Instrumentation and Systems EE 892

(3+0)
Objectives of todays lecture

Pressure

Pressure
The measurement of Pressure is one of the major
process measurements used for process control.
The pressure of almost any liquid or gas that is stored
or moved must be known to ensure safe and reliable
operations.
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area over
which that force is applied. Force is anything that
changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion
of a body. Area is the number of unit squares equal to
the surface of an object.

Units
The standard SI unit for pressure is the newton per square
meter (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa).

 Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure due to the weight of

the atmosphere above the point where it is measured.
Atmospheric pressure changes at different elevations
because at higher elevations there is less weight of air above
that elevation than at lower elevations. Atmospheric
pressure also changes with from day to day with changes in
the weather.

 Absolute Pressure is pressure measured with a perfect

vacuum as the zero point of the scale. When measuring

absolute pressure, the units increase as the pressure
increases. Absolute pressure cannot be less than zero and is
unaffected by changes in atmospheric pressure. Absolute
Zero Pressure is a perfect vacuum.
When measuring pressure using a gauge to show anything
above absolute pressure, the gauge to indicate both pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure and the actual
atmospheric pressure is called a PSIA gauge. The PSIA gauge
is a pound-per square-inch gauge that will also measure the
pressure less than the atmospheric pressure.

 Gauge Pressure is pressure measued with atmospheric

pressure as the zero point on the scale. When
measuring gauge pressure, the units increase as the
pressure increases.
Negative Gauge Pressure is gauge pressure less than
zero. Negative gauge pressure indicates the presence of
a partial vacuum. The only difference between absolute
pressure and gauge pressure is the zero point on the
scale. A gauge that indicates the difference between
absolute pressure and gauge pressure is depicted
below:

 Vacuum gauge pressure is pressure measured

with atmospheric pressure as the zero point on
the scale as indicated on the Pressure Vacuum
Gauge above. When measuring vacuum, the
units will decrease below the zero indication of
the gauge into the vacuum range reading.
Vacuum pressure measurement is used when a
process measurement is used when a process is
maintained at less than atmospheric pressure.

 Head Pressure is the

actual height of a column
of liquid. A container or
vessel can be any shape;
but the head is only
determined by the height
of the liquid. For example,
the head of water in water
towers of a different
shape depends only on
the height of the water as
depicted below:
Head is expressed in units
of length such as inches or
feet, and includes a
statement of which liquid
is being measured. Head
may be expressed as
inches or feet of water or
inches of mercury.

 Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure

due to the head of a liquid column
and is frequently referred to as head
pressure. The hydrostatic pressure is
not only dependent on height, but
also on the properties of the liquid.
For example mercury is heavier than
water with different densities.
Where mercury is much denser than
water, a shorter column of mercury
produces a hydrostatic pressure
equivalent to a much taller column
of water. The formula for
determining pressure is: Pressure =
Density times the Height (P = DH)
as depicted below:

 Mechanical Pressure Measurement devices

Manometer
Manometers are used to provide a visible pressure measurement and to
perform accurate pressure measurement of pressure sensing devices.
Manometers are used as an indicating device connected to pressure
sensing devices with actual pressure being applied to both the pressure
sensing device and the manometer to verify accurate sensing capabilities
to the device being calibrated.
Manometers are used to measure positive or negative pressure, and
differential pressures. They are used in a process control environment to
provide a variety of process measurement functions such as, pressure,
level, and density. Operations personnel use them as a visual indication
for recording and documenting specific process conditions.
Manometers are indicating devices and cannot be remotely transmitted;
however the pressure being applied to the solution can be detected and
transmitted.

Four types of manometers

U-Tube
Inclined
Well
Barometer

 U-Tube Manometer is a glass tube bent into the shape

of elongated letter U. Liquid, usually water, alcohol, or
mercury is poured into the tube until the level in both
columns is at mid scale, or zero. The scale is adjustable
to accommodate an accurate zero reading with no
signal applied to the manometer tube.
In operation, a pressure is applied to one of the columns
and the other side is left open to atmospheric pressure.
The level in the higher-pressure side decreases and the
level in the lower-pressure side increases. The
difference in height of the two liquid columns is
represents the applied pressure (for example, a 2 inch
reading would represent a pressure of 4 inches).
Manometer manufactures offer manometer fluids with
a choice of densities. Densities are expressed as specific
gravity and are the ratio of the density of a fluid to the
density of a reference fluid.

