Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
and Practice
Advances in Stylistics
Series Editor: Dan McIntyre, University of Huddersfield, UK
Editorial Board:
Beatrix Busse, University of Berne, Switzerland
Szilvia Csbi, Etvs Lornd University, Hungary
Monika Fludernik, University of Freiburg, Germany
Lesley Jeffries, University of Huddersfield, UK
Jean Boase-Beier, University of East Anglia, UK
Geoffrey Leech, Lancaster University, UK
Larry Stewart, College of Wooster, USA
Manuel Jobert, Jean Moulin University, Lyon 3, France
Titles in the series:
Corpus Stylistics in Principles and Practice
Yufang Ho
D. H. Lawrence and Narrative Viewpoint
Violeta Sotirova
Opposition In Discourse
Lesley Jefferies
Stylistics and Shakespeares Language
Edited by Jonathan Culpeper and Mireille Ravassat
The Discourse of Italian Cinema and Beyond
Roberta Piazza
I. A. Richards and the Rise of Cognitive Stylistics
David West
Style in the Renaissance
Patricia Canning
The Stylistics of Chick Lit
Roco Montoro
Yufang Ho
Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
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Contents
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Contents
7.7 Figurative data analysis: journey, play and game?
7.8 Summary and implications
Chapter Eight: Stylistic differences between The Magus
and its revision
8.1 playing language games: metaphorical / metafictional
move in M2
8.2 A Possible-World and linguistic account of
stylistic effect
8.3 Fiction emotions in M1 artifact emotions in M2
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Notes
References
Index
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Acknowledgements
Introduction
The book sets out to explore the stylistic differences between the two
different editions of The Magus by John Fowles, and to demonstrate
how the corpus methodology can contribute to the stylistic approach
to literary study. By comparing the textual differences between two
explicitly printed versions in more detail, I aim to investigate: (a) how
the second edition is linguistically different from the original and
(b) whether the textual revisions Fowles has made create different
stylistic effects or not.
To tackle the issue of how to compare and to ascertain the overall
text style differences between the two versions of a very long novel
like The Magus, I adopt a corpus stylistic approach. Different corpus
tools are exploited for this research:
(1) TESAS/Crouch and WCopyfind for identifying the overall
pattern of the revision in quantitative terms (i.e. measuring
the degree of text similarity across the 78 chapter-pairs of the
novel);
(2) Wmatrix for locating significant linguistic (semantic) differences
between the two editions, and the changing patterns in narrative
point of view presentation; and
(3) WordSmith Tools for identifying the patterns of metaphorical
language in the two editions.
Along the course of the research, detailed and systematic stylistic
analyses are always applied, not only to the comparison of pairs of
extracts from both editions to generate hypotheses concerning the
revisionary tendency, but also to the analysis of the linguistic evidence
uncovered by the corpus tools.
This book, hopefully, will appeal to two main audiences: those who
are interested in the literature of John Fowles; and those who are
interested in the theory and practice of corpus stylistics. Through the
analysis of The Magus, the book demonstrates that computer-assisted
methods can identify significant linguistic features or patterns which
literary critics have not noticed, and provide a more detailed descriptive basis for literary interpretation of (either edition) of the novel
and, of course, for other texts. The analysis of The Magus serves as a
case study and exemplar for the reader of how corpus techniques
may be used generally in the study of stylistics. It shows that a productive interaction between corpus linguistic analysis and literary
study is attainable without the sacrifice of either the methodological
rigour of corpus linguistics or the interpretive subtlety of literary
study. Most importantly, the overall findings through this combined
corpus stylistic approach reflect Fowless communicative intention to
reinforce the metafictional theory and its strategies in his revision of
The Magus, and accordingly enrich our appreciation and understanding
of the language games Fowles plays in his literary works.
