Module B

PSYCHOLOGY

Part 1

INTRODUCTION

Psychology Defined
Psychology is defined as the scientific
study of the behaviour of living organisms,
with special attention to human
behaviour.

Schools of Thought
1. Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud
Existence of unconscious mental
processes which influenced an individuals
behaviour in various indirect ways.

Schools of Thought
2. Behaviourism
John B. Watson.
Stimulus Response approach

Schools of Thought
3. Humanistic
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Emphasis on the unique qualities of
humans, especially their freedom of choice
and decision making, as well as their
potential for personal growth.

Schools of Thought
4. Cognitive
Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert
Simon
Focused on thought and mental processes.
Human behaviour cannot be fully
understood without analyzing how people
acquire, store and process information.

Schools of Thought
5. Biological
James Olds and Roger Sperry
Human and animal behaviour can be
explained in terms of bodily structure and
biochemical processes.

Part 2

BIOPSYCHOLOGY

1. Higher mental processes such as

thinking, learning and decision
making are functions of the:
a. cerebellum

c. cerebrum

b. thalamus

d. medulla

2. A person with difficulty enunciating

words correctly and speak in a slow,
labored way most likely have damage in:
a. Wernickes area
motor area

c. primary

b. Brocas area
cortex

d. prefrontal

3. Which regions of the brain lead to

undereating and overeating, respectively?
a. lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus
b. ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus
c. ventromedial hypothalamus only
d. lateral hypothalamus

Part 3

SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION

Sensation
Results when any of the sense organs are
stimulated. For a sensation to occur, there
must be receptors, which are specialized
sensitive cells that respond to stimulus.

Sensory System
SIGHT
STIMULUS

RECEPTOR

SMELL

PERCEPTION

TOUCH

HEARING

Light

Chemical

Chemical

Pressure, Touch, Sound

Temperature

Cones,
Rods

Olfactory
receptor

Taste buds

MechanoReceptors,
thermoreceptors

Organ of
Corti

Optic

Trigeminal

Glossopharyngeal,
Facial,
Vagus

Spinal nerves

Auditory,
Vestibular

Thalamus

Olfactory bulb Thalamus

Thalamus

Thalamus

Visual
Cortex

Olfactory
Cortex

Somatosensory
Cortex

Primary
Auditory
Cortex

NERVE

RELAY
CENTER

TASTE

Gustatory
Cortex

Vision
Cones operate at high intensities, lead to
sensations of color, and are found only in
the center (or fovea) of the retina.
Rods operate at low intensities, lead to
colorless sensations, and predominate in
the periphery of the retina.

Perception
It is the process of recognizing and
interpreting sensory stimuli.
The study of perception deals with two
major functions of the perceptual system:
LOCALIZATION, or determining where
objects are, and RECOGNITION,
determining what objects are.

Extrasensory Perception
ESP is a response to external stimuli without
any known sensory contact.
Telepathy: Thought transference from one
person to another without the mediation of
any known channel of sensory
communication.

Psychokinesis: Mental influence over

physical events without the intervention of
any known physical force.

Extrasensory Perception
Clairvoyance: Perception of objects or
events that do not provide a stimulus to
the known senses. The ability to perceive
objects or events.
Precognition: is the ability to foretell
future events. Perception of a future event
that could not be anticipated through any
known inferential.

Part 4

CONSCIOUSNESS

Consciousness
Consciousness is the state or quality of
awareness, or, of being aware of an
external object or something within
oneself.
It has been defined as: sentience,
awareness, the ability to experience or to
feel, wakefulness, and the executive
control system of the mind.

Altered State Of
Consciousness
Examples are dreams and sleep,
meditation, hypnosis and the use of drugs.

Sleep
To take the rest afforded by a suspension
of voluntary bodily function, and the
natural suspension, complete or partial, of
consciousness.

Sleep
There are four stages of NREM sleep + REM
NREM sleep is characterized by an idle brain in a
very relaxed body.
REM sleep is characterized by a brain that
appears to be wide awake in a virtually paralyzed
body.
Sleepers awakened during REM sleep almost always
report having a dream, but when awakened during
NREM sleep they will report having a dream only
about 25% of the time.

