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Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
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Indexed in:
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RESUMEN
El aspecto clnico y en especial el grado de displasia que pueden
presentar las lesiones precancerosas de la cavidad oral sugieren
su capacidad potencial de malignizacin. Cada vez es ms frecuente encontrar investigaciones orientadas hacia la bsqueda
de nuevos marcadores, ms especficos, que contribuyan a
determinar el grado de alteracin celular y permitan una mayor
aproximacin al conocimiento del grado de degeneracin maligna de aquellas lesiones.
En el presente trabajo de revisin se repasan los conceptos
ms actuales de estos marcadores, agrupados por familias:
marcadores de crecimiento tumoral; marcadores de supresin
tumoral y de respuesta antitumoral; marcadores de angiognesis;
marcadores de invasin tumoral y de potencial metastatizante;
marcadores celulares de superficie; marcadores intracelulares;
marcadores derivados del cido araquidnico y marcadores
enzimticos.
Palabras clave: Marcadores moleculares, marcadores tisulares, displasia epitelial, leucoplasia oral, carcinoma escamoso
oral.
INTRODUCCION
El diagnstico de las lesiones precancerosas empieza con el
examen clnico, pero el estudio histopatolgico es el que proporciona la informacin de si existe displasia (que hace referencia
a diversas alteraciones del normal desarrollo y maduracin de
un tejido, en particular epitelial) y cul es el grado de la misma.
Este trmino orienta hacia el potencial o riesgo de malignizacin
(ms o menos elevado) de la lesin en cuestin. Sin embargo,
los datos que aportan el examen clnico y el estudio histopatolgico rutinario no son totalmente satisfactorios. Por esta razn,
numerosos investigadores estudian la posibilidad de emplear,
de una forma selectiva, otros exmenes ms especficos, que
permitan valorar las alteraciones celulares.
Se postula que el desarrollo del cncer es el resultado de la acu-
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
MARCADORES DE ANGIOGENESIS
La angiognesis es muy importante en el crecimiento y metstasis de los tumores slidos. Algunos factores de crecimiento,
citoquinas inflamatorias y angiogeninas son conocidas como
promotoras de la angiognesis tumoral.
VEGF/VEGF-R (vascular endothelial growth factor/receptor):
Es una citoquina multifuncional, que controla la angiognesis
y tambin acta como factor de supervivencia de las clulas
endoteliales, realzando la expresin de bc12, Bc12 y VEGF.
stas regulan la expresin de la citoquina proangiognica interleuquina 8 (IL8) (7).
NOS2 (Nitric oxide synthase type II): Se considera el responsable
de la angiognesis en los cnceres y tambin de la diseminacin
tumoral. El enzima NOS2 se ha encontrado en las metstasis
linfticas (7).
PD-ECGF (Platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor):
Es una citoquina angiognica que deriva de las plaquetas. Se
han encontrado en los microvasos del carcinoma de clulas
escamosas oral (7).
FGFs (Fibroblast growth factor): Son una familia de polipptidos que regulan la proliferacin y diferenciacin celular.
El FGF-1 no est directamente relacionado con el proceso de
proliferacin celular en el carcinoma de clulas escamosas,
aunque una menor concentracin de l en la carcinognesis
puede influir en una pobre diferenciacin. FGF-2 y FGF-3
pueden influir en la carcinognesis a travs de un mecanismo
de autorregulacin (21).
MARCADORES INTRACELULARES
-Citoqueratinas: Son estructuras proteicas de las clulas epiteliales. Existen 19 citoqueratinas, que se dividen en 2 subfamilias.
Los cambios en la expresin de estas protenas no se pueden
considerar predictores del desarrollo de displasia. La malignizacin de las lesiones orales se asocia con la desaparicin de
las citoqueratinas. Se ha visto que la expresin de CK19 en la
capa de clulas suprabasal de la mucosa oral puede utilizarse
como marcador diagnstico de lesiones precancerosas orales.
Y la expresin de CK19 se ha localizado en las fases iniciales
de la carcinognesis (25).
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
ENZIMAS
La glutatin S-transferasa (GSTS) es un isoenzima que acta en
la segunda fase del metabolismo celular. Pertenece a una compleja familia de protenas multifuncionales. Desarrolla un papel
importante de proteccin celular frente a agentes citotxicos y
carcinognicos. Existen 3 tipos de GST: , y . En diversos
trabajos se ha demostrado que existe una sobreexpresin de
GST- en los tejidos humanos con cncer, en lesiones orales
premalignas y durante la carcinognesis oral experimental. Por
tanto, puede emplearse como marcador tumoral de lesiones
epiteliales premalignas orales. Se ha observado que la displasia epitelial y la GST- estn relacionadas con una disfuncin
inmunolgica local (17).