Part I
Chapter One
1.1 History
Stylistics could be broadly defined as the study of the language and
style of literature. Stylistic analysis relies on linguistic evidence in the
literary work, and thus makes use of various tools of linguistic analysis
(e.g. using theories relating to phonetics, syntax, semantics and/or
theories from other areas such as pragmatics, cognitive linguistics,
etc.). During the history of linguistic stylistics, many scholars (e.g.
Andersson 1975; Enkvist 1964, 1971, 1977; Fowler 1971; Hough 1972;
Mller 2001; Short 1994; Ullmann 1964; Verdonk 2002) have suggested
that the notion of style should not be considered as an attribute but
as an implicitly relational concept. That is, to state that a text has a
certain style is equivalent to stating that it differs in some respects
from other texts.
Given that comparison is the basis of stylistic study, our next questions
should be: what exactly should we compare with, and how? Stylisticians
have long argued that the stylistically significant linguistic features
of a text can often be more clearly observed and more effectively
10
11
Chapter Two
13
(2) What makes John Fowles, and most critics, believe that the
revised version is better than the first edition?
(3) Does the meaning of The Magus, as the critics claim, become
more accessible in the second edition, and if so, how?
(4) What differences of overall interpretation and effect are there,
if any, between the two editions?
(5) How can the changes that Fowles has made in the second
edition be described in stylistic and narratological terms?
In brief, the focus of the study is on the text style differences
between the two versions of The Magus. For ease of reference, the first
edition of The Magus is hereafter referred to as M1 and the revised
edition as M2. All references to the first edition are to the World Book
edition (1966), and all references to the second edition are to
the Vintage edition (1977). By comparing the textual alterations
between the two explicitly printed versions in more detail, I aim to
explore: (a) how the M2 edition is linguistically different from M1 and
(b) whether the textual revision Fowles has made creates different
stylistic effects on readers or not. I will also reflect on Fowless description of the revised version as rather more than a stylistic revision.
What does he mean by stylistic revision and what communicative
intention is implicated in rather more than?
Given that both editions of The Magus are about 600 pages long, it is
almost impossible to identify manually all of the linguistic changes
Fowles has made, and compare them in stylistical detail. Hence, a
corpus stylistic approach is adopted for the research. I combine qualitative and quantitative comparison in order to ascertain the overall
text style difference. The two issues (a) how to identify stylistically
significant linguistic features in the two editions and (b) how to compare those identified linguistic features will be explored further in
the subsequent chapters of the book, both quantitatively with the aid of
corpus techniques and qualitatively with traditional stylistic analysis.
14
the changes in the M2 revision lies in the (re)presentation of narrative point of view. Fowles seems to make a shift in narrative focus away
from the story/event towards Nicholass internal possible worlds as
he struggles to comprehend the purpose of Conchiss manipulation
and the bizarre experiences in the fictional world. This shift in
narrative focus inevitably results in more linguistic indicators of
Nicholas-as-characters internal psychological viewpoint in the revision (see my discussion of this hypothesis in Chapter Five). Hence, to
prepare the ground for my analysis, it will be useful to review possible
worlds theory, and then to tackle the issues regarding what kind
of linguistic features can be marked as indicative of a characters
internal possible viewpoint (cf. McIntyre 2006). The issues I raise in
this chapter will all be investigated using the corpus methodology in
Part II of the book.
15
z
z
16
17
18
19
20
Modal system
DEONTIC
BOULOMAIC
desire
EPISTEMIC
PERCEPTION
perception
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22
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24
possible worlds theory. The key differences in his revised model are
outlined as below:
(1) Discarding the distinction between PUSHes and POPs: PUSHes
and POPs are the means by which the deictic shift theorists
suggest we move among deictic fields. Given the oversimplified
conceptualization, McIntyre proposes to use the term shift and
specify different types of shift that occurs, for example, spatial,
temporal, discoursal (cf. also Stockwell 2002: 535).
(2) World shifts: McIntyre notes the correlation between what the
deictic shift theorists refer to as the first shift into a fictional
world (i.e. being PUSHed into the deictic field of fictional world)
and Ryans notion of fictional recentering as we begin to read.
