Bachelor Thesis Prestressed Concrete

Bachelor thesis
12| 2016
Comparison between design provisions of prestressed

concrete beams in the Egyptian code and Eurocode
Student:
Mostafa Abdelmoniem Harraz
Prfer:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Balthasar Novk
Betreuer:
M.Sc. Eng. Ahmed El-Shennawy
August 2016
Universitt Stuttgart
Institut fr Leichtbau Entwerfen und Konstruieren

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Dr. h.c. Werner Sobek
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Balthasar Novk
Jun.-Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dirk A. Schwede, PhD
Acknowledgement
All the praises and thanks be to God for all the great blessings and for giving me the ability to write and
finish the bachelor thesis.
I am thankful to Prof. Balthasar Novk for giving me such a great opportunity to do my bachelor thesis in
Stuttgart University and to everyone in the institute who were most friendly.
I would like to sincerely thank Eng. Ahmed El-Shennawy for all his guidance and patience through the
whole period. He offered me more than just technical help, he was always supporting on the human level.
Many thanks to my friends who were always there to support and encourage me.
My deepest gratitude for my family whom I owe every success I have or might achieve in the future.
Comparison between design provisions of prestressed concrete beams in the Egyptian code and Eurocode
Abstract
Prestressed concrete has been increasingly used in many different structures due to its superiority
compared to reinforced concrete. Design of prestressed concrete is relatively different from design of
normal reinforced concrete from many aspects such as the design of prestressed concrete is initially based
on serviceability limit states then ultimate limit states are entailed. In this thesis, the focus will be attained
on the design of prestressed concrete beams according to the Egyptian codes of practice:
Loads and actions on structures buildings (ECP 201)

Design and construction of concrete structures (ECP 203)
and the Eurocodes:
Eurocode - Basis of structural design (EC0)

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings and Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges (EC1)
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings and Part 2
Concrete bridges - Design and detailing rules (EC2) .
The design approach of the prestressed beams will be clarified and a comparison between the two codes
provisions will be held based on two main studies:
Parametric study of a post-tensioned simply supported beam with changing span length.
Contiguous beam bridge superstructure composed of precast pre-tensioned beams and cast in-situ
deck slab.
Differences and similarities between two codes are stated. Results obtained from the two studies are
discussed and reasons behind different returns are concluded.
The results include serviceability limit states such as deflection control and crack control as well as
ultimate limit states such as flexural limit state and shear limit state. In addition, the comparison is held
in terms of concrete dimensions, prestress and non-prestress steel, capacity and demand of sections and
prestress losses.
II
Table of Contents
List of tables ................................................................................................................................................ VI
List of figures .............................................................................................................................................. VII
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Literature review .................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1
The development of prestressed concrete .................................................................................. 3
2.2
Advantages and disadvantages of prestressing ........................................................................... 4
2.3
Methods of prestressing .............................................................................................................. 5

Pre-tensioning .......................................................................................................................... 5
Post-tensioning ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.4
Profile of prestressing tendon ...................................................................................................... 6
2.5
Previous studies............................................................................................................................ 7
2.6
Prestressed concrete materials properties .................................................................................. 7

Concrete ................................................................................................................................... 8
Steel .......................................................................................................................................... 8
Design approach...................................................................................................................................11
3.1
Analysis stages of prestressed concrete..................................................................................... 11
3.2
Magnels diagram ....................................................................................................................... 12
3.3
Ultimate moment of resistance ................................................................................................. 13
3.4
Effect of prestress force on deflection ....................................................................................... 14
Eurocode provisions .............................................................................................................................15

4.1
Partial factors of safety .............................................................................................................. 15
4.2
Material properties .................................................................................................................... 16
4.3
Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements .............................................. 16
4.4
Load combinations ..................................................................................................................... 16
4.5
Allowable stresses ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.6
Losses in prestress force............................................................................................................. 18

Short term losses .................................................................................................................... 18
4.6.1.1
Elastic shortening ....................................................................................................... 18
4.6.1.2
Curvature and wobble friction ................................................................................... 19
4.6.1.3
Anchorage draw-in ..................................................................................................... 20
Long term losses ..................................................................................................................... 20
4.7
4.6.2.1
Shrinkage .................................................................................................................... 21
4.6.2.2
Creep .......................................................................................................................... 21
4.6.2.3
Relaxation ................................................................................................................... 21
Ultimate limit states ................................................................................................................... 22

Flexural limit state .................................................................................................................. 22
Shear limit state ..................................................................................................................... 22
4.7.2.1
Shear design of the beam ........................................................................................... 22
III
4.7.2.2
4.8
Interface shear design ................................................................................................ 25
Serviceability limit states ............................................................................................................ 26

Crack control .......................................................................................................................... 26
Deflection control ................................................................................................................... 30
Egyptian code provisions .....................................................................................................................31

5.1
Partial factors of safety .............................................................................................................. 31
5.2
Material properties .................................................................................................................... 31
5.3
Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements .............................................. 32
5.4
Load combinations ..................................................................................................................... 32
5.5
Allowable stresses ...................................................................................................................... 32
5.6
Losses in pretstress force ........................................................................................................... 33

Short term losses .................................................................................................................... 33
5.6.1.1
Elastic shortening ....................................................................................................... 34
5.6.1.2
Friction ........................................................................................................................ 34
5.6.1.3
Anchorage draw-in ..................................................................................................... 34
Long term losses ..................................................................................................................... 34
5.7
5.6.2.1
Shrinkage .................................................................................................................... 34
5.6.2.2
Creep .......................................................................................................................... 34
5.6.2.3
Relaxation ................................................................................................................... 34
Ultimate limit states ................................................................................................................... 35

Flexural limit state .................................................................................................................. 35
Shear limit state ..................................................................................................................... 35
5.8
Serviceability limit states ............................................................................................................ 36

Crack control .......................................................................................................................... 36
Deflection control ................................................................................................................... 38
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................39
6.1
Parametric study ........................................................................................................................ 39
6.2
Case study introduction ............................................................................................................. 39

General data of the bridge ..................................................................................................... 39
Choosing the layout ................................................................................................................ 40
Compostie beam Section differences than normal prestressed section ............................... 40
Structural analysis method of the bridge ............................................................................... 41
6.3
Design according to Eurocodes .................................................................................................. 41

Loads and stresses on the bridge ........................................................................................... 41
6.3.1.1
The dead load acting on the bridge ............................................................................ 41
6.3.1.2
The live load acting on the bridge .............................................................................. 41
6.3.1.3
Shrinkage stress calculation ....................................................................................... 46
6.3.1.4
Thermal stress calculation .......................................................................................... 46
IV
6.3.1.5
Load combinations ..................................................................................................... 47
Magnels diagram ................................................................................................................... 48

Preliminary design .................................................................................................................. 51
Ultiamte limit states ............................................................................................................... 51
6.3.4.1
Flexural limit state ...................................................................................................... 51
6.3.4.2
Shear limit state.......................................................................................................... 51
Serviceability limit states ........................................................................................................ 51

6.3.5.1
Deflection control ....................................................................................................... 51
6.3.5.2
Crack control .............................................................................................................. 51
Prestress losses ...................................................................................................................... 51

6.4
Design according to Egyptian codes ........................................................................................... 52

Loads and stresses on the bridge ........................................................................................... 52
6.4.1.1
The dead load acting on the bridge ............................................................................ 52
6.4.1.2
The live load acting on the bridge .............................................................................. 52
6.4.1.3
Shrinkage stress calculation ....................................................................................... 52
6.4.1.4
Thermal stress calculation .......................................................................................... 52
Magnels diagram ................................................................................................................... 53

Preliminary design .................................................................................................................. 56
Ultimate limit states ............................................................................................................... 56
6.4.4.1
Flexural limit state ...................................................................................................... 56
6.4.4.2
Shear limit state.......................................................................................................... 56
Serviceability limit states ........................................................................................................ 56

6.4.5.1
Deflection control ....................................................................................................... 56
6.4.5.2
Crack control .............................................................................................................. 56
Prestress losses ...................................................................................................................... 56