Dream
Are remembered images and fantasies are
temporarily confused with external reality.
Everybody dreams
Dreams last about as long as they would in real
life
Sometimes, people do know when they are
dreaming (lucid).
People can control the content of their dreams.
Dream content, as explained by Freud, are a
disguised attempt at wish fulfillment.

Meditation
Refers to a family of mental exercises in
which a conscious attempt is made to focus
attention in a non-analytical way.
Dynamic consciousness means an ability
on of the person to be in the appropriate state
of attention for the task in hand. In particular
a static state of right-brain awareness
combined with a predominantly Alpha
(relaxed) meditative detachment.

Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that
typically produces a heightened state of
suggestibility. It may lead to passive
relaxation, narrowed attention and
enhanced fantasy.
Some people are more readily hypnotized
than others, although most people show
some susceptibility.

Psychoactive Drugs
Drug dependence is characterized by
tolerance, withdrawal and compulsive use.
Stimulants
Depressants
Hallucinogens

Attention
Selective attention is the process by
which we select some stimuli for further
processing while ignoring others. Selective
looking and selective listening (e.g.
cocktail party phenomenon) both
exist.

7. Aladdin, upon getting hold of the magic

lamp, asked the genie to give him the power
of precognition, meaning:
a. the ability to read what another person is
thinking
b. to move things in space without physical
intervention
c. to perceive future events
d. to perceive objects that do not provide
stimulus to the known senses

8. Which statement best differentiates NREM from REM

sleep?
a. NREM sleep is characterized by a brain that appears
wide awake in a virtually paralyzed body, while REM sleep
is characterized by an idle brain.
b. Sleepers wakened during REM sleep almost always
report having a dream as compared to NREM sleep where
they report dreams only 25% of the time.
c. Dreams in NREM are visually vivid and have emotional
features while dreams in REM are more like normal
thinking.
d. none of the above

Part 5

LEARNING

Learning
Learning the process of acquiring
new & lasting information or
behaviors.
We learn by association.

Classical Conditioning
One of most famous contributors in the study of
learning is Ivan Pavlov.
Classical Conditioning: A form of learning
that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is
linked to another neutral stimulus and therefore
acquires the power to elicit a consistent and
innate reflex. Upon repetition, the individual
will come to expect this response.

Classical Conditioning
Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus,
when paired with a natural reflex-producing
stimulus, will begin to produce a learned
response, even when it is presented by itself.
Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that
produces no conditioned response prior to
learning.

Pavlovs Experiment

Components of Conditioning
There are 5 main components of
conditioning.
Classical Conditioning always involves these
parts. They are:
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)

Extinction
Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening)
of a learned or conditioned response,
when an unconditioned stimulus does not
follow a conditioned stimulus.

Reinforcement Procedures
Generalization: Similar stimulus
evoke similar responses
Discrimination: The ability to
distinguish between two similar signals
stimulus.

Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in
which the probability of a behavioral response is
changed by its consequence, that is, by the stimuli
that follows the response.

Operant Conditioning
Behavioral responses are strengthened
when followed by a reinforcer:
and diminished when followed by a
punisher

Operant Chamber: a chamber with a bar or a key that an animal can

manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce while an attached device
records the animals rate of bar-pressing or key turning.

Reinforcement
A reinforcer is a condition in which the
presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs
after a response (behavior), strengthens that
response or makes it more likely to happen again
in the future.
Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented
after a response that increases the probability of
that response happening again.

Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an

unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the
probability of that response happening again.

Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.

Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop.

REMEMBER: When we are talking about

reinforcers or punishers, the word positive
means add or apply; negative is used to mean
subtract or remove.

Punishment
A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus
which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the
probability it will occur again.
Positive Punishment: An undesirable event
that follows a behavior: like getting detention
after cheating on a test.