Within the fictional world, there are boundaries between discourse that refers to real events in the storyworld, and discourse
that refers to subjective events thoughts and perceptions of
characters in the world (Segal 1995a: 76). In order to account
for how readers are exposed to such subjective viewpoints,
McIntyre suggests that, in addition to shifting between particular
deictic fields, it is also the case that as a result of linguistic and
contextual triggers, we move in a similar way between characters
alternative possible worlds. Hence, it is necessary to account for
movement between different deictic fields, and also movement
between the deictic fields of whichever possible worlds the reader
is exposed to within the text.
(3) The binding and priming of worlds and deictic fields: In order
to explain better how it is possible for readers to be aware of
and monitor multiple worlds and deictic fields, McIntyre incorporates the concepts from Emmotts (1997) contextual frame
theory. He explains how it is possible for more than one world
or deictic field to be bound at any one time, and one particular
world or field of these will be primed, in Emmotts terms.
(4) Prominence: In addition to incorporating Emmotts (1997)
notions of binding and priming, McIntyre also introduces the
term prominence, to refer to the extent to which a world or deictic
field might be primed. He suggests that worlds or deictic fields
that are at the forefront of a readers mind might be said to have
25
26
27
28
29
26974), and empathetic deixis (cf. Lyons 1977). Deictic terms tend
to come in pairs, for example, here/there, now/then and come/go.
(5) Representation of a particular characters thoughts or perceptions:
Short explains that character viewpoint can be indicated in
descriptions through the use of (a) verbs of perception and
cognition (e.g. see, imagine, think, believe) and (b) verbs (including modal verbs) and adverbs related to factivity (e.g. seem,
pretend, can, could, may, might, must, actually, apparently).
(6) Psychological sequencing: This is the phenomenon where the
order in which events are presented reflects a particular point
of view (cf. also Leech and Short 1981: 17680). Consider the
example from The Magus: A faint light shape came running out of
the dark tunnel [. . .] It was a girl. The running girl is first vaguely
identified as a faint light shape, and then more precisely as
a girl. The vague reference and the psychological sequencing
indicate Nicholas-the-characters viewpoint at that particular
moment.
In addition to the features noted on Shorts (1996) checklist, more
linguistic indicators of point of view are further identified (see
McIntyre 2006: 513), including:
(7) Graphological deviation: Short (2000) discusses how graphological
deviation in Irvine Welshs novel Marabou Stork Nightmares is used to
reflect the point of view of the main protagonist. (An important
example of graphological deviation indicating Nicholass ideological viewpoint will be discussed in section 3.2.1).
(8) Presupposition: As McIntyre (2006: 52) notes, presupposition
can also indicate what a character believes to be the case within
the fictional world (cf. Levinson 1983: 1815, for presupposition
triggers). It can also indicate the extent to which one particular
character takes into account the point of view of another.
(9) Grices (1975) co-operative principle and implicature: Characters
observance or nonobservance of Grices co-operative principle
can also indicate a particular point of view.
In brief, my textual analyses and identification (from the corpus
concordancing data) of the linguistic features anchoring Nicholass
30
31
Quantitative
measuring of the degree of text similarity
between M1 and M2
Figure 2.2
I use different corpus tools for this comparative research: (1) TESAS/
Crouch and WCopyfind for identifying the overall pattern of the revision in quantitative terms (i.e. measuring the degree of text similarity
across the 78 chapter-pairs of the novel); (2) Wmatrix for locating
significant linguistic (semantic) differences between the two editions
and (3) WordSmith Tools for identifying the patterns of metaphorical language in the two editions.