7
Results ..................................................................................................................................................57
7.1
Parametric study ........................................................................................................................ 57
7.2
Case study................................................................................................................................... 65
8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................68
References ...................................................................................................................................................69
Appendices ..................................................................................................................................................70
List of tables
Table 1 Common shapes and diameters of prestressing steel...................................................................... 9
Table 2 Partial factors of safety for loads f for the ultimate limit state recommended for building
structures ....................................................................................................................................................15
Table 3 Recommended values of factors for buildings [17] ....................................................................17
Table 4 Coefficients of friction of post tensioned tendons and external unbonded tendons [3] ...........19
Table 5 Maximum bar diameter for crack control [3] .................................................................................28
Table 6 Maximum bar spacing for crack control [3]....................................................................................28
Table 7 Recommended values for crack width Wkmax [3] ............................................................................29
Table 8 Allowable concrete stresses according to ECP 203 ........................................................................32
Table 9 Allowable tensile stresses for prestressing steel according to ECP 203 .........................................33
Table 10 Maximum allowable crack width Wkmax according to ECP 203 [1] ...............................................36
Table 11 Number and width of notional lanes [4] ......................................................................................42
Table 12 Load model 1 : characteristic values [4] .......................................................................................42
Table 13 Assessment of groups of traffic loads [4] .....................................................................................44
Table 14 Recommended values of factors for road bridges [17] ............................................................44
Table 15 Temperature differentials for heating and cooling [4] .................................................................47
Table 16 Stresses at transfer stage according to Eurocode design .............................................................49
Table 17 Stresses at service stage according to Eurocode design ..............................................................50
Table 18 Limiting zone according to Eurocode design ................................................................................50
Table 19 Stresses at transfer stage according to Egyptian code design .....................................................54
Table 20 Stresses at service stage according to Egyptian code design .......................................................55
Table 21 Limiting zone according to Egyptian code design.........................................................................55
VI
List of figures
Figure 1 Effect of prestress on deflection and stress distribution of concrete section ................................ 5
Figure 2 Pretensioned beams and members ................................................................................................ 5
Figure 3 Post tensioned beam ....................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 Deflected pre-tensioned tendons ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 5 Tendon profile for a post tensioned continuous beam ................................................................... 7
Figure 6 Typical stress-strain diagram of reinforcing and prestressing steel ..............................................10
Figure 7 Flow chart for designing prestressed concrete beam [15]............................................................11
Figure 8 Design stress-strain curves for concrete and prestressing steel [3] .............................................16
Figure 9 Wobble effect [18] ........................................................................................................................19
Figure 10 Short term losses effect variation along the member length [18] ..............................................20
Figure 11 Truss model used to design shear reinforcement [3] .................................................................24
Figure 12 Development of shear forces during composite action [19].......................................................25
Figure 13 Design stress-strain curves for concrete and prestress steel [1] ................................................31
Figure 14 Stress-strain curve for prestressing steel according to ECP 203 [16] ..........................................32
Figure 15 Cross-section of a symmetric half of the bridge deck .................................................................40
Figure 16 Details of Load Model 1[4] ..........................................................................................................43
Figure 17 Area loads on grillage mesh ........................................................................................................45
Figure 18 Cross-section of the precast beam and composite beam ...........................................................46
Figure 19 Thermal stress variation cooling & heating .................................................................................47
Figure 20 Magnel's diagram for mid span according to Eurocode design ..................................................48
Figure 21 Magnel's diagram for fourth span according to Eurocode design ..............................................49
Figure 22 Limiting zone according to Eurocode design ...............................................................................50
Figure 23 Thermal stress variation cooling & heating .................................................................................53
Figure 24 Magnel's diagram for mid span according to Egyptian code design ...........................................53
Figure 25 Magnel's diagram for fourth span according to Egyptian code design .......................................54
Figure 26 Limiting zone according to Egyptian code design .......................................................................55
Figure 27 Comparison of beam depth between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .......................................57
Figure 28 Comparison of span to depth ratio between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ............................57
Figure 29 Comparison of jacking prestress force between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .......................58
Figure 30 Comparison of prestress steel area between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ...........................58
Figure 31 Comparison of eccentricity of prestress steel between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ............59
Figure 32 Comparison of ultimate moment between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ...............................59
Figure 33 Comparison of capacity moment between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ...............................60
Figure 34 Comparison of ratio between capacity and demand moments between Egyptian codes and
Eurocodes ....................................................................................................................................................60
Figure 35 Comparison of non-prestress steel between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ............................61
Figure 36 Comparison of ultimate shear demand between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .....................61
Figure 37 Comparison of ultimate shear capacity between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .....................62
VII
Figure 38 Comparison of short term losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ...............................62
Figure 39 Comparison of relaxation losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes ................................63
Figure 40 Comparison of shrinkage losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .................................63
Figure 41 Comparison of creep losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .......................................64
Figure 42 Comparison of long term losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .................................64
Figure 43 Comparison of total losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes .........................................65
Figure 44 Detailed cross-section at mid span according to ECP 203 design ...............................................67
Figure 45 Detailed cross-section at mid span according to EC2 design ......................................................67
VIII
Introduction
Introduction
Reinforced concrete has always been competitive with and even preferred to steel as a construction
material for buildings and short span bridges. This returns for the fact that its cost is likely to be lower in
most parts of the world as its labor cost and constitutive materials are much lower. Steel requires special
coating to protect it from corrosion, on the other hand, concrete provides more durability without such
coating provided that the concrete mix is well designed and controlled. But when it comes to long span
bridges reinforced concrete is considered unpractical for such structures as long spans require sizable
concrete sections to satisfy deflection limits, therefore self-weight reaches significant values resulting into
uneconomic design. As a result, steel has been used in construction of long span bridges such as cable
stayed bridges and suspended bridges. However, when prestressed concrete was invented, it has been
introduced as an alternative solution for long span bridges as the section of concrete needed to satisfy
deflection limits has considerably been reduced and the disadvantage of low tensile strength of concrete
was overcome. Even in buildings when loads are high or span is too long or architectural requirements
demand smaller depths, prestressed beams are used instead of normal reinforced concrete or steel
providing a more durable, economic and aesthetic solution.
The development of prestressed concrete has been rapid due to new available technologies and advanced
research. Although building codes offer design provisions for prestressed concrete, changes are made to
comply with new developments. Consequently, it is noticed that differences between building codes not
only exist because of different design approaches and safety factors but also to stay contemporary to new
advances.
So, it has become essential to perform studies to compare between building codes and stand on the
differences and the reasons behind such differences to ensure that building codes are consistent and
comprehend the required provisions allowing safe, accurate and economic design.
In this thesis, prestressed concrete beams basic design approach and principal code provisions are
covered. The objective is to compare between the Egyptian code of practice and Eurocodes and discover
the differences between them in order to suggest further guided studies and experiments to reach more
optimum design.
Since, prestressed concrete was invented in the end of nineteenth century, it has been through many
stages of development and enhancement. In the second chapter of the thesis (Literature review), the
most important points through history which lead to the nowadays used prestressed concrete are
specified. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of prestressed concrete versus reinforced
concrete and even steel are discussed from both structural and architectural point of view. The materials
properties and qualities required for prestressed concrete construction and methods used to attain them
are stated, too.
In the third chapter (Design approach), prestressed concrete beam analysis is emphasized and methods
of design are indicated. This includes the method of choosing the prestressing force and eccentricity from
the centroid. Also, ultimate moment resistance calculation method is indicated. Deflection due to
prestress force analogy is pointed out.
The provisions provided by both Egyptian code ECP-203[1] and Eurocode EN 1992-2[3] concerning
prestressed concrete beam design are thoroughly discussed in chapters 4 and 5. Also, a comparison
between the two codes provisions is clarified. This includes partial factors of safety, materials properties,
load combinations, allowable stresses, prestress losses, serviceability limit states and ultimate limit states.
In chapter 6 (Methodology), the codes provisions and design approach are used to perform two studies:
Introduction
The first is a parametric study that includes a post-tentioned simply supported beam with changing
span length. Reasonable loads are assumed and design is held once according to ECP-203 and once
according to EN 1992-2.
The second is a case study that includes the design of contiguous beam bridge superstructure
composed of precast pre-tensioned beams and cast in-situ deck slab. The composite section effect is
taken into consideration and differences are indicated. Moreover, the traffic loads are calculated as
per ECP-201[2] and EN 1991-2[4]. Detailed calculations of design are included in the appendices.
The results obtained from both case studies are discussed in chapter 7 (Results). A comparison is held
between results from each code to show up the differences and similarities between the two codes. The
reasons behind such differences and similarities are proposed. The comparison points include but are not
limited to:
dimensions of concrete sections
prestressing and non-prestressing steel area
ultimate demand and capacity moment of section
shear reinforcement
losses percentages
Chapter 8 (Conclusion) includes summing up for the results and further recommendations are suggested
for future investigations.
Literature review
Literature review
Since the introduction of reinforced concrete as a widely used major construction material in the
nineteenth century, its main drawback has always been the clearly low tensile strength of concrete.
Despite the high compressive strength of concrete, its low tensile strength has imposed a lot of limitations
on the use of normal reinforced concrete in large span constructions where the dead load value becomes
too high and the part of concrete under tensile stress is neglected in calculating the strength resulting into
uneconomic and inefficient design. Low span to depth ratios are necessary to minimize the deflection and
cracks in the reinforced concrete members; to ensure the protection of reinforcement steel. As a result,
to high dead loads, the seismic forces impose more detrimental effect to the structure. Consequently, the
need for a new technique to use in the concrete construction rose leading to the introduction of the
prestressing technique.
Prestressing as a structural concept means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure
for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.[5]
2.1
The development of prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete was an idea of structural designers since P.H. Jackson of the United States patented
his idea in 1888 as a method of prestressed construction in concrete pavement.[6]
But the first structural engineer to address the idea of prestressed concrete as a building material is
Eugene Freyssinet. This was the first time that an engineer had based the idea of prestressing on a clear
understanding of the properties of concrete and steel. He performed tests to confirm his ideas and
concluded that the reason behind prestressing failure before, was using low quality and strength concrete
in addition to low applied prestress force on the steel. This means that the amount of creep was high due
to low strength concrete leading the creep strains to increase reducing the prestress force. He discovered
the creep and therefore, pointed out the need for high strength steel and high quality concrete.[7]
In the 1920s, he realized the potentials of his discoveries and started to patent his inventions. He
continued to perform tests and experiments founding the basic parameters of prestressed concrete to
make it possible to use it in structural design and construction and many engineering applications.
Although Eugene Freyssinet was the pioneer of the idea, Gustave Magnel played the role of putting the
corner stone for the science and teaching of prestressed concrete. His book Prestressed Concrete [8] has
left its immense mark on the structural engineers of his time.
Magnel, capable of offering comprehensible explanations and delivering his concepts and experience in
the most simple and understandable way for both reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete quickly
gained credibility in the field. In 1948, attaining international reputation, American engineers in
Philadelphia turned to Gustave Magnel to design the first major public structure out of prestressed
concrete, the Walnut Lane Bridge. The bridge design and construction was unique and proved the
advantages of prestressed concrete.
During the years after World War II, Finsterwalder developed the free-cantilever bridge construction
method in addition to the idea of the stress ribbon bridge. The major advantage of free-cantilever
technique was that there was no need for scaffolding during the whole construction which leads to a
significant reduction in the cost of the construction of the bridge. In addition, it is worth mentioning that
Finsterwalder was a genius builder; instead of adjusting his building material to his building technique, he
adjusted his building techniques to widen the range of the available building materials.
Back in time of Freyssinet, he regarded reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete as two entirely
different materials. He stated that the structure is either fully prestressed or not prestressed at all
Literature review
mentioning that the state between them did not offer more advantages that they did and was of no
interest.
However, in 1939, H. von. Emperger proposed that, in ordinary reinforced concrete, a small number of
prestressed high strength steel wires should be added in addition to normal tension reinforcement. His
aim was to increase the allowable service load by reducing the effective stress in the reinforcement. He
stated that this addition will improve the crack control, as well.
While H. Von Emperger was the one to introduce the idea of partial prestressed concrete, Paul W. Abeles
was the one to put the concept of partial prestressing into practice.
Today, most prestressed and post-tensioned concrete in structures utilizes Abeles partial prestressing by
allowing tensile stress to take place but to be limited to ensure prevention of cracking which later was
approved by Freyssinet himself. However, it is no longer called (Partial prestressing); mainly because
almost all prestressed concrete has mild reinforcement.
The design approaches used to design prestressed concrete were the elastic design method, which was
used by the first designers like Eugene Freyssinet and Gustave Magnel, and the ultimate strength design
method which was adopted later. However, in 1963 T.Y. Lin proposed a third design approach, which he
titled the Load Balancing Method for design and analysis of prestressed concrete structures [9]. One of
the drawbacks that Load balancing Method overcame was post-tensioned design of indeterminate
structures which was a very rigorous task. In fact, load balancing method represented a leap in the early
1960s allowing engineers to quickly and safely design prestressed concrete members. Load balancing
method is still used by most engineers till today.
Recent research, experiments and technological advancements have offered deeper knowledge
concerning the behaviour of prestressed concrete and provided designers with more accurate analysis
methodologies. In the next few years prestressed concrete is most likely expected to develop due to new
material discoveries and improvement. For instance, new concepts that will undoubtedly be integrated
into prestressed concrete as synthetic composites including fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs).
2.2
Advantages and disadvantages of prestressing
The main idea of prestressing concrete is to use high strength steel which is tensioned to react against the
concrete structure applying extra tension stress to the reinforcement and applying compressive stress to
the concrete usually resulting in most cases into total compressive stress on the concrete section.
Therefore, overcoming the disadvantage of low tensile strength of concrete, maximum utilization of
provided section of the member, minimizing deflections and cracks, increasing the durability, allowing
higher span to depth ratios and reducing the dead loads in the structure to avoid high detrimental effect
of seismic forces. Figure 1 illustrates the effect of prestress on deflection and stress distribution of
concrete section. However, against all these advantages, must come some disadvantages. The fact that
most, if not all, of the section is under compressive stress means that any related problems related to
long-term creep movements will increase. As per construction requirements, quality control in material
production and placing tendons are deemed essential to ensure appropriately safe and durable structures
construction which can be achieved using high-tech equipment. Not only has prestressed concrete
provided better options from the structural point of view, but also allowed the architects to create
architectural forms that could not be done in steel structures with competing spans.
Literature review
Figure 1 Effect of prestress on deflection and stress distribution of concrete section
2.3
Methods of prestressing
There are two main commonly used methods of prestressing:

Pre-tensioning
This method is implemented by applying tension forces to the wires, strands or tendons which are fixed
by large end anchorages then the concrete is cast and left to harden. Once the concrete has hardened
sufficiently, the end anchorages are released transferring the tension force in the tendons as compressive
force on the surrounding concrete through the bond between the tendon and the concrete. The
protruding ends of the tendons are then cut to allow to the final shape of the structure. In this method, it
is preferred that a large number of wires and strands is used in order to increase the contact surface area
which in return results into stronger bond allowing more smooth transfer of stress to the surrounding
concrete. Figure 2 show pre-tensioning beams and other examples.
Pre-tensioning method is considered more suitable to be performed in factories rather than in situ. This
allows for mass production of several elements using the same set of tendons and satisfies the demand
of large anchorages required to pre-tension large number of wires and tendons. In addition,
pre-tensioning method grants high quality control. However, pre-tensioning can be used in-situ in cable
stayed and suspension bridges construction. In the former, it is used in the stays to decrease deflections
and in the latter the cables are pre-tensioned to ensure that the grout in the duct is under compression
all the time to guarantee crack free grout.[10]
Figure 2 Pretensioned beams and members
Literature review
Post-tensioning
This method is mostly implemented in-situ by jacking the steel tendons against an already-cast concrete
member. Ducts are placed before casting concrete to ensure accurate positioning of tendons inside them.
The jacking force is transferred to the concrete through special built-in end anchorages creating complex
concentrated stress distribution which requires special confining reinforcement to avoid concrete splitting
and appropriate stress transfer along the tendon. Figure 3 shows a post-tensioned beam.
Figure 3 Post tensioned beam
The post-tensioned tendons can be either bonded or unbonded. In the first case the duct is grouted to
protect tendons from corrosion and provide bond. In the second case the tendon is left to move freely
relative to the concrete and is protected from corrosion using a coat of grease.
The main advantage of post-tensioning over pre-tensioning is that it allows for curved and complex
tendon profiles through different shapes of ducts. On the other hand, pre-tensioning allows for straight
or sharp changes only in the tendon profile as shown in Figure 4. Another main advantage is that posttensioning allows tensioning the tendons over stages when applying the loads at well-defined stages.
Figure 4 Deflected pre-tensioned tendons
The primary advantage of pre-tensioning is the high quality control and the mass production which
reduces the cost and time of construction.
2.4
Profile of prestressing tendon
The position of the tendons in the concrete section is determined to counteract the expected internal
forces generated in the structure (the prestressing force acts at the position of the tendon therefore,
depending on the eccentricity of the tendon from the centroid a counteracting moment is generated to
neutralize the bending moment due to external loads).
Usually, the tendon profile follows the bending moment diagram of the structure. For a simple beam, the
tendon is close to the centroid at the supports (minimum bending moment) and the tendon is farthest
from the centroid at the mid span (maximum bending moment). On the other hand, for a cantilever the
tendon is close to the centroid at the free end (minimum bending moment) and the tendon is farthest
from the centroid at the fixed end (maximum bending moment). The same applies for the continuous
beam, the tendon is farthest from the centroid at the mid span and at the support (maximum positive and
negative bending moments, respectively) and is close to the centroid points of zero moment near to the
support. Figure 5 shows the tendon profile for a post tensioned continuous beam.
Literature review
Figure 5 Tendon profile for a post tensioned continuous beam
2.5
Previous studies
Comparison between building design codes has always been an interesting subject to researchers. Many
studies have been performed to compare between the design codes specially the American, European
and Japanese codes. Hawileh et al. performed a full comparison of the ACI 318 and EC2 design codes
considering flexural calculations only through a parametric analysis. The parameters and procedures of
EC2 were reformatted and defined in terms of those of ACI-318 to allow comparison. The authors
concluded that the EC2 provisions provide a higher safety factor than those for ACI-318. However, the
difference is negligible for live/dead load ratios higher than 4. However, ACI-318 limitations ensure higher
ductility in the steel reinforcement than those of EC2.[11]
Bakhoum et el. compared building design codes from USA (ASCE 7-10, ACI 318-14), Europe (EN 19911:1996 Eurocode 1 (EC1), EN 1992-2:2001 Eurocode 2 (EC2)) and Egypt (ECP 201-2011, ECP 203-2007)
considering actions and used design rules for different structural elements including beams and columns.
It was shown that comparing variable actions and ultimate resistance of sections separately is useful;
however, including the combined effect of both actions and resistances leads to more representative
comparison. It was concluded that using provisions according to a certain design code if it is missing from
the local design code is not only illegal but could lead to unsafe or uneconomic designs. Comparing the
ultimate load combination of dead and live loads, it was found that ACI 318-14 and Egyptian codes yield
the largest values. However, the observed difference decreases as the permanent action to variable action
ratio increases. The Egyptian standards generally yield the largest section dimensions with the heaviest
values of steel reinforcement. ECP 203-2007 is the only code that uses the same formulas for the
equivalent concrete stress block regardless of the compressive strength of concrete value. Meanwhile,
ACI 318-14 yields the largest compression component for a singly reinforced concrete section among the
studied codes.[12]
El-Shennawy et al. compared the ECP 203-2007 with the equivalent Euro codes through a complete design
of a four-storey residential reinforced concrete building. The two designs were evaluated based upon the
environmental impact and economical aspects. Structural elements of the ECP-building have bigger
dimensions and heavier reinforcement than the EC-building. Therefore, the environmental parameters
(embodied energy and CO2 emissions) of the ECP-building are greater that the EC-building.[13]
2.6
Prestressed concrete materials properties
Eugene Freyssinet stated the need for higher strength materials other than traditional materials used in
reinforced concrete due to higher stresses generated in prestressed concrete. Since then, concrete of
higher compressive strength is considered necessary in the implementation of prestressed concrete
structures. However, methods for attaining higher compressive strength should not lead to increase in
Literature review
the creep effect which causes high losses in the prestress force applied on the prestress steel. Therefore,
high quality control must be adapted in order to achieve the desired concrete properties. In addition to
higher compressive strength concrete, higher tensile strength steel is used as prestressing steel. It has to
be treated through several processes to attain the desired properties like higher ductility and lower
relaxation. These attributes allow applying high prestress force to the prestress steel and contribute to
reduce the prestress force losses.
Concrete
Concrete of higher compressive strength and relatively higher tensile strength is obtained by:
A minimum cement content of 300 to 360 kg/m3 is mainly to cater to the durability requirements
The water content should be as low as possible with due regard to adequate workability.[14]
The typical strength of concrete ranges considerably from 40 to 100 N/mm2 based on the quality control
and design requirements.
While in reinforced concrete it is important to know the compressive strength only, since the contribution
of tensile strength to bending resistance is ignored, in prestressed concrete it is important to know both
of them as the allowable stresses for prestressed concrete sections depend on both compressive and
tensile concrete strength.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is important, not only in estimating deflections of prestressed
concrete members but also because some of the losses of prestressing force are influenced by it. Values
of the elasticity modulus may be used for determining the short-term deflections of prestressed concrete
members and the initial losses of prestressing force due to elastic shortening. For long-term deflections,
the time-dependent effects of creep and shrinkage should be taken into account.
Low shrinkage, minimum creep characteristics and a high value of Youngs modulus are generally deemed
necessary for concrete used for concrete used for prestressed members. To safeguard against excessive
shrinkage:
It is preferred that the cement content in the mix should not exceed certain values.
Aggregate of rock types having high moduli of elasticity are more effective in restraining the
contraction of the cement paste and their use reduces the shrinkage of concrete.
The commonly used aggregates, in increasing order of effectiveness in restraining shrinkage, are sandstone, basalt, granite, quartz and limestone.
In some cases, such as long span structures where dead load forms the major portion of the total design
load or when the transportation and erection impose practical restrictions on the self-weight of the
precast elements, light weight concrete is used to reduce the selfweight of the structure, thus more
optimum design is obtained.
Steel
The steel in pre-stressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes:
High strength
Adequate ductility
Bendability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage
High bond, required for pre-tensioned members
Low relaxation to reduce losses
Minimum corrosion.
Literature review
High tensile steel which is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional material used for prestressed concrete members generally consists of wires, bars, or strands. The higher tensile strength is
generally achieved by marginally increasing the carbon content in steel in comparison with mild steel.
Prestressing steel forms as shown in Table 1:
Wires: A pre-stressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5,
3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows:
Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.
Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.
Strands: A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a pre-stressing strand. The different
types of strands are as follows:
Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.
Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central
wire is larger than the other wires.
Tendons: A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a pre-stressing tendon. The tendons
are used in post-tensioned members.
Cables: A group of tendons form a pre-stressing cable. The cables are used in bridges.
Bars: A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that
of a wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm.
Table 1 Common shapes and diameters of prestressing steel
Kind
Diameter (mm)
Plain round wire
2.0-9.0
Indented wire
5.0-7.0
Sumi-Twist
7.3-13.0
Two-ply wire
2.9*2
Seven-wire strand
6.2-15.2
Nineteen wire strand
17.8-21.8
Round bar
9.2-32.0
Threaded bar
23.0-32.0
Shape
The coefficient of thermal expansion may be assumed: 10 x 10-6/C.

Modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel is taken as 200103 N/mm2 for all types of steel.
Literature review
The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the treatment processes:
The high-carbon steel ingots are hot-rolled into rods and cold-drawn through a series of dies to
reduce the diameter and increase the tensile strength. It re-aligns the crystals and increases the
strength, however, decreases the durability of the wires. This is known as the as-drawn condition,
and the steel is supplied in mill coils, suitable for pre-tensioning.
However, as-drawn wires will not pay out straight from the coils, but they can be pre-straightened
to make them suitable for threading through post-tensioning ducts by heating them for a short time
or heating them while subjected to high tension. Both these processes also increase the elastic range
of the wires over the as-drawn condition. The former type of wire is known as stress-relieved wire,
and the latter as stabilized wire. Stress-relieved wire is also termed normal-relaxation wire, while
stabilized wire is also known as low-relaxation wire, since its relaxation properties are much better
than for either as-drawn or stress-relieved wire.
The hard drawn steel wires which are indented or crimped are preferred for pre-tensioned elements
because of their superior bond characteristics.[14]
Recently, the Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have been proposed for use as prestressing
tendons in concrete structures. The promise of FRP materials lies in their high-strength, lightweight,
noncorrosive, nonconducting, and nonmagnetic properties. In addition, FRP manufacturing, using various
cross-sectional shapes and material combinations, offers unique opportunities for the development of
shapes and forms that would be difficult or impossible with conventional steel material.
In addition to pre-stressing steel, conventional non-pre-stressed reinforcement is used for flexural

capacity (optional), shear capacity, temperature and shrinkage requirements. Figure 6 shows the
difference between the stress-strain curves of both reinforcing and prestressing steel.
Figure 6 Typical stress-strain diagram of reinforcing and prestressing steel
10
Design approach
Design approach
For most prestressed concrete structures the design process entails initially considering the serviceability
limit state of cracking, and then checking the ultimate strength limit state. Reinforced concrete design, by
contrast, is usually based on the ultimate strength limit state, with later checks on the serviceability limit
states.
Figure 7 indicates a flow chart that applies for the design according to both codes.
Figure 7 Flow chart for designing prestressed concrete beam [15]
3.1
Analysis stages of prestressed concrete
The analysis of prestressed concrete must be done at two different stages:
Transfer stage
Service stage
The transfer stage applies for the member in its early stage where the concrete has not attained its full
strength yet so the characteristic concrete strength must be reduced to comply with the real strength of
concrete at this stage. The prestress force decreases from the jacking value to transfer value due to
many factors, long term and short term, at this stage the influence of the short term factors only is
11
Design approach
considered. The loads which should be considered are only the loads that are expected to be applied at
this stage. In usual cases, only the own weight and the prestress force are considered.
The service stage applies for the member after the concrete has attained its full strength so the
characteristic concrete strength is used without any reductions. Nevertheless, the prestress force is
reduced from the transfer value to service value due to long term losses. At this stage all the loads
(dead load, imposed load, wind, snow and temperature) that are expected to act on the member should
be applied according to relevant combinations of actions.
3.2
Magnels diagram
As stated before, the design of prestressed concrete is initially based on the serviceability limit states. So,
the prestressing force and eccentricity must not cause stresses to exceed the maximum allowable stresses
as per code requirements at the top and bottom fibers of the concrete section. There are 4 values for the
maximum allowable stresses:
Two values for the transfer stage:

allowable tensile stress
allowable compressive stress
Two values for the service stage:

allowable compressive stress
allowable tensile stress
The tensile stress limits aim to minimize the flexural cracking to an acceptable degree and the compressive
stress limits are used to ensure that excessive compression does not cause longitudinal and micro
cracking. These values differ according to how much cracking is permitted which in turn depends on the
severity of the ambient environment and the nature of loading.
The following inequalities show that the normal stress due to prestress force (first term of the inequalities)
and the normal stress due to external loads (second term of the inequalities) should not exceed the
maximum allowable stress.

)
+

(
) +

( +
)

(
) +

where:
is the prestress force applied at jacking
is the cross-sectional area of concrete
is the eccentricity of the prestress steel (force) from the neutral axis of the section
is the section modulus at top fibers
12
Design approach
where:
is the moment of inertia of the section
is the distance between the centroid and the top fibers
is the section modulus at bottom fibers

=
where:
is the moment of inertia of the section

is the distance between the centroid and the bottom fibers
is the percentage of remaining prestress force after short term losses, it should be initially
assumed about 10% then verified once actual losses are calculated
=
is the percentage of remaining prestress force after short and long term losses, it should be
initially assumed about 25% then verified once actual losses are calculated
=
is a load factor for prestress taken when prestress force is unfavourable

= 1.05
is a load factor for prestress taken when prestress force is favourable

= 0.95
is the moment due to self-weight of the prestressed concrete member

is the moment due to all loads applied on the prestressed concrete member
Based on these 4 inequalities, Magnels diagram can be established between the eccentricity and the
inverse of the jacking force to determine the zone that satisfies the 4 conditions. In case there is no zone
that satisfies the 4 inequalities appears, the section dimensions must increase.
Once the prestress force and eccentricity are chosen based on the allowable stresses, the losses in the
prestress force should be determined then serviceability limit states (Cracking and deflection) and
ultimate limit states (flexural and shear) must be satisfied according to code provisions.
3.3
Ultimate moment of resistance
In order to satisfy the ultimate limit states the ultimate moment of resistance of the section must be
calculated and compared to the ultimate moment demand. In addition to prestressing steel,
non-prestress reinforcement must be added according to building codes, so it is more economic to include
it in the calculation of resistance moment. The method used to determine the ultimate moment of
resistance is the compatibility of strain method, where full bond between steel and concrete is assumed
hence acting as one material once concrete has hardened. So, any induced strain in concrete at the level
of the steel is equal to the change in strain of steel at the same level.
13
Design approach
The strain in concrete is assumed to be ultimate strain .

Then, the total strain in prestress steel is .
= + +
where:
is the strain in prestress steel due to jacking

=
is the decompression strain in prestress steel
where:
=
is the depth of the prestress steel

is the neutral axis position
The strain non-prestress steel is =
where:
is the depth of the non-prestress steel
To apply the compatibility of strain method, the following steps are used:
Neutral axis is assumed.

Total strain and stress in the prestressing steel are calculated.
Strain and stress in non-prestress steel are calculated.
Tension force is equal to the sum of tension forces both reinforcement.
Compressive force in concrete is calculated.
If tension force equals compressive force, moment is calculated if not neutral axis is changed and
another iteration is done.
In case the ultimate moment of resistance is smaller than the ultimate moment, larger force and
eccentricity can be chosen according to Magnels diagram bearing in mind that serviceability limit states
should be satisfied, as well. If it is still not safe, the section dimensions must increase. This case is unlikely
to happen; as in most cases once the serviceability limit states are satisfied, ultimate limit states are often
found satisfied.
3.4
Effect of prestress force on deflection
A simplified method to calculate the deflections due to prestressing force allowing for creep effect is
based on the equivalent load analysis. For uncracked sections, the prestressing force can be replaced by
concentrated moments and equivalent load acting upwards and then the deflections can be calculated
according to elastic deformation theory. However, the modulus of elasticity of concrete must be
adjusted by the creep coefficient in order to take the creep effect into consideration.[16]
14
Eurocode provisions
Eurocode provisions
In this section, provisions according to EC2 concerning design of prestressed beams are discussed and are
later used in the design of sections in the two studies.
4.1
Partial factors of safety
According to EC0, to determine the design values for the applied loads or the strength of materials, they
must be adjusted using partial factors of safety. These factors account for the possible variations such as
constructional tolerances, design assumptions, inaccuracy of calculation, inadequate use of the structure
and unforeseen stress redistribution.
Design action = Characteristic action( ) partial factor of safety( )
Partial factors of safety for loads f for the ultimate limit state recommended for building structures are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Partial factors of safety for loads f for the ultimate limit state recommended for building structures
Dead
Imposed
Unfav.
Fav.
Unfav.
Fav.
Dead and imposed (and earth and

water pressure)
1.35
1.00
1.5
0.00
Dead and wind (and earth and water

pressure)
1.35
1.00
Dead and wind and imposed (and

earth and water pressure)
1.35
1.00
1.35
0.00
Those for the serviceability limit state are generally taken as 1.00 for both dead and imposed loads.
Design strength =
Characteristic strength( )
partial factor of safety( )
In EC2, the values of partial factors of safety for materials m are to be taken as 1.5 and 1.15 for concrete
and steel, respectively.
The values of m at the serviceability limit state are generally taken as 1.0 for both materials.
The value of the partial factor of safety for prestress force, p, is 1.0 for most situations, although in some
limit state calculations it is taken as the more unfavourable of 0.9 or 1.2, while for some serviceability
limit state calculations the more unfavourable of 0.95 or 1.05.
15
Eurocode provisions
4.2
Material properties
Figure 8 shows the design stress-strain curve idealized for design purposes in short term cases for concrete
and the design stress-strain curve for prestressing steel:
Figure 8 Design stress-strain curves for concrete and prestressing steel [3]
The factor is to consider the long term effects on the compressive strength and to relate the cylinder
strength fck with the flexural strength of an actual member. is usually taken as 0.85.
The standard compressive strength test is that of a 350 mm150 mm diameter cylinder after 28 days. The
cylinder strength fck of a given mix is between 70 and 90% of the cube strength. Ultimate strain of concrete
cu is determined according to table 3.1 in EC2.
The 0.1 % proof stress fp0.1k and the specified value of the tensile strength fpk are defined as the
characteristic value of the 0.1 % proof load and the characteristic maximum load in axial tension
respectively, divided by the nominal cross sectional area
4.3
Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements
Classes of exposure are defined according to clause 4.2 table 4.1. Minimum cover requirements are
determined according to clause 4.4.1 where the minimum cover chosen is the maximum of minimum
cover due to bond requirement and durability requirement. In addition, an allowance for tolerance has to
be given due to imperfect construction conditions. Table 4.3N contains recommended structural
classification which is used in table 4.5N to determine values of minimum cover, cmindur, requirements with
regard to durability for prestressing steel. The spacing between bar diameters is determined according to
clause 8.2 while for prestressed tendons and ducts clause 8.10.1.2 is used.
4.4
Load combinations
As stated in EC0, in order to get the design values for actions, it is required to multiply the characteristic
value not only by the partial factor of safety f but also the factor i which accounts for the combination
of actions and the probability of their existence simultaneously. Table 3 shows the values of i for
different load combinations
16
Eurocode provisions
Table 3 Recommended values of factors for buildings [17]
Combination o used for:

The ultimate limit state.
Irreversible serviceability limit states such as irreversible cracking due to temporary but
excessive overloading of the structure.
Frequent 1 (sustained and variable highly probable to be achieved):

Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions.
Reversible limit states such as the serviceability limit states or cracking and deflection where the
actions causing these effects are of a short transitory nature.
Quasi-permanent 2 (sustained load):

Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions.
Serviceability limit states attributable to the long term effects of creep where the actions causing
these effects are of long-tem.
The combination of actions for serviceability limit states are as following:
The characteristic combination considers irreversible limit states including damage to structural and
non-structural elements
Fd = j1 Gk,j + P + Q k.1 + i>1 0.i Q k.i
The frequent combination considers reversible limit states including comfort of occupants and
function of machinery
Fd = j1 Gk,j + P + 1.1 Q k.1 + i>1 2.i Q k.i
The quasi-permanent combination considers long-term effects including creep and deflections
Fd = j1 Gk,j + P + i1 2.i Q k.i
For the combination of actions for ultimate limit states:

Fd = j1 G,j Gk,j + p P + Q.1 Q k.1 + i>1 Q,i 0.i Q k.i
17
Eurocode provisions
4.5
Allowable stresses
As mentioned before in part 3.2 of the thesis, stresses in prestressed concrete must be limited to certain
allowable stress values.
In clause 5.10.2, it is indicated that the allowable compressive stress in prestressed concrete can be 0.6fck
under the characteristic load combination, or 0.45fck under the quasi-permanent loads. The latter
requirement is made in order to limit the creep deformations to those predicted by other parts of EC2.
The allowable tensile stresses in the various grades of concrete are used at service stage. However, at
transfer it is recommended to be limited to 1 MPa.[15]
At transfer, the concrete grade achieved at that time should be used. The allowable stresses apply to
members with both bonded and unbonded tendons.
In addition to stress limits in concrete, the stress in the prestressed tendons should not exceed the
minimum value of 0.8fpk and 0.9fp0.1k at jacking and should not exceed 0.75 fpk, after all losses have been
considered. However, this is rarely likely to be critical.
4.6
Losses in prestress force
It was mentioned in chapter 3 that the values of the prestress force at the stages of transfer and
service differ from that at jacking due to prestress losses.
Once the jacking force is applied, its value reduces immediately due to elastic contraction of concrete,
friction between the duct and the cable as well as the slipping of the anchor. These are called short term
losses and can be estimated as 10% of the jacking force. In addition, over a period of time the prestress
force reduces gradually due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of steel. These are called
long term losses and can be estimated as 15% of the jacking force meaning that only about 75% of the
jacking force remains.
The building codes specify certain equations and methods to determine the values of some of these losses
however it is important to regard these values as estimations only because the accurate assessment of
losses is impossible due to uncertainties in the factors involved.
Short term losses
According to clauses 5.10.4 and 5.10.5, there are mainly 3 types of short term losses:
Elastic shortening.
Curvature and wobble friction.
Anchorage draw-in.
In case of pre-tensioned members: only elastic shortening loss takes place.

