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8. State property:
The conditions of a system are described using some measurable properties. They are called as state
properties. Ex: temperature, pressure, and volume.
9. State function or point functions.
State properties describe systems present state and do not give the previous history. So state
properties are state functions and fixed for a particular state of a system. Ex: temperature, pressure,
and volume.
10. Path functions:
The functions or properties, depends on the path, followed by a system to attain the present state.
Ex: Heat, Work
11. Extensive properties:
Properties depend upon the quantity/size of matter contained in the system.
Ex. mass, volume, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy
12. Intensive properties:
Properties not depend upon the quantity/size of matter contained in the system.
Ex: temperature, density, specific heat, and boiling point.
13. Thermodynamic process:
A thermodynamic process has occurred when the system changes from one state (initial) to another
state (final). The operation by which this change of state occurs is called a process.
14. Types of thermodynamic processes:
Isothermal process: The temperature of the system is kept constant during a process.
Adiabatic process: No heat can flow from the system to the surroundings or vice versa.
Isochoric process: The volume of the system is kept constant during a process.
Isobaric process: The pressure of the system is kept constant during a process.
Isentropic process: The entropy of the system is kept constant during a process.
CH 1302 Chemical Thermodynamics Principles, Unit-I, Compiled by R.Arul Kamalakumar
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= =
= . =
17. Energy
18. Heat
19. Pressure
The heat is the energy that flows from a body at higher temperature to one at lower
temperature due to the temperature difference.
It is a path function.
Unit of heat is expressed in Joules (J) or calories.
P=
=
= Pa (Pascal)
= . , = .
. = . =
21. Power
Sign
+
+
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( ) = +
= + ; = = and
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( ) =
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
System
Bike engine
Liq. cooling system in a plant
Boiler in a power plant
Electric fan
Car battery
Air compressor
Water pump
Pressure Cooker
Nature
Open
Closed
Open
Open
Closed
Open
Open
Closed
S No
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
System
Mix of air and water vapor
Sol. Of NH3 in water
Octane plus Heptane
Water + Steam
Ice + Water
Water + Oil
Water + Nitric acid
Thermometer surrounded
by High temperature
medium
Nature
Homogeneous
Homogeneous
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Closed
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b. Sound energy
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate the energy is
transferred through the substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other
forms of energy.
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Food is also a good example of stored chemical energy. This energy is released during digestion,
and the energy keeps us warm, maintains and repair bodies, and makes us able to move about.
Different foods store different amounts of energy. Energy in food is measured in kilocalories (or
Calories).
e. Electrical energy
A battery transfers stored chemical energy as charged particles called electrons, typically
moving through a wire. For example, electrical energy is transferred to the surroundings by the
lamp as light energy and thermal (heat) energy. Lightning is one good example of electrical
energy in nature, so powerful that it is not confined to a wire. Thunderclouds build up large
amounts of electrical energy. This is called static electricity. They are released during lightning
when the clouds strike against each other.
f. Gravitational Energy, Potential Energy
A rock on a mountain has stored energy because of
its position above the ground and the pull of gravity. It is
energy stored in an object's height. This is the energy it
would release if it fell. As the rock falls to the ground,
the gravitational potential energy is transferred as kinetic
energy. See the diagram. It is important to know the
difference between potential energy and gravitational
energy. Every object may have Potential energy but
Gravitational energy is only stored in the height of the
object. It is important to note that the heavier the object,
the more its potential energy.
Note: Remember the terms kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of
motion -- the amount of energy in an object that is moving. Potential energy is stationary, stored
energy. If you think of a ball sitting on the edge of a table, it has potential energy in the energy
possible if it falls off the table. Potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy if and
when the ball actually rolls off the table and is in motion. The total energy of the system is
defined as the sum of kinetic and potential energies
44. What is the difference between temperature and heat?
There is a fundamental difference between temperature and heat. Heat is the amount of
energy in a system. The SI units for heat are Joules. A Joule is a Newton times a meter. A
CH 1302 Chemical Thermodynamics Principles, Unit-I, Compiled by R.Arul Kamalakumar
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Newton is a kilogram-meter per second squared. Heat is transferred through radiation, conduction
and convection. The amount that molecules are vibrating, rotating or moving is a direct function
of the heat content. Energy is transported by conduction as molecules vibrate, rotate and/or
collide into each other. Heat is moved along similar to dominos knocking down their neighbors in
a chain reaction. An increase of electromagnetic radiation into a system causes the molecules to
vibrate, rotate and/or move faster. With convection, higher energy molecules are mixed with
lower energy molecules. When higher energy molecules are mixed with lower energy molecules
the molecular motion will come into equilibrium over time. The faster moving molecules will
slow down and the low moving molecules will speed up.