Punishment
Negative Punishment: When a desirable
event ends or when an item is taken away
after a behavior.
Example: getting your cell phone taken away after
failing multiple classes on your progress report.

Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement
schedule under which all correct responses are
reinforced.
This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It also
helps when shaping new behavior.

Shaping: A technique where new behavior is

produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to
the desired response.

Dog training requires

continuous reinforcement

Reinforcement Schedules
Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of
reinforcement schedule by which some, but
not all, correct responses are reinforced.
Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective
way to maintain a desired behavior that has
already been learned.

Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement

Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a
certain time interval.
Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain
number of responses.
There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):
A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the
first correct response after some defined period
of time.

Ex. Salary, wage

Interval Schedules
Variable Interval Schedule (VI):
A reinforcement system that rewards a
correct response after an unpredictable
amount of time.
Ex. Feeding the fish

Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards a
response only after a defined number of
correct answers.
Ex: Reward cards

Ratio Schedules
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards an
unpredictable number of correct responses.
Ex: Buying lottery scratch-off tickets

Primary and Secondary

Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally
reinforcing: food, warmth, water

Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is a

reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the
long run: good grades.

Observational Learning
You can think of observational learning as an
extension of operant conditioning, in which we
observe someone else getting rewarded but act as
though we had also received the reward.
Observational learning: Learning in which new
responses are acquired after others behavior and the
consequences of their behavior are observed.

9. In classical conditioning experiments, a

tone, after being repeatedly paired with food
- a conditioned stimulus makes the dog
salivate. This illustrates:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Second-order conditioning
Generalization
Discrimination
Sensitization

10. A pigeon is given a food pellet after

every 10 bar presses in a Skinners box.
What type of reinforcement is
employed?
a. fixed ratio

c. variable ratio

b. fixed interval

d. variable interval

11. In operant conditioning, the

reward
a. follows the behavior
b. comes before the behavior
c. occurs at the same time as the
behavior
d. elicits the behavior

12. A child is spanked to stop him

from teasing a younger sibling. This
is an example of:
a.
b.
c.
d.

aversive conditioning
negative conditioning
escape
avoidance

Part 6

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Principles of Growth and

Development
Heredity x Environment x Time = Developmental
Level

Maturation: follows an orderly sequence.

New structures and functions always
appear in a definite order, so that each
new development sets the stage for the
next.

Stages Of Development

 Motor Development: motor refers to

movement, such as walking, swimming,
grasping, etc. Motor skills appear in a
definite order but at different rates.
Prehension: refers to grasping objects. Its
simplest form is palmar grasping. By using the
thumb in opposition to the index finger, a
finer grasp is developed, as when picking up a
piece of paper.

 Language Development: infant begin

life with no other language than their cries
and grunts. As their language mechanism
matures, they make more and more
sounds and begin to comprehend the
meaning of words they hear.

Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget
Adaptation involves the child's changing to
meet situational demands.
Assimilation is the application of previous
concepts to new concepts. An example is the child
who refers to a whale as a fish.
Accommodation is the altering of previous
concepts in the face of new information. An
example is the child who discovers that some
creatures living in the ocean are not fish, and then
correctly refers to a whale as a mammal.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Psychosexual Development (Freud)

4. Thunder causes lightning and bad

thoughts because of an accident is
characteristic of the:
a. preoperational stage
b. concrete operational stage
c. formal operational stage
d. sensorimotor stage

5. Which of the following is true of the

concrete operational stage of cognitive
development by Piaget?
a. thinking is egocentric
b. becomes concerned with the hypothetical,
the future and ideological problems
c. classifies objects according to several
features
d. conservation of number not yet achieved

6. Maturation refers to:

a. orderly changes in behavior that are
caused by experience
b. disrupted prenatal development that
results in permanent defects
c. natural physical growth processes that are
relatively independent of events
d. the acquisition of adult behavior through
social contact

Part 7

MEMORY

Memory
Stages:
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval

Memory Techniques
Although we cannot increase the capacity
of STM, we can use recording schemes to
enlarge the size of the chunk and thereby
increase the memory span.
LTM for facts can be improved at the
encoding and retrieval stages. One way to
improve encoding and retrieval is to use
imagery, which is the basic principle
underlying mnemonic system.