In case of post-tensioned members: draw-in, friction and wobble affect the prestress force. Elastic
shortening loss may take place.
4.6.1.1 Elastic shortening
In the prestressed element the change in the strain of the tendons equals the strain in the concrete at the
same level of the tendons cg. Therefore, losses in the stress of tendons occur.
()
]
= [
()
where:
c(t)
is the variation of stress at the centre of gravity of the tendons applied at time t
18
Eurocode provisions
is a coefficient equal to (n -1)/2n where n is the number of identical tendons successively

prestressed. As an approximation this may be taken as
1 for the variations of permanent actions applied after prestressing
*The value c will vary along the member due to varying values of moment and eccentricity, so in this
case an average value for c should be assumed.
In post-tensioned members where a single tendon is used or all the tendons are tensioned simultaneously,
there is no elastic shortening loss as the jacking will proceed till the required prestress force Is reached.
However, in most cases due to economic and practical demands the tendons are tensioned sequentially,
as a result when a subsequent tendon is tensioned all the previously anchored tendons undergo elastic
shortening.
Any additional bending moment after the transfer state will not affect the prestress force but add extra
stress on both concrete and steel due to composite action between the two materials.
4.6.1.2 Curvature and wobble friction
Takes place only in the case of post-tensioned members. There are two mechanisms of friction:
The first due to curvature so that the required profile is attained. This depends on the material of the
duct and the type of wire, which is represented by coefficient of friction . Table 4 shows the values
for factor .
Table 4 Coefficients of friction of post tensioned tendons and external unbonded tendons [3]
The second is called wobble friction and it occurs due to the deviation of the actual centerlines of the
tendons and the ducts as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Wobble effect [18]
It is treated as an additional angular friction. So that the expression for the force in a tendon due to both
angular friction and wobble is given by:
() = (1 (+) )
where k is a profile coefficient with units of rad/m. The value of k depends on the type of duct used, the
roughness of its surface form inside and how securely it is held in position during concreting.
Values of k should be taken from technical literature relating to the particular duct being used and are
generally in the range 0.0050.01 rad/m. For greased strands wrapped in plastic sleeves, as used in slabs,
k may be taken as 0.06 rad/m.
In some cases, where the friction losses are large, it may be required to tension the tendon from both
sides to achieve an acceptable value of prestress force at the center. What would seem a more practical
and economic solution is to tension half of the tendons from one side and the other half from the other
19
Eurocode provisions
side to result in a more even distribution of prestress force along the member. There are some other
sources of friction like anchorage but their values are negligible.
4.6.1.3 Anchorage draw-in
In post-tensioned systems, a prestressing tendon may undergo a small contraction during the process of
transferring the tensioning force from the jack to the anchorage. The contraction in the length of the
tendon takes place as a result of slip between the tendon and the wedges. A typical value would be 5 mm.
The exact amount of this contraction depends on the type of anchorage used and is usually specified by
the manufacturer. The loss due to draw-in can be modelled after determining the loss due to friction as
illustrated in Figure 10. The figure shows the change in prestress force along the member length. During
stressing friction resists the cable from stretching but during the draw-in friction prevents the cable from
contracting. The force loss from A to B must be the same as force gain from D to B as the friction and
wobble combination is the same. The loss per unit length is equal to. =
=
. The contraction of unit length dx is equal to =
= 0
. The stress loss is equal to
. Then the anchorage slip is equal to

. The length over which the loss decreases =
Figure 10 Short term losses effect variation along the member length [18]
Long term losses

According to clause 5.10.6, there are mainly 3 types of long term losses:
Shrinkage
Creep
Relaxation
The long-term losses due to concrete shrinkage and creep, and to steel relaxation, can be determined
separately and then summed. Alternatively, the following expression is given in EC2 for the long-term
losses due to concrete shrinkage and creep, and to steel relaxation:
++ = ,++ =
+ 0.8 +
1+
(1 +
(,0 ) ,
2 )[1 + 0.8
(,0 ) ]
where:
p,c+s+r is the absolute value of the variation of stress in the tendons due to creep, shrinkage and
relaxation at location x, at time t
20
Eurocode provisions
cs
is the estimated shrinkage strain in absolute value
Ep
is the modulus of elasticity for the prestressing steel
Ecm
is the modulus of elasticity for the concrete
pr
is the absolute value of the variation of stress in the tendons at location x, at time t, due to
the relaxation of the prestressing steel. It is determined for a stress of p = p(G+Pm0+ 2Q)
where p = p(G+Pm0+ 2Q) is the initial stress in the tendons due to initial prestress and quasipermanent actions
(t,t0 )
is the creep coefficient at a time t and load application at time t0
c,QP
is the stress in the concrete adjacent to the tendons, due to self-weight and initial prestress
and other quasi-permanent actions where relevant. The value c,QP may be the effect of part
of self-weight and initial prestress or the effect of a full quasi-permanent combination of
action ( c(G+Pm0+2Q)), depending on the stage of construction considered
Ap
is the area of all the prestressing tendons at the level being considered
Ac
is the area of the concrete section
is the second moment of area of the concrete section
zcp
is the distance between the centre of gravity of the concrete section and the tendons
4.6.2.1 Shrinkage
As the concrete shrinkage takes place, the prestress steel which is connected to concrete whether by bond
or anchorage also contracts and prestress force loss is reduced. Concrete shrinkage strain consists of two
components; the first component is the drying shrink-age strain and the second one is the autogenous
shrinkage strain. The second type occurs in case of casting new fresh concrete against hardened concrete.
Long-term values for shrinkage strain cs is obtained according to clause 3.1.4 and appendix B. The
shrinkage strain value depends on the age of concrete curing t0, the notional size of the member h0, the
relative humidity RH, the age of loading t.
4.6.2.2 Creep
It is time-dependent deformation under constant load. It occurs in concrete and has greater effect in
prestressed concrete than reinforced concrete as the formers section is mainly under compression. It has
a similar effect on prestress steel and prestress force as shrinkage. Creep coefficient (, 0 ) can be
obtained according to clause 3.1.4 and appendix B. It depends on the age of first loading, relative
humidity, type of cement, notional size and the ratio between the compressive stress acting on concrete
at transfer and compressive strength of concrete at transfer, too. The compressive stress acting on
concrete at transfer is calculated under the quasi-permanent combination.
4.6.2.3 Relaxation
As the concrete exhibits time-dependent deformation due to creep, steel also time dependent
deformation due to relaxation which is under constant strain the stress required to maintain it reduces
with time. The long-term relaxation loss is specified in EC2 as the 1000-hour relaxation test value given by
the tendon manufacturer or, in the absence of this, it can be assumed according to the code. The
calculation of relaxation loss depends on the class of the prestressing steel used, there are expressions
that apply for wires or strands for ordinary prestressing, wires or strands for low relaxation tendons and
21
Eurocode provisions
hot rolled and processed bars. It also depends on the ratio between absolute value of the initial prestress
and the characteristic value of the tensile strength of the prestressing steel.
4.7
Ultimate limit states

Flexural limit state
The ultimate bending moment demand is calculated based on the ultimate limit state load combination.
The ultimate moment of resistance is determined according to part 3.3 of the thesis then checked to be
beyond the ultimate bending moment demand.
Shear limit state
4.7.2.1 Shear design of the beam
According to clause 6.2.1, for the verification of the shear resistance the following symbols are defined:
VRd, c is the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement.
VRd, s is the design value of the shear force which can be sustained by the yielding shear reinforcement.
In regions of the member where VEd VRd, c no calculated shear reinforcement is necessary.
VEd is the design shear force in the section considered resulting from external loading and prestressing
(bonded or unbonded). The critical section is at d from the face of the support in case of uniformly
distributed load.
In members where the design shear force is less than the shear capacity of the concrete section alone, no
design shear reinforcement is required, although the minimum shear reinforcement in accordance with
clause 9.2.2 should be provided.
The calculation of shear capacity according to EC2 is divided into two sections:
Regions uncracked in flexure, which occurs near to the simply supported beam ends where moment
is normally low and shear is normally high. In this case shear capacity is limited by the maximum
tensile stress in the web, which is the principle tensile stress due to the interaction between the
compressive stress due to prestressing force (neglecting flexure stress which is small) and the shear
stress.
Regions cracked in flexure, which occurs away from the supports in the simply supported beam or at
the internal support of continuous beam where moment and shear are expected to be high. The
interaction between moment and shear is very complex and cannot be simply modelled. Therefore,
empirical formula is developed on the basis of tests to calculate the shear capacity.
In regions uncracked in bending (where the flexural tensile stress is smaller than fctk,0,05/ c), the shear
resistance is given by:
, =

2 + 1

where:
is the second moment of area
bw
is the width of the cross-section at the centroidal axis, allowing for the presence of ducts
is the first moment of area above and about the centroidal axis
= lx/lpt2 1,0 for pre-tensioned tendons

= 1,0 for other types of prestressing
22
Eurocode provisions
lx
is the distance of section considered from the starting point of the transmission length
lpt2
is the upper bound value of the transmission length of the prestressing element
cp
is the concrete compressive stress at the centroidal axis due to axial loading or prestressing
(cp = NEd /Ac in MPa, NEd > 0 in compression)
In prestressed single span members without shear reinforcement, the shear resistance of the regions
cracked in bending may be calculated using the design value for the shear resistance VRd, c:
1
, = [, (1001 )3 + 1 ]
With minimum value of:
, = [ + 1 ]
where:
fck
is in MPa
=1+
200
0.02 with d in mm
0.02

Asl
is the area of the tensile reinforcement, which extends (lbd + d) beyond the section considered.
bw
is the smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area [mm]
cp
= NEd/Ac < 0.2 fcd [MPa]
NEd
is the axial force in the cross-section due to loading or prestressing in newtons (NEd>0 for
compression). The influence of imposed deformations on NE may be ignored.
AC
is the area of concrete cross section [mm2]
VRd,c
is in newtons
Note: The values of CRd,c, vmin and k1 for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value for CRd,c is 0,18/ c and that for k1 is 0.15.
3
2
min = 0.035 2
The equation is similar to that of reinforced concrete except for the term k1cp which indicates
enhancement of the shear capacity by 15% of the longitudinal stress due to prestress forces.
However, EC2 assumes if VEd > VRd,c that the entire shear demand is resisted by the shear reinforcement
only.
23
Eurocode provisions
The design of members with shear reinforcement is based on a truss model in Figure 11:
Figure 11 Truss model used to design shear reinforcement [3]
VRd,s is limited to VRd, max (the design value of the maximum shear force which can be sustained by the
member, limited by crushing of the compression struts) equals:
, =
cot
and
, =
1
[1.5(cot + tan )]
where:
Asw
is the cross-sectional area of the shear reinforcement
is the spacing of the stirrups
fywd
is the design yield strength of the shear reinforcement
= 0.6 [1
] ( cp )
250
For reinforced and prestressed members, if the design stress of the shear reinforcement is below 80% of
the characteristic yield stress fyk, may be taken as:
= 0.6 60
> 0.5 60
200
Note: The value of tan c for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended
value is as follows:
= 0.9
1 for non-prestressed structures

(1 + cp/fcd) for 0 < cp 0.25 fcd
1.25 for 0.25 fcd < cp 0.5 fcd
2.5 (1 - cp/fcd) for 0.5 fcd < cp < 1.0 fcd
where:
cp
is the mean compressive stress, measured positive, in the concrete due to the design axial force
24
Eurocode provisions
This should be obtained by averaging it over the concrete section taking account of the reinforcement.
The value of cp need not be calculated at a distance less than 0.5d cot from the edge of the support.
However, some considerations must be taken:
If the web of the section contains grouted ducts with diameter greater than one-eighth of the web
thickness, in the calculation of VRd, max, the web thickness should be reduced by one-half of the sum
of the duct diameter.
For non-grouted ducts, grouted plastic ducts and unbonded tendons the web thickness should be
reduced by 1.2 times the sum of the duct diameters.
It can be assumed that z=0.9d although the EC2 restricts this approximation only for the reinforced
concrete. But, because calculating z at every section will be tedious and make calculation complex and its
consequential effects will likely be small, this approximation can be used.
For the two limiting values of cot according to EC2 (2.5 to 1) to ensure that the angle does not exceed
45.
So, the angle can be determined to calculate the required shear reinforcement area.
4.7.2.2 Interface shear design
Ever since composite construction has been employed to create more efficient designs, horizontal shear
strength at the interface has been a topic full of challenges and controversies. Figure 12 illustrates the
horizontal shear forces required to develop composite action.
Figure 12 Development of shear forces during composite action [19]
According to clause 6.2.5, vEdi is the design value of the shear stress in the interface and is given by:
= /( )
where:
is the ratio of the longitudinal force in the new concrete area and the total longitudinal force
either in the compression or tension zone, both calculated for the section considered
VEd
is the transverse shear force
is the lever arm of composite section
bi
is the width of the interface
The design shear resistance vRdi at the interface is a combination of frictional and cohesional resistance.
= + + ( sin() + cos()) 0.5
where:
25
Eurocode provisions
C and
are cohesion and friction factors depending on surface characteristics and equal to
0.45 and 0.7 for exposed aggregate, respectively.
fctd
is the design tensile strength of the concrete with the lowest strength with fctd =
fctk,0.05/c.
stress per unit area caused by the minimum external normal force across the
interface that can act simultaneously with the shear force, positive for compression,
such that n < 0.6 fcd, and negative for tension. When n is tensile c fctd should be
taken as 0.
= As / Ai
As
area of reinforcement crossing the interface, including ordinary shear

reinforcement (if any), with adequate anchorage at both sides of the interface.
Ai
area of the joint
the angle of reinforcement with the interface

90
Is defined before
4.8
and should be limited by 45
Serviceability limit states

Crack control
According to clause 7.3.2, a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement is required to control cracking in
areas where tension is expected. The amount may be estimated from equilibrium between the tensile
force in concrete just before cracking and the tensile force in reinforcement at yielding or at a lower
stress if necessary to limit the crack width.
, = ,
where:
As,min is the minimum area of reinforcing steel within the tensile zone
Act
is the area of concrete within tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of the section which is
calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack
is the absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after
formation of the crack. This may be taken as the yield strength of the reinforcement, fyk. A lower
value may, however, be needed to satisfy the crack width limits according to the maximum bar
size Table 5 or the maximum bar spacing Table 6
fct,eff
is the mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks
may first be expected to occur: fct,eff = fctm or lower, (fctm(t)), if cracking is expected earlier than 28
days
is the coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses, which
lead to a reduction of restraint forces
= 1.0 for webs with h 300 mm or flanges with widths less than 300 mm
26
Eurocode provisions
= 0.65 for webs with h 800 mm or flanges with widths greater than 800 mm intermediate
values may be interpolated
kc
is a coefficient which takes account of the nature of the stress distribution within the section
immediately prior to cracking and of the change of the lever arm:
For pure tension:
= 1
For rectangular sections and webs of box sections and T
= 0.4 [1
1 ( ) ,
]1
where:
c
c =
is the mean stress of the concrete acting on the part of the section under
consideration:
NEd
is the axial force at the serviceability limit state acting on the part of the cross-section
under consideration (compressive force positive). NEd should be determined
considering the characteristic values of prestress and axial forces under the relevant
combination of actions
h*
= < 1.0
= 1.0 1.0
k1
is a coefficient considering the effects of axial forces on the stress distribution:

