutrient loss can then be calculated.
In fruit trees or evergreen, leaf analysis is a common tool for nutritional guidance, the
plant tissue analysis is used to prepare a future fertilization programme, and a longer
time period is available to complete the analyses in the laboratory. Deducing fertilizer
recommendations from plant tissue analyses data is not always straightforward.
Concentrations of plant nutrients in tissues change with the physiological age of the
tissue. Air humidity, temperature and soil moisture affect the concentration of nutrients
by influencing transpiration and solute transport in the plant as well as the plant growth
rate. Very strict standardization of plant tissue sampling is therefore necessary (Hagin et
al., 2002). However, comparing samples from both a good and a bad area any time
in the growing season often helps in taking corrective actions.
The parts of plants to sample depend on the plant and its growth stage. Tissue
sampling techniques for selected field crops, vegetables, ornamentals and flowers and
fruit and nut trees are presented in tables 15.2 15.5 respectively (Flynn et al., 1999).
The following nutrients can be determined in a plant sample: nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), boron (B), sodium (Na), chloride (Cl) and other micronutrients. The leaf or
whole plant samples have to be taken at optimal periods according to the specific plant
standards. Instructions for petiole or leaf sampling may differ.
Table 15.2. Tissue sampling techniques for field crops (Flynn et al., 1999).
Field crops
Number to sample per
plot
Crop
When to sample
Where to sample
Cotton
Full bloom
40-50
Sunflower
Before heading, on
recently mature leaf
20-30
Table 15.3. Tissue sampling techniques for vegetable crops (Flynn et al., 1999).
Vegetable crops
Number to
sample per
plot
Crop
When to sample
Where to sample
Asparagus
Maturity
10-30
Bean
20-30
Broccoli
Before heading
12-20
Brussels sprout
Midseason
12-20
Celery
Midseason
12-20
Cucumber
12-20
Before heading
12-20
Midseason
12-20
Melons
12-20
Pea
Before or at bloom
40-60
Pepper
Midseason
25-50
Potato
Before or at bloom
25-30
Sweet potato
Midseason or before
root enlargement
25-35
20-30
Tomato (field)
Midbloom
15-20
Tomato (trellis or
indeterminate)
12-20
rd
rd
rd
th
th
Table 15.4. Tissue sampling techniques for ornamentals and flowers (Flynn et al., 1999).
Ornamentals and flowers
Number to
sample per
plot
Crop
When to sample
Where to sample
Carnation
Newly planted
Established
20-30
Chrysanthemum
Before or at bloom
20-30
Ornamental tree
and shrub
30-70
Poinsettia
Before or at bloom
15-20
Rose
At bloom
25-30
Turf
Active growth
2 cups
Table 15.5. Tissue sampling techniques for fruits and nuts (Flynn et al., 1999).
Fruit and nut crops
Number to
sample per
plot
Crop
When to sample
Where to sample
Midseason (June-July)
50-100
Midseason (June-July)
Mid-shoot leaflets/leaves
25-100
Grape
At bloom
50-100
Pecan
Midseason
Mid-shoot leaflets/leaves
25-60
Pistachio
25-60
Raspberry
Midseason
30-50
Strawberry
Midseason
25-40
Walnut
(June-July)
25-40
Fertigation was first developed for field and horticultural crops, and later used on tree
plantations. In later stages, small gardens and the potting trade adopted the use of
fertigation with automatic scheduling of irrigation cycle for home and city gardens.
Fertigation today is used in any system, small or large scale, all over the world.
The shortage of water worldwide for use in agriculture and increased urbanization
has forced agricultural development to new locations, less suitable to old flood or canal
irrigation methods. While large flat areas use center pivot systems and combine it with
N fertilizers, new plantations on hilly terrains have become more and more fashionable
for vineyards and tree plantations. Under these growing conditions, complete nutrient
feed is expected to dominate since soil volume available for tree growth is small
compared to the old system of deep soil plantations.
In arid areas, the shortage of potable water and increase of population is driving
agricultural growers to use any available water source. Two main avenues of development
are possible, the use of recycled city sewage water and desalination of either sea or
recycled water. Desalination of recycled water can prevent the accumulation of salts
in the tilth layer, but energy cost limits its use. Sodium chloride accumulation in the
irrigated area under recycled water is the main problem, as long period of usage of such
water source can degrade soil productivity. Bringing arid lands into cultivation can be
sustainable only if good quality water is available for agricultural production.
Trickle irrigation and fertigation will continue to expand and slowly replace
traditional flood irrigation wherever population demand for fresh water will put
pressure on water resources. This will free a significant amount of water to be used by
the urban population.
Labor costs are also an important factor in the transformation from flood or canal
irrigation to permanent fertigation systems. As agriculture progresses from subsistence
to commercial viability, the shift to fertigation is inevitable.
We believe that the basic topics on the combined use of plant nutrients with irrigation
as discussed in this publication will be of benefit to growers all over the world for the
efficient use of water and fertilizers in agricultural production systems.
123
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