Mnemonic

Forgetting
Ceasing or failing to remember or being unable
to recall past responses or memory.
Explanations of Forgetting:
1. Passive decay through disuse
2. Systematic distortions of the memory
trace
3. Interference effects
4. Motivated forgetting

13. While reading Harry Potter and the

Sorcerers Stone in class, your teacher
called on you. Although obviously
present, you do not remember anything
that was said. This is known as the:
a. Cocktail party phenomenon
b. late selection phenomenon
c. selective looking phenomenon
d. classroom-inattention phenomenon

14. True of rods and cones except:

a. cones: sensation of color
b. rods: predominate in the periphery of
the retina
c. more rods connected to ganglion cells
d. visual acuity is greatest when based
on rods

15. Ways to improve memory

include:
a. chunking

c. elaboration

b. imagery

d. all of the above

16. After a car accident, Dylan McKay

experienced amnesia. Which would he
most likely still remember?
a. how to drive a car
b. his girlfriends number
c. his birthday last year
d. he will not remember anything at all

17. Which is true about language?

a. Like other innate behaviors, some language is
learned only during a critical period.
b. Children learn language at least partly by testing
hypotheses.
c. Infants come into the world preprogrammed to
learn phonemes, but they need several years to
learn the rules for combining them.
d. All of the statements are true.

18. Films or motion pictures are simply a

rapid series of still images flashed in rapid
succession inducing apparent movement.
This utilizes the phenomenon known as:
a. apparent motion

c. stroboscopic motion

b. real motion

d. induced motion

19. True of pitch:

a. most striking quality of sound
b. increases with the amplitude of the
sound wave
c. place theories account for low
frequencies
d. temporal theories account for high
frequencies

20. When a door swings toward us, its retinal

image goes through a series of changes yet
we perceive a door to still be rectangular.
This is due to:
a. stroboscopic motion
b. figure-ground constancy
c. pattern recognition
d. shape constancy

21. Figure is to ground as:

a. thunder is to lightning
b. water is to ice
c. light is to dark
d. cloud is to sky

Part 8

MOTIVES AND EMOTION

Motives
Motivational states direct and activate
behaviour. They arise from two sources:
internal drive factors and external
incentive.
Many types of natural rewards may
activate the mesolimbic dopamine
system.

Classification of Motives
Physiologic: hunger, thirst, temperature,
pain avoidance
Social or psychological: achievement,
altruism, affiliation and social approval
Neither strictly biological nor social:
sex drive

Hunger
Two regions of the brain are critical to
hunger: the lateral hypothalamus and
the ventromedial hypothalamus.
Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus
leads to under eating
Destruction of the ventromedial
hypothalamus leads to overeating.

Emotions
Comes from the Latin word emovere
meaning to move out.
It conveys the idea of an outward
expression of something inside, which is
one aspect of emotion.

Physiological Changes

Galvanic Skin Response

Blood Pressure and Volume
Heart Rate
Respiration
Pupillary Response
Salivary Secretion
Pilomotor Response
Gastrointestinal Motility
Muscle Tension and Tremor
Blood composition

Theories of Emotion

Universal Emotions

22. True of motivation:

a. Motivation typically directs behavior
towards a particular incentive that produces
pleasure.
b. We are motivated to alleviate an
unpleasant state.
c. Incentive motivation is characterized by
affect.
d. All of the above statements are true.

23. Dawson frequently volunteers in

activities of socio-civic organizations in
their community. What social motive is
at play here?
a. achievement

c. social approval

b. affiliation

d. altruism

24. Which of the statements below illustrate the

relationship between arousal and performance?
a. Low levels of emotional arousal lead to poor
performance.
b. Moderate levels of emotional arousal do not
affect performance.
c. High levels of emotional arousal enhance
performance.
d. There is no relationship between levels of
arousal and performance.