DISCUSION
El proceso de carcinognesis es multifactorial y requiere la
acumulacin de mltiples alteraciones genticas en las clulas
epiteliales. La inclusin de las tcnicas de biologa molecular en
el diagnstico patolgico de las biopsias, tanto de lesiones precancerosas como de carcinomas de clulas escamosas, pueden
mejorar ostensiblemente la deteccin de alteraciones invisibles
al microscopio. Ello facilitar una terapia ms eficaz en casos
donde se detecten alteraciones genticas en la mucosa oral. En
un futuro prximo se podr identificar a los pacientes con alto
riesgo de desarrollar cncer oral. Recientemente se ha descrito
un modelo preliminar de progresin gentica para el carcinoma
de clulas escamosas de cabeza y cuello. Este modelo se basa
en detectar las alteraciones genticas presentes en las lesiones
premalignas de cabeza y cuello y la progresin gentica hallada
en las zonas adyacentes. Mediante este modelo se conocen ciertas caractersticas genticas de las lesiones premalignas, que, si
no se tratan en un plazo limitado de tiempo, se convertirn en
lesiones cancerosas agresivas (29).
Las investigaciones bioqumicas y de biologa molecular que
definen los marcadores de evolucin de las lesiones premalignas y malignas servirn tambin para evaluar su pronstico
o la eficacia de los tratamientos. Existen diversos marcadores
tisulares. Uno de ellos es la actividad de la telomerasa, cuya
cuantificacin puede ser un parmetro futuro para el diagnstico
y determinacin del pronstico de las lesiones premalignas y
malignas de la mucosa oral. Queda por demostrar que la combinacin de la expresin de la integrina v6 con otros posibles
marcadores tumorales sea un instrumento til en la prediccin
de la transformacin maligna de las lesiones de la mucosa oral.
Las aberraciones del gen p53 son las alteraciones genticas
ms comunes en el cncer oral, si bien no bastan para justificar
el desarrollo del mismo. Pero el papel de esta protena en el
cncer oral tiene una especial relevancia, por sus implicaciones
clnicas (30).
En conclusin, deben continuar y ampliarse las investigaciones
en todos los mbitos mencionados, o en otros nuevos, para conseguir que el estudio del genoma y de los factores relacionados
pueda llevarse a cabo mediante tcnicas ms sencillas y ms
baratas, que puedan aplicarse en los protocolos diagnsticos
rutinarios.
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Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
ABSTRACT
The clinical appearance and, especially, the degree of dysplasia
that may be shown by pre-cancerous lesions in the oral cavity
suggest a potential for malignisation. An increasing number
of studies are seeking new, more specific markers that would
help to determine the degree of cell alteration and enable a
better understanding of the degree of malignant degeneration
of these cells.
The present review considers the most recent findings for these
markers, grouping them into families: tumour growth markers;
markers of tumour suppression and anti-tumour response; angiogenesis markers; markers of tumour invasion and metastatic
potential; cell surface markers; intracellular markers; markers
derived from arachidonic acid; and enzymatic markers.
Key words: Molecular markers, tissue markers, epithelial dysplasia, oral leukoplakia, oral squamous carcinoma.
INTRODUCTION
Although the diagnosis of precancerous lesions begins with
the clinical examination it is the histopathological study which
determines the presence and degree of any dysplasia (a term
covering various alterations of the normal development and
maturation of tissue, particularly epithelial). Thus, information
is provided about the potential or risk (to varying degrees) of the
lesion in question becoming malignant. However, the data obtained from the clinical examination and routine histopathological
study are not entirely satisfactory. Therefore, several researchers
have been studying the possibility of using (selectively) other
more specific examinations that enable cell alterations to be
evaluated.
It is postulated that cancer develops as a result of the accumulation of genetic errors in the same tissue (1, 2) the activation
of oncogenes and the inactivation of tumour suppressor genes
also being involved (3). Statistical studies of molecular aspects
suggest that between six and ten genetic alterations are required to produce a malignant transformation of the oral mucosa.
There are various types of cell and tissue markers that, from a
molecular perspective, may provide additional information to
that obtained from the clinical examination and histopathological study. In what follows, the most well-known markers are
described, along with their most relevant aspects.
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
ANGIOGENESIS MARKERS
Angiogenesis is highly important in the growth and metastasis of
solid tumours. Some growth factors, inflammatory cytokines and
angiogenins are known to promote tumour angiogenesis.