 Inclined Manometer is a manometer with a reservoir serving as

one end and the measuring column at an angle to the horizontal

to reduce the vertical height. The fill liquid is usually water and
may have a die to improve readability. Like the U-Tube
manometer, the reservoir may also be filled with manufactured
liquids having a specific gravity of: 0.826, 1.000, 1.750, 2.950, and
mercury at 13.6.
The purpose of the angled tube is to lengthen the scale for easier
reading. This type of manometer is used for low-pressure
applications because it is difficult to accurately read low pressures
in a vertical tube. For example, an HVAC system may only have a
static pressure drop of 0.1 inches of water to 0.2 inches of water.
Under these circumstances, it is easier to get an accurate reading
with an inclined-tube manometer over an U-Tube manometer.
One problem with inclined-tube manometers is even the smallest
collection of condensed water in an inclined-tube manometer can
generate very significant measurement errors. If this happens, it
can be corrected by either changing the zero point, or by applying
an additional head to the reservoir and changing the differential
pressure measurement.

 Well-Type Manometer is a manometer with a

vertical glass tube connected to a metal well, with
the measuring liquid in the well at the same level as
the zero point on the tube scale. The well-type
manometer is the most common type of
manometer used.

 Barometer is a manometer used to

measure atmospheric pressure.
Barometric Pressure is a pressure reading
made with a barometer. The earliest
barometer was a long vertical glass tube
that had been sealed at the bottom and
filled with mercury. The open end was
then turned upside down into a
container of mercury without allowing
any air into the tube. The mercury in the
tube falls to a level where the head of
the mercury is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
As atmospheric pressure changes, the
level of the mercury changes as well.

 The dead-weight tester is a device used for

balancing a fluid pressure with a known weight.
Typically, it is a device used for static calibration of
pressure gages and is seldom employed for an
actual pressure measurement. Our discussion will
be concerned only with the use of the dead-weight
tester as a calibration device.
Dead Weight Testers are devices using hydraulic
fluid to develop a pressure to a set of calibrated
weights. When the weights lift and rotate freely,
that pressure is equal to the weights and the
pressure is applied to a pressure sensor to verify
calibration. Below are pictures of both a high
pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) dead weight
pressure testers set up calibrating pressure gauges:

Bourdon Tube
A Mechanical Pressure Spring device is hollow tube
formed in to a helical, spiral, or C shape.
The bourdon tube is the original pressure C shaped spring
that is flattened into an elliptical cross section. All of the
pressure spring devices move with pressure applied and
this movement is captured by a pointing device, switch, or
transducer providing a local or remote indication.
Bourdon-tube pressure gages enjoy a wide range of
application where consistent, inexpensive measurements
of static pressure are desired. They are commercially
available in many sizes (1- to 16-in diameter) and
accuracies.

 The construction of a bourdon-tube gage is shown in Fig. 6.7. The

bourdon tube itself is usually an elliptical cross-sectional tube
having a C-shape configuration.
When the pressure is applied to the inside of the tube, an elastic
deformation results, which, ideally, is proportional to the pressure.
The degree of linearity depends on the quality of the gage. The
end of the gage is connected to a spring-loaded linkage, which
amplifies the displacement and transforms it to an angular
rotation of the pointer.
The linkage is constructed so that the mechanism may be adjusted
for optimum linearity and minimum hysteresis, as well as to
compensate for wear which may develop over a period of time.

Bellow
Bellows-Pressure sensing devices are elastic deformation
elements, that flex (twist or expand) with changes in
pressure. The movement is transferred via linkage to
indicate or to transmit a pressure signal remotely.
Bellows are differential pressure sensing devices mainly
used in low pressure ranges of about 0 to 1000 Pascals.
Here we show a set of metallic bellows, held inside a
protective casing. The bellows are made of a thin copper
alloy tube pressed into a corrugated shape. This is sealed
at one end, with a small hole at the other end.
When pressure is applied via the hole, the bellows expand
a distance d. This displacement can be calibrated in terms
of pressure.

Diaphragm
The diaphragm flexes in response to an
applied pressure. This flexing motion moves a
pointer on a scale.

 The diaphragm will be deflected in accordance

with this pressure differential and the deflection
sensed by an appropriate displacement
transducer. Electrical-resistance strain gages may
also be installed on the diaphragm, as shown in
Fig. 6.9. The output of these gages is a function
of the local strain, which, in turn, may be related
to the diaphragm deflection and pressure
differential.

Capsule Device
A Mechanical Pressure Capsule device is a
mechanical pressure sensor consisting of two
convoluted metal diaphragms with their outer
edges welded, brazed, or soldered to provide an
empty chamber. One of the diaphragms is
connected at its center to metal tubing to admit
fluid to the chamber. The other diaphragm is
fitted with a mechanical connection to the
indicator or fitted with a transducer to transmit
the pressure signal.

Potentiometric Pressure Sensors

Potentiometric pressure sensor use a Bourdon
tube, capsule, or bellows to drive a wiper arm on
a resistive element.
For reliable operation the wiper must bear on
the element with some force, which leads to
repeatability and hysteresis errors.
These devices are very low cost, however, and
are used in low-performance applications such
as dashboard oil pressure gauges.