1 = 1.5
1 =
2

3
The previous equation is used in case of reinforced concrete or unbonded tendons. While by adding
the term 1 to the right side the effect of bonded tendons is taken into consideration.
where:
Ap
is the area of pre or post-tensioned tendons within the Ac,eff
1
is the adjusted ratio of bond strength taking into account the different diameters of
prestressing and reinforcing steel:
=
s
p
ratio of bond strength of prestressing and reinforcing steel

largest bar diameter of reinforcing steel
equivalent diameter of tendon
If only prestressing steel is used to control cracking, 1 =
27
Eurocode provisions
Stress variation in prestressing tendons from the state of zero strain of the concrete at the same
level
In addition, EC2 requires in case beams with a total depth of 1000 mm or more, where the main
reinforcement is concentrated in only a small proportion of the depth, that additional skin
reinforcement should be provided to control cracking on the side faces of the beam. This
reinforcement should be evenly distributed between the level of the tension steel and the neutral
axis and should be located within the links. The spacing and size of suitable bars may be obtained
from Table 7.2 or 7.3.
As per clause 7.3.3 (2) for cracks caused mainly by loading, either the provisions of Table 5 which is related
to steel stress and maximum bar diameter or the provisions of Table 6 which relates steel stress to
maximum spacing between bonded steel bars are complied with.
For pre-tensioned concrete, where crack control is mainly provided by tendons with direct bond, Table 5
and Table 6 may be used with a stress equal to the total stress minus prestress. For post-tensioned
concrete, where crack control is provided mainly by ordinary reinforcement, the tables may be used with
the stress in this reinforcement calculated with the effect of prestressing forces included.
As in case of cracking in prestressed concrete, the SLS is reversible, the crack closes after removal of the
external load, the frequent combination of actions is used.[20]
Table 5 Maximum bar diameter for crack control [3]
Table 6 Maximum bar spacing for crack control [3]
In case that the member does not comply with the Table 5 and Table 6 criteria, detailed calculation of
crack widths is deemed necessary to satisfy crack limit according to Table 7.
28
Eurocode provisions
Table 7 Recommended values for crack width Wkmax [3]
Calculation of crack widths
The crack width Wk may be calculated from:

Wk = Sr,max ( cm )
Where:
sr,max
is the maximum crack spacing
sm
is the mean strain in the reinforcement under the relevant combination of loads, including the
effect of imposed deformations and taking into account the effects of tension stiffening. Only
the additional tensile strain beyond zero strain in the concrete is considered
cm
is the mean strain in the concrete between cracks

cm =
,
,
(1 + , )
0.6
Where:
s
is the stress in the tension reinforcement assuming a cracked section. For pretensioned
members, s may be replaced by p the stress variation in prestressing tendons from the state
of zero strain of the concrete at the same level
is the ratio Es/Ecm
, =
+ 12
,
Ac,eff is the effective tension area. Ac,eff is the area of concrete surrounding the tension reinforcement
of depth, hc,ef , where hc,ef is the lesser of 2.5(h-d), (h-x)/3 or h/2
1
is defined before
kt
is a factor dependent on the duration of the load

kt = 0.6 for short term loading
kt = 0.4 for long term loading
In situations where bonded reinforcement is fixed at reasonably close centers within the tension zone
(spacing 5(c+/2). The maximum final crack spacing sr, max according to clause 7.3.4 is given by:
29
Eurocode provisions
, = 3 + 1 2 4
Where:
is the bar diameter. Where a mixture of bar diameters is used in a section, an equivalent
diameter, , should be used. For a section with n1 bars of diameter 1 and n2 bars of diameter
2, the following expression should be used
1 12 + 2 22
1 1 + 2 2
is the cover to the reinforcement
k1
is a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bonded reinforcement:
= 0.8 for high bond bars
= 1.6 for bars with an effectively plain surface (e.g. prestressing tendons)
k2
is a coefficient which takes account of the distribution of strain:

= 0.5 for bending
= 1.0 for pure tension
For cases of eccentric tension or for local areas, intermediate values of k2 should be used which
may be calculated from the relation:
2 = (1 + 2 )/21
Where 1 is the greater and 2 is the lesser tensile strain at the boundaries of the section
considered, assessed on the basis of a cracked section
Where the spacing of the bonded reinforcement exceeds 5(c+/2) or where there is no bonded
reinforcement within the tension zone, an upper bound to the crack width may be found by assuming a
maximum crack spacing:
, = 1.3( )
Deflection control
According to clause 7.4.1, the appearance and general utility of the structure may be impaired when the
calculated sag of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent loads exceeds span/250. The
sag is assessed relative to the supports.
Pre-camber may be used to compensate for some or all of the deflection but any upward deflection
incorporated in the formwork should not generally exceed span/250. Deflections that could damage
adjacent parts of the structure should be limited. For the deflection after construction, span/500 is
normally an appropriate limit for quasi-permanent loads. Other limits may be considered, depending on
the sensitivity of adjacent parts.[21]
The anticipated deflection of a prestressed member must always be checked since span-effective depth
ratios are not specified in the code for prestressed concrete members.[15]
So deflection due to eccentric prestress force is determined according to part 3.4 of the thesis then added
to that due to normal external loads then compared to values mentioned above.
30
Egyptian code provisions
In this section, provisions according to ECP 203 concerning design of prestressed concrete are discussed,
compared to those of EC2 and are later used in the design of sections in the two studies.
5.1
Partial factors of safety

Partial factors of safety for loads for the ultimate limit state recommended in ECP are 1.4 for dead
load and 1.6 for live load. It can be noted that these values are higher than those stated in
Eurocode leading to higher load values in ultimate limit state. In addition, in case live loads do not
exceed 75% of dead loads, factor of value 1.5 can be used for both of them.
Those for the serviceability limit state are generally taken as 1.0 for both dead and live loads.
Design strength =
Characteristic strength( )
partial factor of safety( )
The values of partial factors of safety for materials m are to be taken as 1.5 and 1.15 for concrete and
steel, respectively, which is similar to Eurocode.
m at the serviceability limit state is generally taken as 1.0 for both materials.
The value of the partial factor of safety for prestress force, p, is 1.0 for most situations.
5.2
Material properties
Figure 13 shows the design stress-strain curve Idealized in ECP for design for concrete the design stressstrain curve for prestressing steel:
Figure 13 Design stress-strain curves for concrete and prestress steel [1]
The factor of 0.67 is an additional factor of safety which is equal to 0.80.85 which is similar to EC2 as the
factor 0.85 is equal to and the factor 0.8 accounts for the difference between the cylinder compressive
strength fck used in EC2 and the cube compressive strength fcu used in ECP 203.
In ECP 203 the standard compressive strength test is that of a 150 mm cube after 28 days.
While cu in EC2 is 0.0035 for concrete of strength classes lower than 50 MPa, it is 0.003 in ECP 203.
As the stress-strain curve for prestress steel lacks a sharply defined yield point, the yield strength is taken
as the stress associated with 1% strain for strands and wires while for high-strength bars it is taken as the
stress at the intersection between the curve and a line parallel to the initial slope at strain 0.002 as
illustrated in Figure 14. On the other hand, EC2 defines the 0.1 % proof stress fp0.1k as the characteristic
value of the 0.1 % proof load for all types of prestress steel.
31
Figure 14 Stress-strain curve for prestressing steel according to ECP 203 [16]
5.3
Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements
Classes of exposure are defined according to clause 4.3.2.2 table 4-11. Minimum cover requirements are
determined according to clauses 10.5.3.1.2 and 10.5.3.2 in case straight tendons are used. In case curved
tendons in post-tensioning are used, minimum cover is determined according to clause 10.5.5.2 and table
10-7. The spacing between prestressed cables is determined according to clause 10.5.4 and the spacing
between the non-prestressed steel is decided according to clauses 6.3.1.10 and 7.3.3.1.
5.4
Load combinations
According to ECP 203 clause 3.2.1.1, Egyptian code states many combinations for the ultimate limit states
based on the actions affecting the structure besides dead load D and live load L. These actions include
lateral load E, wind W, earthquake S, thermal T and dynamic K.
According to ECP 201 Annex 5-A, load combinations for bridges are stated for ultimate limit state:
Characteristic
Accidental
Earthquake
And for serviceability limit state:
5.5
Characteristic
Frequent
Quasi-permanent
Allowable stresses
The allowable stresses for prestressed concrete are emphasized according to clause 10.3.2.1.3 in Table 8:
Table 8 Allowable concrete stresses according to ECP 203
At transfer stage
Maximum compressive stress
0.45
Maximum tensile stress excluding the ends of

simply supported members
0.22
32
Maximum tensile stress at the ends of simply

supported members
0.44
At service stage
Maximum compressive stress due to prestressed
plus sustained loads
0.35
Maximum compressive stress due to prestressed

plus total loads
0.40
Maximum tensile stress
Case A: (fully prestressed, zero) such as

elements subject to cyclic and dynamic
loads.
Case B: (Uncracked, 0.44 ) such as
solid slabs and flat slabs
Case C: (case between uncracked and
cracked, 0.6 )
Case D: (Cracked, 0.85 )
Comparing these values to those of EC2 which use fck, it is clear that EC2 allows slightly higher compressive
stress with approximate value of 0.48fcu assuming fck is equal to 0.8 fcu and regarding allowable tensile
stress at transfer it is marginally higher but at service it differs depending on the case but in case of bridges
where dynamic loads are applied, EC2 allows higher values, too.
In addition, Table 9 shows the allowable tensile stresses for prestressing steel.
Table 9 Allowable tensile stresses for prestressing steel according to ECP 203
Maximum stress produce by jacking (before

transfer)
Maximum tendon stress at tensioning process
0.90 0.75
0.70
Maximum tendon stress immediately after

transfer not to exceed the smaller of
0.80 0.70
Maximum stress in post-tensioned tendons at

anchorages and couplers immediately after
anchorage of the tendons not to exceed the
smaller of
0.80 0.70
5.6
Losses in pretstress force
As discussed in part 4.6 of the thesis, once the prestress force is applied, it suffers losses immediately
after jacking at two stages: transfer stage where short term losses only are considered and service stage
where all losses are taken into account.
Short term losses
According to clause 10.3.4.2, there are mainly 3 types of short term losses:
Elastic shortening.
Friction and wobble effect.
33
Anchorage draw-in.
In case of pre-tensioned members: only elastic shortening loss takes place.

In case of post-tensioned members: draw-in, friction and wobble affect the prestress force. Elastic
shortening loss may take place.
5.6.1.1 Elastic shortening
The same equations are adopted in ECP 203, however, in case of post-tensioned elastic shortening loss
can be approximately taken as half that in pre-tensioned, while EC2 depends on the number of
prestressed tendons used.
5.6.1.2 Friction
The same analogy is used in ECP 203. The only difference is the values of coefficients k and . As for k it
can be assumed as 0.0033 in case of ordinary cable and 0.0017 in case of fixed ducts. These values are
relatively smaller than those stated in EC2. As for , it depends on the material of surrounding the steel
whether concrete, steel or lead values of are 0.55, 0.3 and 0.25, respectively. These values exceed those
of EC2. As a result, it would be expected that the overall friction losses would be approximately equal
based on the two codes.
5.6.1.3 Anchorage draw-in
The same analogy is used as in part 4.6.1.3 of the thesis, as ECP 203 does not state a method to determine
anchorage draw-in loss.
Long term losses
According to clause 10.3.4.3, there are mainly 3 types of long term losses:
Shrinkage
Creep
Relaxation
On the contrary to EC2, each type of loss is calculated separately and then summed together.
5.6.2.1 Shrinkage
ECP 203 proposes values for shrinkage strain and creep coefficient directly from tables in clauses 2.3.3.4
and 2.3.3.5 base on relative humidity and notional size of member. In addition, in case there is no
sufficient available information of the ambient environment, values of shrinkage strain 0.003 and 0.002
can be assumed for pre-tensioned and post-tensioned, respectively.
5.6.2.2 Creep
Losses due to creep calculation is nearly similar to that in EC2. The only difference is the coefficient of
creep calculation. It can be calculated as mentioned before from clause 2.3.3.5 or it can be assumed to be
2 and 1.6 for pre-tensioned and post-tensioned, respectively. It is noted that if the concrete stress exceeds
third the value of its characteristic strength, creep coefficient must be multiplied by factor .
5.6.2.3 Relaxation
It is stated that in case the prestress steel has been prestressed for a short period of time with value higher
than that used in construction, relaxation losses can be neglected. The equation used to determine
relaxation loss is different from that in EC2. In ECP 203, only two classes are stated: normal and relaxation
34
stress-relieved steel with values of factor k1 10 and 45, respectively. Thus, the class of prestressed bars is
not stated.
5.7

The ultimate bending moment demand is calculated based on the ultimate limit state load combination.
The ultimate moment of resistance is determined according to part 3.3 of the thesis then checked to be
beyond the ultimate bending moment demand.
Shear limit state
The analogy adopted in ECP 203 is entirely different from that used in EC2. EC2 states a more rigorous
and complex method to determine the shear capacity of the section.
To ensure shear failures occur in ductile manner by yielding of the shear reinforcement, according to
clause 10.3.3.3.2, it is stated that shear stress should not exceed the value:
, = 0.75 / 4.5
Maximum shear strength in prestressed concrete is slightly higher than in reinforced concrete but shear
strength in prestressed concrete is much higher than in reinforced concrete.
ECP 203 adopts a simplified procedure and detailed procedure. In the study, the detailed procedure is
only considered as it gives higher shear strength up to 150%. There are two types of shear cracking:
Flexural-shear cracking takes place when principle tensile stress due to flexure and shear is high so it
starts vertically at mid-span and then moving towards the supports its inclination increases.
Web-cracking shear takes place when tensile principle stress due to shear is very high causing inclined
cracks directly in the web.
So, it is stated that the shear strength of prestressed beam is the smaller value of Flexural-shear strength
and web-cracking shear strength:
Flexural-shear strength
= 0.045
+ 0.8 ( +
) 0.24
where:
=
=
=
=
qd
is the unfactored shear stress due to dead load only at the critical section
qi
is the factored shear stress at the critical section due to externally applied loads occurring
simultaneously with Mmax
Mmax
is the factored moment at the critical section due to the external applied loads
Mcr
is the cracking moment
is the depth of the cross-section but not less than 0.8t
35
web-cracking shear strength
= 0.24 (
+ ) +
where:
fpcc
is the concrete stress at the C.G. of the section due to effective prestressing after considering
all losses
qpv
is the unfactored shear stress due to the vertical component of prestressing Qpv
sin
sin
sin

sin

Similarly to EC2, ECP 203 adopts the same condition for the effective web width concerning the
diameter of the duct used.
The critical section for shear in prestressed beams is at /2 from the face of the support.
5.8

Crack control
Minimum reinforcement is determined according to clause 4.2.1.2.H.