-VEGF/VEGF-R (vascular endothelial growth factor/receptor)
This is a multifunction cytokine that controls angiogenesis and
also serves as a survival factor in endothelial cells, promoting the
expression of bc12, Bc12 and VEGF. The latter regulate the expression of the proangiogenic cytokine interleukin 8 (IL8) (7).
-NOS2 (nitric oxide synthase type II) This is thought to be
responsible for both angiogenesis in cancers and tumour dissemination. The enzyme NOS2 has been found in lymphatic
metastases (7).
-PD-ECGF (platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor) This
is an angiogenic cytokine derived from platelets. It has been found
in the microvessels of oral squamous cell carcinoma (7).
-FGFs (fibroblast growth factor) This family of polypeptides
regulates cell proliferation and differentiation. Although FGF1 is not directly related to the process of cell proliferation in
squamous cell carcinoma, a lower concentration of this polypeptide in carcinogenesis may be a factor in poor differentiation.
FGF-2 and FGF-3 may be involved in carcinogenesis through
an autoregulation mechanism (21).
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
INTRACELLULAR MARKERS
-Cytokeratins These are epithelial cell proteins. There are 19
cytokeratins, divided into two sub-families. Changes in the
expression of these proteins cannot be considered predictive of
the development of dysplasia. The malignisation of oral lesions
is associated with the disappearance of cytokeratins. Research
has shown that the expression of CK19 in the suprabasal cell
layer of the oral mucosa can be used as a diagnostic marker
of pre-cancerous oral lesions; CK19 expression has also been
localised in the early stages of carcinogenesis (25).
ENZYMES
Glutathione S-transferase (GSTS) is an isoenzyme that acts in
the second phase of cell metabolism. It belongs to a complex
family of multifunctional proteins and plays an important role
in protecting the cell against cytotoxic and carcinogenic agents.
There are three types of GST: , and . Various studies have
shown that GST- is overexpressed in human cancer tissue, in
premalignant oral lesions and during experimental oral carci383
Riesgo de cancer oral y marcadores moleculares / Oral cancer risk and molecular markers
DISCUSSION
Many factors are involved in the process of carcinogenesis and
it requires the accumulation of multiple genetic alterations in
epithelial cells. The inclusion of molecular biology techniques
in the pathological diagnosis of biopsies, for both pre-cancerous
lesions and squamous cell carcinomas, may improve ostensibly
the detection of alterations which are invisible to the microscope. This will enable therapy to be more effective in cases where
genetic alterations in the oral mucosa are detected. In the near
future it will be possible to identify those patients at high risk of
developing oral cancer. Recently, a preliminary model of genetic
progression has been reported for head and neck squamous cell
carcinoma. This model involves detecting the genetic alterations
present in premalignant head and neck lesions, along with the
genetic progression found in adjacent areas. Certain genetic characteristics of premalignant lesions are thus revealed which, if not
treated within a given period, will become aggressive cancerous
lesions (29).
Biochemical and molecular biological studies that define markers
for the evolution of premalignant and malignant lesions will also
serve to evaluate prognosis and treatment efficacy. Various tissue
markers have been identified. One of these is telomerase activity,
whose quantification may in the future become a parameter for
diagnosing and determining the prognosis of premalignant and
malignant oral mucosa lesions. It remains to be seen, however,
whether the combination of integrin v6 expression with other
possible tumour markers is indeed a useful instrument for predicting the malignant transformation of such lesions. The most
common genetic alterations in oral cancer are aberrations of the
p53 gene, although these alone do not account for its development.
However, the role of this protein in oral cancer is of particular
relevance due to its clinical implications (30).
In conclusion, research should be continued and extended in all
the abovementioned areas, as well as in new ones, so that study of
the genome and related factors can be carried out through simpler
and cheaper techniques which, in turn, can be applied in routine
diagnostic protocols.
BIBLIOGRAFIA/REFERENCES
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3. Sudbo J, Bryne M, Johannessen AC, Kildal W, Danielsen HE, Reith A. Comparison
of histological grading and large-scale genomic status (DNA ploidy) as prognostic tools
in oral dysplasia. J Pathol 2001;194:303-13.
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oral carcinomas. Oral Oncol 2000;36:100-5.
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proto-oncogenes ErbB-3 y ErbB-4 en el carcinoma oral de clulas escamosas: estudio
piloto. Med Oral 2003;8:374-81.
6. Whyte DA, Broton CE, Shillitoe EJ. The unexplained survival of cells in oral cancer:
what is the role of p53?. J Oral Pathol Med 2002;31:25-33.
7. Schliephake H. Prognostic relevance of molecular markers of oral cancer -A review.
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