25. Which of the following is not true regarding the

functions of attitudes?
a. Attitudes that we hold for practical reasons
serve and instrumental function
b. Those that help us make sense of the world
serve a knowledge function.
c. Those that express our values or reflect our selfconcepts serve an ego-defensive function.
d. Those that help us feel that we are part of a
social community serve a social adjustment
function

26. Stimulus leads to physiological arousal

and overt behavior specific to the emotion
which in turn leads to the subjective
experience of emotion. This is an expression
of the:
a. James-Lange theory
b. Schracter-Singer theory
c. appraisal theory
d. facial feedback hypothesis

27. A lawyer is defending a minor charged with assault.

How would he explain his clients aggressive behavior
using the psychoanalytic theory?
a. His client had an aversive experience promoting
emotional arousal which led to the aggressive behavior.
b. His client saw a man being rewarded for expressing
aggression, thus he did the same thing.
c. His clients frustration induced his aggressive drive
motivation the aggressive behavior.
d. All of the foregoing statements can be used to explain
his clients behavior.

Part 9

PERSONALITY THEORIES

Personality
Refers to the distinctive and characteristic
patterns of thought, emotion, and
behaviour that define an individuals
personal style of interacting with the
physical and social environments.

Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud
He argued that personality is formed
through conflicts among three
fundamental structures of the human
mind: the id, ego, and superego.

Structure of the Mind

The Conscious Mind includes
everything that we are aware of. This is
the aspect of our mental processing that
we can think and talk about rationally.

Structure of the Mind

The Unconscious Mind is reservoir of
feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
outside of our conscious awareness. Most of
the contents of the unconscious are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
According to Freud, the unconscious
continues to influence our behaviour and
experience, even though we are unaware of
these underlying influences.

Provinces of The Mind

Provinces of the Mind

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Denial
Blocking out a fact mentally because it is
too painful too accept

Displacement
Taking out ones feelings or frustrations
on someone or something other than that
created those feelings

Projection
The misattribution of ones undesired
thoughts, onto a person who does not have
those thoughts

Rationalization
Justifying ones act by providing a good
reason for doing it.

Reaction formation
Converting of irrational thoughts into their
positive opposites

Regression
A reversion to an earlier stage of
development in the face of unwanted fears
or thoughts.

Repression
Burying a bad thought or fear in ones
mind that can be brought out in symboloic
form

Sublimation
Redirecting unacceptable drives into
acceptable channels

Carl Jungs Theory of Personality

Carl Rogers Theory of Personality

28. Which of the following is true describing Jungs

theory of personality?
a. The most powerful and influential system of the
psyche, and in pathological cases overshadows the
ego is the personal unconscious.
b. An archetype is a universal thought from that
contains large element of emotion.
c. The person lives by aims as well as by causes.
d. His view of psychodynamics is based upon two
fundamental principles, equivalence and entropy.

29. True of phenomenological approach to

the study of personality:
a. The concept of self forms the cornerstone of
Rogers theory.
b. focused on the individuals objective and
subjective experiences
c. Personal construct theory takes a behavioral
perspective in the individuals phenomenology.
d. All of the above.

30. Refers to the distinctive and

characteristic patterns of thought,
emotion and behavior that define an
individuals own style of interacting with
the physical and social environment.
a. attitude
b. coping mechanism

c. schema
d. personality

31. An anxious person who seeks to

return to the womb is fixated in
which stage?
a. oral

c. phallic

b. anal

d. genital

32. Saying Im sad youre well

instead of Im glad youre well is an
example of:
a. Freudian slip
b. Stupidity
c. shadow error
d. cognitive misappraisal

33. Leonardo da Vincis interest in

painting Madonna was an expression of
a longing for intimacy with his mother
from whom he had been separated at a
tender age, this illustrates:
a.
b.
c.
d.