In cases A, B and C according to part 5.5 of the thesis, crack limit state is deemed to be satisfied once
minimum reinforcement is applied.
As for case D, the section is analysed as a cracked section. According to clause 4.3.2, two options are
available.
First option: maximum crack width can be estimated from the following equations:
=
= (50 + 0.251 2
=
2
(1 1 2 ( ) )
Then compared to maximum allowable crack width wkmax in Table 10

Table 10 Maximum allowable crack width Wkmax according to ECP 203 [1]
Class of exposure
Wkmax (mm)
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
36
where:
Coefficient that relates the average crack width to the design crack width
= 1.7 for cracks induced due to loading
= 1.3 for cracks induced due to restraining the deformation in a section having a width or depth
(whichever smaller) less than 300 mm
= 1.7 for cracks induced due to restraining the deformation in a section having a width or depth
(whichever smaller) more than 800 mm
for cross-sections having a width or depth (whichever smaller) between value 300 mm and 800
mm, the coefficient shall be proportionally calculated
Bar diameter in mm. In case of using more than one diameter, the average diameter shall be used
Coefficient that reflects the bond properties of the reinforcing steel. It shall be taken equal to 0.8
for deformed bars and 0.5 for smooth bars
Coefficient that takes into account the duration of loading. It shall be taken equal to 1.0 for short
term loading and 0.50 for long term loading or cyclic loading
Coefficient that reflects the effect of bond between steel and concrete between cracks. It shall be
taken equal to 0.8 for deformed bars and 1.6 for smooth bars
Coefficient that reflects the strain distribution over the cross-section. It shall be taken equal to 0.5
for section subjected to pure bending and 1.0 for section subjected to pure axial tension. For
section subjected to combined bending and axial tension:
1 + 2
2 =
21
Where:
1 and 2 are the maximum and minimum strain values, respectively
is the stress in longitudinal steel at the tension zone, calculated based on the analysis of cracked
section under permanent loads
is the stress in longitudinal steel at the tension zone, calculated based on the analysis of cracked
section due to loads causing first cracking ( )
is the ratio of effective tension reinforcement
Where:
is the area of longitudinal tension steel within the effective tension area
is the area of effective concrete section in tension

=
Where:
= Minimum of
Beams:
2.5( )
Elements in tension:
2.5( + /2)
/2
Slabs :
2.5( + /2)
( )/3
where:
=
37
Second option: Limiting steel stress and bar diameters to values in table 4-15 in ECP 203.
Deflection control
According to clauses 10.3.2.3 and 4.3.1.1, in cases A, B and C, the gross moment of inertia Ig is used in
deflections calculation while in case D the effective moment of inertia Ie is used to allow for the cracked
section. In long-term deflection, the effect of shrinkage, creep and steel relaxation must be taken into
consideration. Factor satisfies this condition and is equal to 2, in case no compression steel is used. The
total deflection is the sum of immediate deflection and long-term deflection. Maximum allowable
immediate deflection is L/250 and maximum allowable total deflection is L/480.
38
Methodology
Methodology
In order to establish a comparison between the Eurocode and the Egyptian code of practice regarding
prestressed concrete beams, two main studies have been performed. The first one includes a parametric
study of a span changing simply supported beam with a post-tensioned rectangular section. The second
one is a contiguous beam bridge supported by precast pre-tensioned beams while the deck of the bridge
is cast in-situ. So the beam has to be dealt with as a composite section beam.
6.1
Parametric study
The beam is assumed to be situated in a shopping mall with spacing of 3 m. Therefore, the loads are
reasonably assumed to correspond with shopping areas. The aim of the parametric study is to find out
the differences between the two codes concerning the design of post-tensioned beams and how the
magnitude of these differences changes relative to the span of the beam.
Span varying from 5 m to 45 m every 5 m

Slab thickness = 25 cm
Width of beam is assumed to be:
250 mm for spans less than or equal 15 m
400 mm for spans more than 15 m
Applied loads are reasonably assumed as:

= 2 /2 excluding the weight of slab and self-weight of the beam
= 8.33 /2 for shopping areas
Material properties:
Concrete of grade C 35/45 is used
Prestress steel used is seven-wire strand with tensile strength 1770/1570 MPa and modulus of
elasticity 195 GPa
Non-prestress steel used is of tensile strength 500 MPa and modulus of elasticity 200 GPa
Short term losses are initially assumed to be 10% while long term losses are initially assumed to be
15% hence = 0.9 and = 0.75
Ambient environmental condition 3 is assumed for ECP 203 as a result Case B is assumed for choosing
the allowable tensile stresses as per ECP 203
Exposure class XC3 is assumed for EC2
The design is performed according to chapters 4 and 5 of the thesis and detailed calculations are
presented in Appendix A and Appendix B.
6.2
Case study introduction

General data of the bridge
Type of bridge is road bridge with medium vehicle traffic

Structural system is simply supported, which is preferred in case of using precast elements.
Based on the parametric study results, the most optimum span for prestressed beams ranged
between 20 to 25 m, hence a span of 24 m was assumed for the bridge beam.
Width = 12 m
Two sidewalks each 1.5 m wide
Carriageway w is equal to 9 m
39
Methodology
Deck slab thickness = 16 cm

Covering of the deck is assumed to be an 8 cm asphalt layer
Material properties:
Concrete used for pre-tensioned beams of grade C 35/45
Concrete used for cast in-situ slab deck of grade C 25/35
Prestress steel used is seven-wire strand with tensile strength 1770/1570 MPa and modulus of
elasticity 195 GPa
Non-prestress used of tensile strength 500 MPa and modulus of elasticity 200 GPa
Short term losses are initially assumed to be 15% while long term losses are initially assumed to be
10% hence = 0.85 and = 0.75
Choosing the layout
The bridge consists of precast pre-tensioned beams placed close together and connected by an in-situ
reinforced concrete slab. The main advantage of this form of bridge that minimum false work is needed
as the precast beams are supported on the bearings on the abutments and the formwork used for casting
the deck slab is supported directly on the precast beams without needing any additional support. This
type of bridges is mainly preferable in case of simply supported spans up to 30 m. The main drawback is
that the formwork is permanent as it is impossible to remove it after casting due to the obstruction caused
by the small space between precast beams. As result the formwork contributes to the final dead weight
of the bridge. However, the effect of the added weight cannot be compared to the fact that no falsework
is required, leading to reducing effort, time and cost.[22]
As the bridge is 12 m wide, 13 rectangular pre-tensioned beams are used to support the 16 cm deck slab.
The beams are placed 1 m apart so that they can be directly used as the support for the formwork. Glass
fiber reinforced cement can be used as permanent formwork as the span is only 1 m. Numbering the
beams from 1 to 13 it is clear that beams 1, 2, 12 and 13 support the sidewalks while the other beams
support the carriageway. Figure 15 shows a cross-section the bridge deck.
Figure 15 Cross-section of a symmetric half of the bridge deck
Compostie beam Section differences than normal prestressed section

In order to analyse and design the pre-tensioned beams, the effect of the composite section action,
formed after the deck slab is cast and bond is formed, has to be taken in consideration. So at transfer
stage the beams are dealt with as rectangular pre-tensioned beams supporting their self-weight, the
weight of wet concrete slab, the permanent formwork and associated construction loads. While in service
40
Methodology
stage, as the concrete has hardened, the effect of composite action of a T-beam has to be taken into
consideration leading to significantly decreasing the stresses formed on the precast beam. Nevertheless,
the designer has to make sure that there is no slip occurs between the cast in-situ deck slab and the
precast beam because if such slip takes place, discontinuity of strain occurs and the composite action
effect is lost so the slab and the precast beam are considered to be two beams placed on top of each
other leading to relatively higher stresses for the composite section case.
Structural analysis method of the bridge
There are three typical options for the analysis of a multi-girder bridge:
Line beam
Grillage
Full finite element model
The line beam method does not take into account the transverse distribution of stresses, therefore cannot
be used for detailed design. It can only be used as a preliminary design tool. Grillage analysis method is
easy to use and offers sufficient accurate results. Consequently, it is widely used by designers for most
types of bridges. Full finite element model has become increasingly used recently for its more detailed
results and the availability of software programs. The method used in this thesis to analyse the bridge
deck is the grillage analysis method.
Grillage analysis method is based on a 2-D mesh model where longitudinal beams are modelled with their
real spacing and geometric properties. In addition, the slab is modelled as transverse beams with spacing
nearly equal to that of main beams but it should not exceed the double. Defining the torsional constant
for longitudinal and transverse beams allow for distribution of stresses in the transverse direction.
6.3
Design according to Eurocodes

Loads and stresses on the bridge
6.3.1.1 The dead load acting on the bridge

It consists of:
Self-weight of the precast beams: the self-weight of the beams will be calculated once the depth of
the beams is determined, which can be roughly estimated from the bending moment at service stage
excluding the self-weight
Cast in-situ slab in addition to permanent formwork: as the beams are 1 m apart from each other so
each beam can be assumed to carry
qslab = t s concrete 1.1 = 0.16 25 1.1 = 4.4
kN
m2
The 1.1 factor accounts for the permanent formwork
Surface covering (Asphalt):

qasphalt = t s asphalt = 0.08 24 = 1.92
kN
m2
6.3.1.2 The live load acting on the bridge

According to EC1-2. The carriageway width w of the bridge is measured between the kerbs. It is
divided into notional lanes with usually 3 m width each. The number of lanes n depend on the
carriageway depth w as shown in table.
41
Methodology
Table 11 Number and width of notional lanes [4]
6m w
9
n = = 3m
3
w1 = 3m
According to EC1-2, there are four considered models:

Load model 1: Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads which represent most of the effects
of the traffic vehicles. This model is used for general and local effects.
Load model 2: A single-axle load applied on specific tyre contact area which represent the
dynamic effects of normal traffic on short structural members.
Load model 3: A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special vehicles, for example
industrial traffic.
Load model 4: this represents crowd loading which is used for transient design situations.
Load model 1:
It consists of two parts:
Tandem system TS which is a double axle concentrated load. Each axle has a weight equal Q Qk,
where Q is an adjustment factor. Only one set of tandem system is applied per notional lane. In case
span exceeds 10 m each set can be replaced by a single-axel concentrated load equal to the total
load of the two axles.
A uniformly distributed load equal to Q qk, qk is the weight per square meter of the notional lane.
Table shows the characteristic values of loads for each lane. The details of Load Model 1 are
illustrated in Figure.
Table 12 Load model 1 : characteristic values [4]
42
Methodology
Figure 16 Details of Load Model 1[4]
The minimum values suggested by the code of Q is 0.9 for lane 1 and 1 for the rest of the lanes.
Loads on footways and cycle tracks: there are three mutually exclusive classes of vertical loading with
characteristic values as following:
Uniformly distributed load qfk = 5 kN/m2
Concentrated load Qfk = 10 kN acting on square of side 0.1 m
Load of a service vehicle depending on the project
Groups of traffic loads:
EC1-2 specifies various groups of loads which need to be considered acting simultaneously. The most
typical one is: Load model 1 combined with 3 kN/m2 vertical load on footways and cycle tracks.
Table 13 Assessment of groups of traffic loads gives the traffic loads groups to be considered for multicomponent action.
43
Methodology
Table 13 Assessment of groups of traffic loads [4]
Table 14 shows the values of values for road bridges.

Table 14 Recommended values of factors for road bridges [17]
According to group 1 combination:
Foot path load = q 0 = 3 0.4 = 1.2
kN
m2
The lanes are numbered from 1 to 3.

Lane 1:
UDL = qk = 9
kN
m2
Concentrated load = Q k Q =
300
2
0.9 = 135kN
44
Methodology
Lane 2:
UDL = qk = 2.5
kN
m2
200
2
1 = 100kN
Lane 3:
UDL = qk = 2.5
kN
m2
100
2
1 = 50kN
Grillage mesh used:

Longitudinal beams are placed with spacing 1 m.
Geometric properties of longitudinal beams are applied assuming a preliminary depth for the
beams.
Transverse beams are placed with spacing 2 m.
Transverse beams width is 2 m and depth 0.16 m, however the second moment of area is
multiplied by modular ratio to account for different concrete grades.
On determining the torsional constant of the composite beam, it is assumed to consist of three
rectangles:
The slab flange with J =
bt3
6
The web and the bottom trapezoid which is approximated to a rectangle with J = 0.3
b3 t3
b2 +t2
Loads are applied to grillage mesh as shown in Figure 17 and the bending moment results show that
beam 5 is the most critical one. In case that the lanes are numbered 2, 1 and 3, the results do not differ
significantly. Therefore, next calculations are based on the first case and beam 5. The service moment
excluding self-weight is calculated from which the depth of the beam h = 1450 mm is determined.
Figure 17 Area loads on grillage mesh
The properties of the section are determined first for the precast beam to consider the transfer stage
and second for the composite beam to consider the service stage.
kN
qsw = Aprecast concrete = 16.89
m
45
Methodology
Figure 18 shows the concrete dimensions and position of C.G. of the precast beam with a shear key
connector and the composite section.
Figure 18 Cross-section of the precast beam and composite beam
The properties of the section are determined in appendix C taking into consideration the difference
between the moduli of elasticity of the two concrete grades used, therefore, the flange width must be
modified by factor to be dealt with as a homogenous section. Also, checking effective flange width is
done.
6.3.1.3 Shrinkage stress calculation
shrinkage is generated when the cast in-situ slab shrinks due to concrete curing and drying and due to the
bond between the precast beam and the slab, the top face of the beam has to contract as well.
Consequently, the beam has to bend resulting in stresses in the precast beam. In order to determine
shrinkage stress, the slab is assumed to shrink freely. Then a fictitious tensile force is applied to the slab
to neutralize the free shrinkage strain. But as this strain is resisted by the bond between the two elements,
its effect can be represented by a compressive force of equal magnitude and at eccentricity equal to the
distance between the centroidal axes of the composite beam and the slab. Calculations are shown in the
appendix C. Known that:
Only top and bottom surfaces are exposed to atmosphere to determine notional size of section.
Normal cement type is used.
Curing time is assumed to be 7 days.
Relative humidity is 80%
6.3.1.4 Thermal stress calculation
Thermal gradients resulting from differential heating and cooling of different parts of the cross-section
induce stresses on the section analysed. EC1-5 gives the temperature differentials for:
Heating: In table the figure shows the temperature variation.
1 = 0.3 150, 100 2 250, 3 = 0.3 (100 + )
It is assumed that there is a 100 mm surfacing.
Cooling: In table the figure shows the temperature variation.
1 = 4 = 0.22 250, 2 = 3 200
46
Methodology
Table 15 Temperature differentials for heating and cooling [4]
The stresses are calculated with the same method used to calculate shrinkage stresses. The element is
assumed to expand and contract freely. Stresses are generated due to temperature differentials. These
stresses generate forces which are replaced by a single equivalent force acting at a calculated eccentricity.
The total stress at any section is the sum of stress due to initial temperature change and the stress due to
the single equivalent force. Thermal expansion coefficient = 10 106
1
C
Figure 19 illustrates the final stresses due to thermal gradients where stresses due to cooling case are on
the left. It is clear that the cooling case is more critical and thus is the one considered in the next
calculations.
Figure 19 Thermal stress variation cooling & heating
6.3.1.5 Load combinations