Chapter Three starts with a preliminary exploration of John Fowless
The Magus. I give a plot summary that is common to both editions
and explain the narrative structure of the novel. I also review the
literary critics comments on the revision of The Magus (e.g. Binns
1977; Boccia 1980; Nadeau 1980; Wade 1979), and consider in
general terms what types of textual alterations Fowles has made and
why I think he made them. The observed changes/differences
between the two versions are grouped into five mutually inclusive
sets, that is, language, theme, ending, characters, and point of view, which
I relate to two levels of stylistic change: the local small-scale linguistic
32
33
34
Part II
Chapter Three
Part I
(chs. 19)
Self-ignorance
Part II
(chs. 1067)
journey
38
39
40
41
42
This pattern also suggests that there are two Nicholases in the novel,
an early inexperienced Nicholas and an older experienced one, who
has learned some lessons and knows more about himself. In narratological terms, we may say that the I-character has undergone some
form of development and the I-narrator intends to reveal this growth.
The development of Nicholas is the central concern of the novel; his
character thus deserves close scrutiny throughout the novel.
Below I first present how readers may infer Nicholass characters
flaws from his narrative in Part I of the novel, which accounts for
the necessity of his journey to self-knowledge, and then discuss how
we may infer the change in his character after the journey. Note that
the extracts chosen to be discussed below remain unchanged in the
second edition of The Magus.
43
44
of having a good deal of sex with girls when he was at Oxford (the
sentences are numbered for ease of reference):
(1) Girls, or a certain kind of girl, liked me; I had a car not
so common among undergraduates in those days and I had
some money. (2) I wasnt ugly; and even more important, I had my
loneliness, which, as every cad knows, is a deadly weapon with
women. (3) My technique was to make a show of unpredictability,
cynicism, and indifference. (4) Then, like a conjurer with his white
rabbit, I produced the solitary heart. (5) I didnt collect conquests;
but by the time I left Oxford I was a dozen girls away from virginity.
(M1, chapter 3: 9)
What Nicholas counts as essential prerequisites for a relationship
are superficial: a car, money, and attractive appearance. He treats
women as sexual objects that he can conquer. As he says, his loneliness, unpredictability, cynicism and indifference are only pretences,
namely, his weapons and technique of pursuing women sexually.
The conjunction but in sentence (5) above reveals (via conventional
implicature) that he thinks having sexual relationships with a dozen
girls is like making conquests.
The first of Nicholass relationships that readers are exposed to is
his affair with Alison. When they first meet, Nicholass snobbery
comes to the fore, as he describes her voice as being only very slightly
Australian, yet not English, veered between harshness, faint nasal
rancidity, and a strange salty directness (M1, chapter 3: 12). So far as
Nicholas is concerned, the harshness of Alisons accent is one of
many signs that she is socially inferior and thus deserves to be treated
badly. The day after their first meeting and first sexual encounter,
Alison asks him if he thinks she is a tramp. Nicholass reply contradicts with what he actually thinks in his mind: (Yes, you are a tramp,
and even worse, you exploit your tramp-hood [M1, chapter 4: 19]). This
free direct thought reveals his true feelings about Alison and his
insincerity. He sees her as a sexual toy, nothing more.
Take Nicholass conversation with his friend Billy Whyte in a bar, for
another example of his snobbish values. Just before that conversation,
readers are told that Nicholas was embarrassed by Alison, by her
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46
(3) Out of bed I felt I was teaching her, anglicizing her accent,
polishing off her roughnesses, her provincialisms; in bed she did
the teaching. (M1, chapter 4: 24)
Class-prejudice, a sexist attitude and an obsession with sex are the
fundamental flaws in Nicholass character. On one hand, he thinks
that his affair with Alison is different from others, given that it is so
much happier physically. On the other hand, he assumes a dominant position in social terms as their relationship progresses. The
French spelling of the word affaire in sentence (1) is another
indication of Nicholass snobbery. By using the French spelling,
Nicholas is demonstrating that he is an educated and cultured
person. He tries to teach Alison, improve her inferior status, and
change her into a socially acceptable woman. Despite Alisons love
for him, Nicholass emotional state upon leaving her is a feeling
of escape and a desire to celebrate his release. Even when, later, he
feels lonely on Phraxos, he still thinks that it is merely the physical
ache that he feels for her: they were moments of sexual frustration,
not regretted love (M1, chapter 7: 43).