Temperature is the MEASURE of the AVERAGE molecular motions in a system and
simply has units of (degrees F, degrees C, or K). Notice that one primary difference between heat
and temperature is that heat has units of Joules and temperature has units of (degrees F, degrees
C, or K). Another primary difference is that energy can be transported without the temperature of
a substance changing (e.g. latent heat, ice water remains at the freezing point even as energy is
brought into the ice water to melt more ice). But, as a general statement (ignoring latent heat), as
heat energy increases, the temperature will increase. If molecules increase in vibration, rotation or
forward motion and pass that energy to neighboring molecules, the measured temperature of the
system will increase.
45. What is the difference between thermal energy and heat energy?
Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has related to its temperature, i.e., the energy
of moving or vibrating molecules. Atoms and molecules, the smallest particles of any substance,
are always in motion. The motion of thermal energy is usually not visible, but we can feel or see
its effects. We use thermal energy to cook our food and heat our homes, and we use it to generate
electricity.
Thermal energy is not the same as heat. Heat is energy transferred between substances or
systems due to a temperature difference between them. So it is correct to say that a system
contains thermal energy, but not that it "contains" heat, since heat means energy that is
transferred from one thing to another.
The amount of heat transferred by a substance depends on the speed and number of atoms or
molecules in motion. The faster the atoms or molecules move, the higher the temperature, and
the more atoms or molecules that are in motion, the greater the quantity of heat they transfer.
This could be explained by the following example. Consider a candle where the energy is stored
as light, thermal energy. When the candle is lit the stored thermal energy is converted to heat
energy, which could be felt when we move our finger near to it. Once we felt it is absorbed by our
body and converted to thermal energy.
46. Application of, heat and thermodynamics.
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degree Celsius. Specific heat, normally referred at constant pressure, and represented by the
symbol "CP", is generally defined as:
=
Where:
C P= specific heat in cal/g-C
q = heat added in calories,
m = mass in grams
T = rise in temperature of the material in C.
The value of CP for water is 1 cal/g-C.
48. Explain heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined as the heat required raising unit mass of substance
by one degree of temperature. This can be stated by the following equation:
=
where,
Q= Heat supplied to substance, m= Mass of the substance, c= Specific heat capacity, T=
Temperature rise.
There are two definitions for vapors and gases:
Cp = Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, i.e.
=
Cv = Specific heat capacity at constant volume, i.e.
=
It can be shown that for a an ideal or perfect gas,
= , where R is the gas constant.
and is always greater than unity. The approximate value of this ratio is 1.6 for monatomic gases
such as Ar and He. Diatomic gases (such as , , , )have a g ratio about 1.4 and triatomic
(such as , ) 1.3
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
What do you mean by Property? Give examples for intensive and extensive property.
What is quasi static process?
Give some examples for point function and path function.
Define thermodynamic equilibrium.
Define enthalpy and heat capacity.
Distinguish between the following:
i.
Closed system and open system
ii.
Heat and work
iii.
Point function and path function
iv.
Enthalpy and Internal energy.
Delineate the system, surrounding and boundary schematically using a piston cylinder
assembly.
The phase rule variable are Properties. The minimum number of degrees of
freedom for any system is.
A non flow reversible process occurs for which = 3 + , where P is in bar and V is in
m3. Calculate the work done when volume changes from 0.4 m3 to 1.2 m3.
A certain engine is supplied with 1.6 kg fuel per minute. The potential energy stored per kg of
fuel is equivalent to 24 000 kJ/kg. If 20% of the energy is supplied to the engine is converted
into mechanical energy. Calculate the rate at which the engine is developing power.
Write a note on ideal gas temperature scale.
A system undergoes a process 1-2 during which 50 kJ energy is added as heat while it does
30 kJ work. Then the system follows the process 2 3 during which 40 kJ is rejected as heat
while 50 kJ work is done on it. Then the system returns to the initial state by an adiabatic
process. Calculate the net work done by the system.
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13. An elevator with a mass of 3 tons rests at a level 15 m above the base of an elevator shaft. It
is raised to 125 m above the base of the shaft. The elevator falls freely to the base of the shaft
and strikes a spring and comes to rest. Calculate
i.
The potential energy of the elevator in its initial and final position.
ii.
Work required to raise the elevator.
iii.
The velocity and kinetic energy of the elevator before it strikes the spring
iv.
The potential energy of the compressed spring
v.
If the elevator and spring is considered as a system, calculate the energy of
the systems at different conditions mentioned above.
State your assumptions and explain the inference.
14. Explain reversible and irreversible processes in detail with example.