After loads have been calculated, two cases were considered to determine the most unfavourable loading
combination. In both cases, stresses due to dead load and shrinkage were treated as permanent actions.
In the first case, traffic loads were considered as the leading variable action and the thermal stress as the
accompanying variable action and vice versa in the second case. Obviously, the traffic load was the
governing action therefore, the first case was the one used in the design.
47
Methodology
Magnels diagram
At transfer stage: Since only precast beams are present, the equations are identical to the first two
equations in part 3.2 of the thesis.
At service stage: Equations have to reflect the fact that two different types of sections resist the loads.
Bearing in mind that the prestress acts only on the precast section.
(
+ +

)
+
+ + 0
+ +

) +
+
+ + 0
Mlive includes moment due to covering as it is applied after the composite action takes place.
x 10E-6
In addition to stresses due to external loads, self-equilibrating stresses are induced due to shrinkage of
slab and thermal gradient. Magnels diagram is established for mid span and fourth span as in Figure 20
and Figure 21 jacking force and eccentricity are chosen.
0.35
0.3
Inverse of prestress force (1/kN)
0.25
Acceptable zone
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
-0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Eccentricity (mm)
Figure 20 Magnel's diagram for mid span according to Eurocode design
48
x 10E-6
Methodology
0.4
0.35
0.3
Acceptable zone
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-400
-300
-200
-100
100
-0.05
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Eccentricity (mm)
Figure 21 Magnel's diagram for fourth span according to Eurocode design
Stresses check is performed at transfer and service stages:

Transfer stage:
Table 16 Stresses at transfer stage according to Eurocode design
Prestress
Msw
Total
12.0 m
(Mid span)
6.0 m
(Fourth
span)
0.0 m
(Support)
49
Methodology
Service stage:
Table 17 Stresses at service stage according to Eurocode design
Prestress
Mdead
Mlive
Shrinkage & cooling
Total
12.0 m
(Mid span)
6.0 m
(Fourth
span)
0.0 m
(Support)
Figure 22 and Table 18 show the limiting zone, as well.
Figure 22 Limiting zone according to Eurocode design

Table 18 Limiting zone according to Eurocode design
0.0 m (Support)
6.0 m (Fourth span)
12.0 m (Mid span)
160.0 mm
370.0 mm
580.0 mm
emin
-36.3 mm
357.2 mm
565.8 mm
emax
281.0 mm
440.0 mm
584.0 mm
50
Methodology
Preliminary design
Prestress force is used to determine the required number of seven-wire strands and checking the
possibility of their distribution achieving the chosen eccentricity. Minimum reinforcement is applied
according to code to be used as non-prestressed tension reinforcement. Spacing and minimum covers are
calculated according to part 4.3 of the thesis. Calculations are included in appendix C. Exposure condition
XC3 is rationally assumed.
Ultiamte limit states
6.3.4.1 Flexural limit state
The ultimate bending moment due to applied loads is calculated based on part 6.3.1 of the thesis.
Using compatibility of strains method, capacity bending moment of composite section is determined as
shown in appendix C and highly surpasses the ultimate bending moment.
6.3.4.2 Shear limit state
First, the section is checked whether it is cracked or not. As the f ctd is not exceeded, the section is
uncracked along the whole member. The shear capacity is then calculated according to part 4.7.2 of the
thesis. However, the composite action has to be taken into consideration. The dead loads (self-weight,
slab and formwork) are resisted by the precast beams while the live loads (covering and traffic load) are
resisted by the composite beam. The detailed calculations are shown in appendix C.
As mentioned before, it is also required to prevent the slip between the precast beams and the cast insitu slab. So the shear resistance at the interface must be checked to be sufficient to resist applied shear
force according to part 4.7.2.2 of the thesis with assumed equal to 90 and exposed aggregate surface
is assumed.
As the moment is zero at the support, it is reasonable to use the lever arm z calculated at the mid-span
for other sections.
6.3.5.1 Deflection control
Deflections are calculated as per part 3.4 of the thesis and checked with the maximum allowable values
mentioned in part 4.8.2 of the thesis. Appendix B in EC2 is used to calculate the creep coefficient assuming
prestressing is released after eight days (age of loading).
6.3.5.2 Crack control
Crack limit is satisfied by applying minimum reinforcement and limiting stress in pre-tensioned steel as
per part 4.8.1 of the thesis. Detailed calculations are shown in appendix C.
Prestress losses
Since pre-tensioned beam is used, only elastic shortening is considered for short term losses. For long
term losses, shrinkage, relaxation and creep are calculated according to part 4.6.2 of the thesis assuming
class 2 for relaxation calculations.
51
Methodology
6.4
Design according to Egyptian codes

Loads and stresses on the bridge
6.4.1.1 The dead load acting on the bridge

The same as in Eurocode design.
6.4.1.2 The live load acting on the bridge
The loads definition in ECP 201 is nearly as EC1-2.
The notional lanes definition is exactly the same
According to ECP 201 , there are 3 considered models:

1. Load model 1: is the same as load model 1 in EN 1991-2
2. Load model 2: is the same as in EN 1991-2
3. Load model 3: is almost the same as load model 4 in EN 1991-2
Groups of traffic loads:
ECP 201 specifies various combinations of loads which need to be considered acting simultaneously.
The most typical one is combination no. 7 according to annex 5-B: Load model 1 combined with 3 kN/m2
vertical load on footways and cycle tracks, which resembles the load group used in Eurocodes design.
Combination of actions for ULS:
According to annex 5-B, combination no. 1 is used as the ultimate limit state combination with factor 1.35
for dead loads and load model 1.
As the serviceability limit state combination is similar to EC1, the same depth is used.
6.4.1.3 Shrinkage stress calculation

The same methodology is used except for calculating shrinkage strain according to part 5.6.2.1 of the
thesis. Calculations are shown in appendix D. Known that:
Only top and bottom surfaces are exposed to atmosphere to determine notional size of section.
Age of loading is assumed to be 8 days.
Relative humidity is 80%
6.4.1.4 Thermal stress calculation
According to clause 5.10, ECP 201 states that a change in temperature of 20 C in concrete structures.
However, since the structural system is simply supported expansion joints are used, it does not affect the
structure in term of stresses. In addition, ECP 201 states that a difference of 5 C between the top and
bottom surfaces of concrete sections must be taken into consideration. This leads to four case scenarios
(Cooling or heating and top or bottom). The same methodology used in Eurocodes design adopted to
determine the stresses due to thermal gradient.
52
Methodology
Figure 23 illustrates the final stresses due to thermal gradients.
Figure 23 Thermal stress variation cooling & heating
Magnels diagram
Magnels diagram is established as in Figure 24 and Figure 25 and jacking force and eccentricity are
chosen. For choosing the allowable tensile stress, Case A is assumed as it is recommended for structures
exposed to cyclic loads as per ECP 203.
x 10E-6
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
Acceptable zone
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-400
-300
-200
-100
-0.05
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Eccentricity (mm)
Figure 24 Magnel's diagram for mid span according to Egyptian code design
53
x 10E-6
Methodology
0.7
0.6
0.5
Acceptable zone
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-400
-300
-200
-100
100
200
-0.1
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Eccentricity (mm)
Figure 25 Magnel's diagram for fourth span according to Egyptian code design
Stresses check is performed at transfer and service stages:

Transfer stage:
Table 19 Stresses at transfer stage according to Egyptian code design
Prestress
Msw
Total
12.0 m
(Mid span)
6.0 m
(Fourth
span)
0.0 m
(Support)
54
Methodology
Service stage:
Table 20 Stresses at service stage according to Egyptian code design
Prestress
Mdead
Mlive
Shrinkage & cooling
Total
12.0 m
(Mid span)
6.0 m
(Fourth
span)
0.0 m
(Support)
Figure 26 and Table 21 show the limiting zone, as well.
Figure 26 Limiting zone according to Egyptian code design

Table 21 Limiting zone according to Egyptian code design
0.0 m (Support)
6.0 m (Fourth span)
12.0 m (Mid span)
170.0 mm
397.5 mm
625.0 mm
emin
-145.7 mm
361.9mm
526.2 mm
emax
304.0 mm
572.9 mm
662.0 mm
55
Methodology
Preliminary design
Prestress force is used to determine the required number of seven-wire strands and checking the
possibility of their distribution achieving the chosen eccentricity. Minimum reinforcement is applied
according to code to be used as non-prestressed tension reinforcement. Spacing and minimum covers are
calculated according to part 4.3 of the thesis. Calculations are included in appendix D. Exposure class 3 is
assumed.
6.4.4.1 Flexural limit state
The ultimate bending moment due to applied loads is calculated based on part 6.4.1.2 of the thesis.
Using the compatibility of strains method, capacity bending moment of composite section is determined
as shown in the appendix and highly surpasses the ultimate bending moment.
6.4.4.2 Shear limit state
Shear design is done according to part 5.7.2 of the thesis.
6.4.5.1 Deflection control
Deflections are calculated as per part 3.4 of the thesis and checked with the maximum allowable values
mentioned in part 4.8.25.8.2 of the thesis.
6.4.5.2 Crack control
Crack limit is satisfied by applying minimum reinforcement, since case A is assumed.
Prestress losses
Since pre-tensioned beam is used, only elastic shortening is considered for short term losses. For long
term losses, shrinkage, relaxation and creep are calculated according to part 5.6.2 of the thesis assuming
low relaxation stress-relieved steel is used for relaxation calculations.
56
Results
Results
7.1
Parametric study
The following graphs show the different results obtained from the design according to the two codes:
Figure 27 shows that the depth chosen as per ECP 203 requirements is higher than that used as per EC2.
Depth in mm
This returns to the lower allowable tensile strength according to ECP 203 0.44 versus according
to EC2. It is noteworthy that the sudden change at the 20 m span is due to the change in the assumed
beam width b from 250 mm to 400 mm.
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP 450
850
1250 1400 1700 2050 2450 2800 3150
EC2
800
1150 1250 1550 1850 2200 2500 2850
400
Span in m
Figure 27 Comparison of beam depth between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Span to depth ratio
Figure 28 illustrates the span to depth ratios according to the two codes design. EC2 design results into
higher span to depth ratio indicating higher efficiency. Moreover, it is noted that the highest span to depth
ratios are at 20 and 25 m spans. In addition, the sudden change at 20 m span is due to the change of beam
width b.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
ECP 11.111 11.765

EC2
12.5
12.5
15
12
13.043
20
25
30
35
40
45
14.286 14.706 14.634 14.286 14.286 14.286

16
16.129 16.216 15.909
16
15.789
Span in m
Figure 28 Comparison of span to depth ratio between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
57
Results
Figure 29 shows that the values of the jacking force according to the two codes are nearly similar.
16000
Prestress force in kN
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
930
1930
3110
5280
7040
8530
10120
12240
14300
EC2
1140
2120
3160
5610
7090
8700
10320
12150
14000
Span in m
Figure 29 Comparison of jacking prestress force between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 30 indicates that the prestress area required is the same for the short spans according to the two
codes. However, for long spans ECP 203 requires more prestress steel. This returns to the lower initial
allowable stress for the prestress steel at jacking as per ECP 203 0.80 or 0.70 while EC2 allows
higher values 0.80 or 0.90 0.1 .
Prestress area steel in mm2
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
834
1668
2641
4448
5977
7228
8479
10286
11954
EC2
973
1668
2363
4170
5282
6533
7645
9035
10425
Span in m
Figure 30 Comparison of prestress steel area between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
58
Results
Figure 31 shows that the eccentricity chosen for ECP 203 is higher than that for EC2 and this is obviously
due to higher depth used in ECP 203.
1600
Eccentricity in mm
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
125
265
415
480
630
805
1005
1180
1355
EC2
110
265
425
475
625
775
950
1100
1275
Span in m
Figure 31 Comparison of eccentricity of prestress steel between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 32 shows that the ultimate moment as per ECP 203 is higher than that as per EC2 which is due to
higher partial safety factors in ECP 203 (1.4 for dead load and 1.6 for live load) versus (1.35 for dead load
and 1.5 for live load).
Ultimate moment in kN.m
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
ECP 245.59 1026.09 2407.15 4712.5 7691.41 11626.9 16683
40
45
22770 30058.6
EC2 215.12 896.41 2087.67 4016.88 6545.9 9814.22 13974.6 18942.5 24992.9
Span in m
Figure 32 Comparison of ultimate moment between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
59
Results
Figure 33 illustrates that also the capacity moment is higher for ECP 203 cross-sections.
Capacity moment in kN.m
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
ECP 269.41 1045.77 2407.16 4895.7 7738.68 11697.1 17212.2 23236

EC2 227.37
45
30187
979.7 2199.69 4239.4 6816.35 10072.2 14512 19282.2 25478.2
Span in m
Figure 33 Comparison of capacity moment between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Ratio between capacity and demand