externalization
Sublimation
reaction formation
anticipation

34. When you are hungry, you

conjure mental images of food. This
wish-fulfilling process is a function of
your
a. id

c. superego

b. ego

d. libido

35. Albert Einstein, Martin Luther King, Jr.

and Eleanor Roosevelt satisfy Maslows
criteria for self-actualizers. This means that
they:
a. are purposely unconventional
b. are incapable of appreciating complex
experiences only
c. care very cautious in thought and behavior
d. have a good sense of humor

36. An individuals personality evokes

distinctive responses from others. This
dynamic process of personality-environment
interaction is referred to as:
a. reactive interaction
b. evocative interaction
c. proactive interaction
d. none of the above

Part 10

STRESS

Part 11

MENTAL DISORDERS

37. Richard Gere in the film Mr.

Jones has bipolar disorder. This
means that he has altering states of:
a. mania and anxiety
b. anxiety and depression
c. mania and depression
d. none of the above

38. Schizophrenia is:

a. the same as multiple personality
disorder
b. characterized by enlarged and
more active prefrontal cortex and
smaller ventricles
c. due to difficult environment alone
d. characterized by lack of insight

39. True of systematic desensitization:

a. can be viewed as deconditioning or
counterconditioning processes
b. not very effective in the treatment of
phobias and fears
c. principle of treatment is to substitute a
response that is incompatible with anxiety
d. none of the above

40. True of coping:

a. Defense mechanisms always indicate personality
maladjustment.
b. Rationalization, repression and
intellectualization are conscious processes.
c. Saying I decided it wasnt worth it is a
cognitive strategy of dealing with negative
emotion.
d. Higher levels of depression are seen during and
after stressful situations in people who tend to use
problem-focused coping.

41. Personality disorders:

a. are transient patterns of maladaptive
behavior
b. constitute immature and inappropriate
ways of coping with stress
c. often upsets the afflicted person that
motivates him to change his behavior
d. causes the person to lose contact with
reality

42. After his separation from his girlfriend,

Freddie Prinze Jr. in the movie: Down to You:
become severely depressed. Thus, his
parents proposed electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT) or electroshock therapy. What is the
most troublesome effect of ECT?
a. memory loss
b. discomfort

c. severe pain
d. brain damage

43. A 13-year old boy was brought by his

mother to you for diagnosis. He is unable to
conform to social norms. Sometimes, he is
normal and even charming but more often he
lies and manipulates people. He has a history
of running away from home, theft and
substance abuse. What personality disorder
does he most probably have?
a. borderline
b. schizotypal

c. histrionic
d. antisocial

44. Jim, a lawyer, is often teased by his

friends for his type A personality. This means
that Jim:
a. is fond of scheduling more and more
activities in less and less time
b. loves to relax and do nothing
c. is at less risk for heart attack
d. believes that others can do thing as well as
he does

Part 11

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

45. Arousal strengthens dominant

responses. This is referred to as social
facilitation. What accounts for this
arousal?
a. evaluation apprehension
b. driven by distraction
c. mere presence of others
d. all of the above

46. Beer advertisements that associate

beautiful women, strength and intelligence
with their products make use of:
a. peripheral route of persuasion
b. central route of persuasion
c. both central and peripheral route of
persuasion
d. neither central and peripheral route of
persuasion

47. The uninhabited, aggressive behavior

sometimes shown by mobs and crowds may be the
result of a state of deindividuation. Which of the
following is not true regarding the consequences of
deindividuation?
a. weakened restraints against impulsive behavior
b. decreased sensitivity to immediate cues and
current emotional state
c. reduced concern with evaluation by others
d. none of the above

48. Which of the following is a symptom

of groupthink?
a. awareness of vulnerability
b. collective unconscious
c. non-censorship
d. presence of mindguards

49. Experiments show that these

techniques increase helping
behavior:
a. foot-in-the-door technique
b. door-in-the-face technique
c. low-ball technique
d. all of the above

50. In difficult times, when budgets are

slashed and taxes are high, homeless women
with small children are often target of
hostility because they are perceived as
responsible for their situation and as a drain
on scarce social resources. This is known as:
a. scapegoating
b. realistic group conflict
c. ethnocentrism
d. discrimination