 Potentiometric
pressure sensors use a
Bourdon tube, capsule,
or bellows to drive a
wiper arm on a
resistive element. Such
sensors tend to be
inexpensive,
but
subject to repeatability
and hysteresis errors.

Bellow-resistance pressure sensor

The pressure is proportionate to the resistivity.

The resistance change is detected by displacement of sliding

contact in the resistance element.

Bellows

Calibrated spring

Resistance

Sliding contact

Output Signal

STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE SENSOR

Strain gauge is a type of resistive transduction.

Pressure measurement is obtained from
displacement of elastic element.
Pressure is measured through force that is
exerted on the diaphragm where the force will
be detected by the strain gauge and resistance
change will be produced.
Wheatstone Bridge circuit is used to detect the
change in pressure and an amplifier is used to
amplify the small output signals.

Capacitive Pressure Sensors

Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as one plate of a

capacitor. Applied pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the capacitance
to change.
This change may or may not be linear and is typically on the order of several Pico
farads out of a total capacitance of 50-100 pF.
The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency of an oscillator
or to vary the coupling of an AC signal through a network.
The electronics for signal conditioning should be located close to the sensing
element to prevent errors due to stray capacitance. The capacitance of two
parallel plates is given by:

C = A/d
where:

A
d

= dielectric constant of the material between the plates

= area of the plates
= spacing between the plates

 If the dielectric constant of the material between the plates isn't

kept constant, errors may result.
Capacitive absolute pressure sensors with a vacuum between the
plates are ideal in this respect. Because the capacitance of this
sensor depends only on physical parameters, sensors with good
performance can be constructed using materials with low
coefficients of thermal expansion.
Since the device has to be fairly large to obtain a usable signal,
frequency response may be a problem in some applications.
Also, low-pressure capacitive sensors exhibit acceleration and
vibration sensitivity due to the necessity for a large, thin
diaphragm.

Diaphragm-capacitance pressure sensor

The pressure is proportionate to the capacitance

change at the output through dielectric change.

Pressure from the sensor element causes the

diaphragm to move towards the plate and produces
dielectric change.

Resistance Type
Capacitance Type

Inductive Pressure Sensors

Several configurations based on varying inductance or
inductive coupling are used in pressure sensors.
They all require AC excitation of the coil(s) and, if a DC
output is desired, subsequent demodulation and
filtering.
The linear variable differential transformer(LVDT)
types have a fairly low frequency response due to the
necessity of driving the moving core of the differential
transformer .
The LVDT uses the moving core to vary the inductive
coupling between the transformer primary and
secondary.

LVDT pressure sensor, one

configuration of inductive devices,
drives a moving core that varies the
inductive coupling between the
transformer primary and secondary.

Bellow-inductance pressure sensor

The pressure is proportionate to the inductance

change which is detected from the displacement of
the core in the wire coil.

The core movement will produce AC signal output

which will give the value and direction of inductance.

LVDT (linear variable differential transformer)

demodulator is used to convert the AC output to DC.

Bellows

Core

Output Signal

PIZOELECTRIC PRESSURE SENSOR

Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers capable
of converting stress into an electric potential and vice versa.
They consist of metallized quartz or ceramic materials.
One important factor to remember is that this is a dynamic
effect, providing an output only when the input is changing.
This means that these sensors can be used only for varying
pressures.
The piezoelectric element has a high-impedance output and
care must be taken to avoid loading the output by the
interface electronics.
Some piezoelectric pressure sensors include an internal
amplifier to provide an easy electrical interface.

Mechanical Stress

Piezoelectric
Material

Plate

Output
Voltage

Mechanical Stress

Dynamic Effect
Static pressure is measured under steady-state or equilibrium
conditions, but most real-life applications deal with dynamic or
changing pressure.
For example, the measurement of blood pressure usually gives the
two steady-state values of systolic and diastolic pressure. There is
much additional information in the shape of the blood pressure
signal, however, which is the reason for the monitors used in
critical-care situations.

To measure changing pressures, the frequency response of the

sensor must be considered. As a rough approximation, the sensor
frequency response should be 5-10 times the highest frequency
component in the pressure signal.

 The frequency response is defined as the highest frequency that

the sensor will measure without distortion or attenuation.
Sometimes the response time is given instead. For a first-order
system, they are related as follows:

FB =
where:
FB
= frequency where the response is reduced by 50%

= time constant where the output rises to 63% of its final

value following a step input change
Another issue is the remote measurement of pressure where a
liquid coupling medium is used. Care must be taken to purge all air
because its compressibility will corrupt the waveform.

 Read Section 6.2 for further analysis.

Low level pressure measurement methods.