moments
Figure 34 indicates that the ratio between the capacity moment and demand moment is relatively higher
in case of EC2 design which suggests higher efficiency.
1.12
1.1
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
10
ECP 1.097 1.0192
15
1
20
25
30
35
40
45
1.0389 1.0061 1.006 1.0317 1.0205 1.0043
EC2 1.0569 1.0929 1.0537 1.0554 1.0413 1.0263 1.0385 1.0179 1.0194
Span in m
Figure 34 Comparison of ratio between capacity and demand moments between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
60
Results
Non-prestress area steel in mm2
Figure 35 shows that the minimum area steel is also higher in ECP 203 case.
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP 452.39 791.68 1130.97 2035.75 2375.04 2940.53 3392.92 3958.41 4410.8
EC2 226.19 452.39 565.49 904.78 1130.97 1470.27 1696.46 1922.65 2148.85
Span in m
Figure 35 Comparison of non-prestress steel between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 36 emphasizes that the ultimate shear demand is higher according to ECP 203 due higher partial
factors of safety.
Ultiamte shear demand in kN
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP 178.79 375.55 588.41 876.52 1146.94 1444.32 1773.16 2117.61 2484.84
EC2 147.07 304.85 475.13 707.05 921.75 1151.62 1400.97 1662.3 1945.23
Span in m
Figure 36 Comparison of ultimate shear demand between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
61
Results
It was obviously expected that the shear capacity would be significantly different due to completely
different analogies adopted in the two codes. Figure 37 acknowledges this assumption with considerably
higher values as per EC2.
Ultiamte shear capacity in kN
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP 147.07 304.85 475.13 707.05 921.75 1151.62 1400.97 1662.3 1945.23
EC2 290.5
556.49 799.95 1422.32 1809.13 2216.27 2670.5 3113.55 3606.48
Span in m
Figure 37 Comparison of ultimate shear capacity between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 38 shows that, at relatively short spans, the short term losses are significantly high but gradually
decreases till 25 m and then starts gradually to increase. This indicates the unpracticality of using
prestressed beams in short spans.
The values of and k are 0.3 and 0.0033 for ECP 203 and 0.19 and 0.008 for EC2. This leads to high
differences between the losses percentages between the two codes, however in normal practice these
factors are to be directly taken from the manufacturer rather than recommended values in codes.
Short term losses in %
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
ECP 12.14
9.64
EC2
7.1
9.01
20
25
8.62
7.7
7.4
6.15
5.33
5.1
30
35
40
45
9.86
10.7
4.93
4.78
5.42
Span in m
Figure 38 Comparison of short term losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
62
Results
Figure 39 illustrates that relaxation losses are higher in EC2. The equations used to determine relaxation
losses in the two codes are relatively different leading to such immense variation.
Relaxation losses in %
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
1.2
1.44
1.59
1.73
1.78
1.75
1.72
1.71
1.69
EC2
3.14
2.92
2.94
2.93
2.87
2.76
2.86
2.84
2.82
Span in m
Figure 39 Comparison of relaxation losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 40 shows that the shrinkage losses are higher as per EC2, as well. Shrinkage losses are constant in
ECP 203 case as it is proposed by the code to take a constant value for shrinkage strain depending on
whether the beam is pre-tensioned or post-tensioned.
Shrinkage losses in %
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89
EC2
4.45
3.97
3.94
3.58
3.5
3.35
3.46
3.43
3.4
Span in m
Figure 40 Comparison of shrinkage losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
63
Results
Figure 41 indicates that the creep losses are higher in ECP 203 case. Although the creep coefficient
according to EC2 is higher, the creep losses in ECP 203 case are larger. This returns to the lower modulus
of elasticity assumed by ECP 203.
12
Creep losses in %
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP
7.94
9.81
9.95
10
10.78
10.56
10.54
10.66
10.57
EC2
7.5
7.55
7.18
6.55
7.85
7.4
7.18
7.76
Span in m
Figure 41 Comparison of creep losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
Figure 42 illustrates the difference in the long term losses. Though differences between the two codes
exist in relaxation, shrinkage and creep, the difference in the long term losses is relatively small.
18
Long term losses in %
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
ECP 12.03
14.14
14.43
14.62
EC2 15.08
14.44
14.05
13.07
15.45
15.2
15.15
15.26
15.15
14.22
13.51
14.32
13.44
13.98
Span in m
Figure 42 Comparison of long term losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
64
Results
Figure 43 shows the difference in the total losses (short term and long term). The graph indicates that the
difference is almost negligible. It is noteworthy that at spans of 20 m to 25 m, losses are found to be
lowest; therefore, a span of 24 m was chosen for the bridge case study.
30
Total losses in %
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
27.3
25.79
23.99
22.25
22.44
22.56
22.92
23.21
23.35
EC2 28.51
24.84
23.22
20.94
21.96
22.23
23.83
23.79
25.13
ECP
Span in m
Figure 43 Comparison of total losses between Egyptian codes and Eurocodes
7.2
Case study
Point of comparison
ECP design
EC design
Loads
Service loads
Dead and traffic loads at service state are exactly the same according to
the two codes.
Ultimate loads
EC1 has higher combination factors than ECP 201 leading to slightly
higher ultimate moment demand.
= 3242 .
= 3378 .
Self-equilibrating
stresses
Shrinkage stresses
Thermal stresses
The self-equilibrating stresses due to shrinkage of cast in-situ slab are

higher in the case of EC2; the reason behind this is that the shrinkage
strain according to EC2 is higher than that of ECP 203. Moreover, the
modulus of elasticity of EC2 is higher than that of ECP 203.
= 0.21 103
= 0.33 103
= 26.03
= 31.48
The self-equilibrating stresses due to thermal gradient is different due to

the different assumptions of temperature gradients as per the two
codes.
65
Results
Choice of section
Due to the similarity in the external service loads, the same depth is used
in both designs.
Jacking force and

eccentricity
Due to higher self-equilibrating stresses in case of EC2, larger prestress

force must be used. On the other hand, the eccentricity in EC2 is lower
than in ECP 203.
= 4500
= 3800
= 580
= 625
Shear limit state
The capacity moment highly surpasses the ultimate moment demand

for the two codes design.
= 5802.46 .
= 5370.89 .
The design according to ECP

203 showed that the concrete
strength to resist applied shear
force is sufficient so minimum
reinforcement was applied.
On the contrary, EC2 design showed

the need for shear reinforcement;
relatively not higher than obligatory
minimum shear reinforcement. The
interfacial shear demand was not
critical to add special reinforcement
other
than
normal
shear
reinforcement.
8 200
10 200
The difference in shear reinforcement is up to the entirely different

analogies adopted in the two codes.
Serviceability limit state
Deflection control
The total long term deflection is slightly different in the two codes.
= 0.48
= 1.5
Although, the eccentricity at the support is higher in case of ECP 203

leading to higher camber, the total long term deflection is still higher.
This is up to the different methodologies adopted by the two codes.
While ECP 203 considers the creep effect through a factor which
depends on compression steel, EC2 considers its effect through an
effective modulus of elasticity , =
= 170
Crack control
(0 )
1+(,t0 )
= 160
The crack limit state was satisfied by limiting the steel stress to the
recommended values in the codes and by applying minimum steel
reinforcement. ECP 203 requires considerably higher minimum
reinforcement than EC2.
= 1690.47 2
= 1017.88 2
66
Results
Prestress losses
Short term losses
Only the elastic shortening takes place and the values are almost equal.
= 7.79 %
Long term losses
6.45 = %
The long term losses are nearly equal, as well.

= 10.22 %
= 10.48 %
Figure 44 and Figure 45 show the final cross-section detailing at the mid span for ECP 203 and EC2,
respectively:
Figure 44 Detailed cross-section at mid span according to ECP 203 design
Figure 45 Detailed cross-section at mid span according to EC2 design
67
Conclusion
Conclusion
Prestressed concrete beams utilization has always proved its efficiency and effectiveness in construction
of buildings and even bridges providing economic, durable and aesthetic solutions. The reduction of the
required beam depth compared to reinforced concrete has a great effect on the dead load acting on the
beam, therefore, allows for much longer spans than reinforced concrete with the full usage of the
concrete section due to limiting the tensile stresses.
However, it was clear in the results obtained from the parametric study that using prestressed concrete
beams for short spans is unpractical and uneconomic due to high prestress force losses in addition the
required minimum depth of the beam is nearly similar to that in case of reinforced concrete, thus, wasting
the advantage of prestressed concrete.
The optimum spans for prestressed concrete beams were found to be ranging between 20 to 25 m. This
choice was according to the lowest prestress force losses and highest span to depth ratios. Consequently,
the bridge span was assumed to be 24 m in the case study.
Throughout the results which cover post-tensioned and pre-tensioned beams in the parametric and case
studies, similarities and differences between the Egyptian codes and the Eurocodes were pointed out.
Mainly, the design according to the two codes often resulted in nearly similar sections with relatively small
differences.
The most noticeable differences between the two codes included the partial factors of safety for actions.
ECP 203 obliges higher values; which indicates more expected construction errors, lower material qualities
and less accurate design assumptions.
The modulus of elasticity is extremely different according to the two codes, with much higher values as
per EC2. This leads to many differences in terms of prestress losses.
The analogy of shear stresses is entirely different in the two codes. While EC2 contains rigorous methods
to determine shear capacity governed by many factors, ECP 203 offers simpler methods.
The total losses are always very close, however, relaxation losses are obviously different due to different
equations used in the two codes.
These differences lead to slightly more economic and efficient design according to Eurocodes.
Future recommendations include studying the difference between the two codes in terms of different
equations and analogies, analyzing the reasons behind them and recommending the most optimum
methods.
Real applicable experiments can be performed to determine how much each codes recommendations
are precise and accurate relatively to actual values. Subsequently, different provisions in the two codes
(factors of safety, allowable stresses, prestress losses, flexural and shear capacities) can be revised and
optimized to reach the most accurate and precise form.
68
References
References
[1]
The Egyptian code of practice of reinforced concrete structures design (ECP 203-2007).
[2]
The Egyptian code of practice of loads on structures (ECP 201), 2012th ed.
[3]
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (EN
1992-1-1:2004) and part 2: Design of Bridges (EN 1992-2:2004).
[4]
12).
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part2: Traffic loads (EN 1991-2:2003 and DIN EN 1991-2:2010-
[5]
A. H. Nilson, Design of Prestressed Concrete, 2 edition. New York: Wiley, 1987.
[6]
D. P. Billington, HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PRESTRESSED CONCRETE, PCI Journal, vol. 49, no.
1, Feb. 2004.
[7]
T. Dinges, The history of prestressed concrete: 1888 to 1963, Kansas State University, Report,
May 2009.
[8]
G. Magnel, Prestressed Concrete. McGraw-Hill, 1954.
[9]
T. Y. Lin, Load-Balancing Method for Design and Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Structures, JP,
vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 719742, Jun. 1963.
[10]
T. C. Engineer, Construction Updates: PRESTRESSING METHOD IN MULTI-STORIED BUILDING
FRAME..
[11]
R. A. Hawileh, F. A. Malhas, and A. Rahman, Comparison between ACI 318-05 and Eurocode 2
(EC2-94) in flexural concrete design, Structural Engineering and Mechanics, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 705724,
Aug. 2009.
[12]
M. M. Bakhoum, S. A. Mourad, and M. M. Hassan, Comparison of actions and resistances in
different building design codes, vol. Journal of Advanced Research, Nov. 2015.
[13]
A. El-Shennawy, V. Boros, and B. Novk, Comparison between the Provisions of the Egyptian
Code of Practice and the Eurocodes for Reinforced Concrete Structures Design, presented at the World
Sustainable Building 2014 Barcelona Conference - Conference Proceedings, 2014, vol. 5, p. 7.
[14]
Pre-Stressed Steel: Part One:: Total Materia Article, Aug-2008. [Online]. Available:
http://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=230. [Accessed: 30-Jul-2016].
[15]
W. H. Mosley, R. Hulse, and J. H. Bungey, Reinforced Concrete Design: To Eurocode 2, 7th Revised
edition edition. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
[16]
M. Ghoneim and M. Mihilmy, DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES VOLUME 2,
Second edition-2008.
[17]
Eurocode - Basis of structural design (EN 1990:2002+A1) and DIN EN 1990:2010-12.
[18]
M. K. Hurst, Prestressed Concrete Design, Second Edition. CRC Press, 2002.
[19]
F. Menkulasi, Horizontal Shear Connectors for Precast Prestressed Bridge Decks, Virginia Tech,
2002.
[20]
Chris R. Hendy and David A. Smith, Designers Guide to EN 1992-2 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures. Thomas Telford Publishing, 2007.
[21]
A. W. Beeby, R. S. Narayanan, and H. Gulvanessian, Designers Guide to Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures. Thomas Telford Publishing, 2005.
[22]
P. Bhatt, Prestressed Concrete Design to Eurocodes, 1 edition. London; New York: CRC Press,
2011.
69
Appendices
Appendices
Appendix A: Parametric study example according to Eurocodes span 45 m
70
Appendices
71
Appendices
72
Appendices
73
Appendices
74
Appendices
75
Appendices
76
Appendices
77
Appendices
78
Appendices
79
Appendices
80
Appendices
81
Appendices
Appendix B: Parametric study example according to Egyptian codes span 45 m
82
Appendices
83
Appendices
84
Appendices
85
Appendices
86
Appendices
87
Appendices
88
Appendices
89
Appendices
90
Appendices
Appendix C: Design of composite beam section according to Eurocodes
91
Appendices
92
Appendices
93
Appendices
94
Appendices
95
Appendices
96
Appendices
97
Appendices
98
Appendices
99
Appendices
100
Appendices
101
Appendices
102
Appendices
103
Appendices
104
Appendices
105
Appendices
106
Appendices
107
Appendices
108
Appendices
109
Appendices
Appendix D: Design of composite beam section according to Egyptian codes
110
Appendices
111
Appendices
112
Appendices
113
Appendices
114
Appendices
115
Appendices
116
Appendices
117
Appendices
118
Appendices
119
Appendices
120
Appendices
121

Bachelor Thesis Prestressed Concrete

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Bachelor Thesis Prestressed Concrete

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Bachelor thesis

Comparison between design provisions of prestressed

Mostafa Abdelmoniem Harraz

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Balthasar Novk

M.Sc. Eng. Ahmed El-Shennawy

Institut fr Leichtbau Entwerfen und Konstruieren

Loads and actions on structures buildings (ECP 201)

and the Eurocodes:

Eurocode - Basis of structural design (EC0)

Advantages and disadvantages of prestressing ........................................................................... 4

Methods of prestressing .............................................................................................................. 5

Profile of prestressing tendon ...................................................................................................... 6

Prestressed concrete materials properties .................................................................................. 7

Magnels diagram ....................................................................................................................... 12

Ultimate moment of resistance ................................................................................................. 13

Effect of prestress force on deflection ....................................................................................... 14

Eurocode provisions .............................................................................................................................15

Material properties .................................................................................................................... 16

Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements .............................................. 16

Load combinations ..................................................................................................................... 16

Allowable stresses ...................................................................................................................... 18

Losses in prestress force............................................................................................................. 18

Elastic shortening ....................................................................................................... 18

Curvature and wobble friction ................................................................................... 19

Anchorage draw-in ..................................................................................................... 20

Long term losses ..................................................................................................................... 20

Ultimate limit states ................................................................................................................... 22

Shear design of the beam ........................................................................................... 22

Interface shear design ................................................................................................ 25

Serviceability limit states ............................................................................................................ 26

Egyptian code provisions .....................................................................................................................31

Material properties .................................................................................................................... 31

Classes of exposure, minimum cover and spacing requirements .............................................. 32

Load combinations ..................................................................................................................... 32

Allowable stresses ...................................................................................................................... 32

Losses in pretstress force ........................................................................................................... 33

Elastic shortening ....................................................................................................... 34

Anchorage draw-in ..................................................................................................... 34

Long term losses ..................................................................................................................... 34

Ultimate limit states ................................................................................................................... 35

Serviceability limit states ............................................................................................................ 36

Case study introduction ............................................................................................................. 39

Design according to Eurocodes .................................................................................................. 41

The dead load acting on the bridge ............................................................................ 41

The live load acting on the bridge .............................................................................. 41

Shrinkage stress calculation ....................................................................................... 46

Thermal stress calculation .......................................................................................... 46

Load combinations ..................................................................................................... 47

Magnels diagram ................................................................................................................... 48

Flexural limit state ...................................................................................................... 51

Shear limit state.......................................................................................................... 51

Serviceability limit states ........................................................................................................ 51

Deflection control ....................................................................................................... 51

Crack control .............................................................................................................. 51

Prestress losses ...................................................................................................................... 51

Design according to Egyptian codes ........................................................................................... 52

The dead load acting on the bridge ............................................................................ 52

The live load acting on the bridge .............................................................................. 52

Shrinkage stress calculation ....................................................................................... 52

Thermal stress calculation .......................................................................................... 52

Magnels diagram ................................................................................................................... 53

Flexural limit state ...................................................................................................... 56

Shear limit state.......................................................................................................... 56