(iii) Nicholass selfishness and dishonesty
Given Nicholass character, one of the most enticing elements of the
mystery in Bourani for him is Lily/Julie, the woman who is cast in
various roles in Conchiss masques. When Nicholas first talks to her,
he notices that her accent is very largely my own (M1, chapter 27:
160), from which he infers that her social class is similar to his. The
function of Lily/Julies role in the novel is to show other flaws in
Nicholass character, that is, dishonesty and selfishness. These flaws
can be inferred from his indecisive attitudes about how to reveal the
news of Alisons death to Lily/Julie.
When Nicholas receives the news of Alisons death, he is very
shocked and feels guilty. But his desire for Lily/Julie remains strong.
As he says, [Julie] now becomes a total necessity [. . .] If she had
been beside me then, I could have poured out everything, made a
clean start. I needed desperately to throw myself on her mercy, to be
forgiven by her (M1, chapter 51: 366). However, the next day when
he calms down from the shock of Alisons death, he changes from the
intention of immediate confession to deferring this speech act.
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
Two levels
Five Categories
Chapter No.
POV
78
Across various
chapters
Across various
chapters
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3.2.1 Language
In the initial stage of the research, I compared manually the linguistic
changes between the texts from the two editions. I found that, apart
from the larger chunks of textual addition or deletion in the revised
edition, there are also numerous microscopic linguistic changes,
ranging from subtle alterations of punctuation, single words and
slight rephrasings, to the compression of long passages into a few
lines and so on.
Binns (1977) states that, on the whole, the revised version of The
Magus is an improvement for the following reasons: (1) redundant or
inappropriate adjectives disappear; (2) unnecessary description is
deleted; (3) the irrelevant epigraph is removed; (4) the dialogue is
modernized; (5) there is a general shift in the direction of greater
consistency and (6) allusions are tidied up (see Binns 1977: 834).
What we see in this statement is a critics intuitive and impressionistic
evaluation concerning the revision. For example, it is not clear what
Binns means by redundant or inappropriate adjectives, unnecessary
description and irrelevant epigraph. In what ways is the dialogue
modernized? Are Binns statements subjective evaluations? Is his
judgement a carry over from the general assumption that revision
makes better texts? Does the revision create any different effects on
readers? Binns does not provide satisfying answers to these questions.
It seems that all his claims need to be examined with more contextual
information and in more detail.
55
56
57
that Fowles in writing his first edition had already used the linguistic
device to lead readers to draw certain inference about Nicholass
character, but he failed to do it consistently in the second occasion of
their conversation. In this regard, the revised edition may be thought
of as being improved to greater consistency as compared to M1.
3.2.2 Theme
In the M2 version, many chunks of dialogue between Nicholas,
Conchis, Lily/Julie and Rose/June have been completely rewritten,
notably in chapters 33, 34, 35, 43, 45, 46, 47, 55, 56, 58 and 59. These
chapters depict mainly the interactions among the four characters.
This observation raises some interesting questions. What are the
propositional contents of their conversations? Why does Fowles
rewrite the dialogues among the characters so extensively?
In terms of the changes that Fowles has made, the critics consider
that the themes of the book have become more explicit to readers
(Binns 1977; Boccia 1980; Wight and Grant 1987). For example,
Binns suggests that the drastic revision of the dialogue involves a
clarification of the godgame, of the elaborate debates about human
illusions and free will (1977: 81). Boccia echoes Binns; he says that
the most important aspects of the novel appear to be expanded by
having characters explain, in rather clearer language than previously,
exactly what they mean when speaking of such things as the godgame, hazard, and elect; all reasonably obscure in the initial version
of The Magus (1980: 236). Wight and Grant share the same view:
We believe The Magus: A Revised Version is not at all limited to
86 pages of stylistic emendation; rather, in conjunction with stylistic
change, it profits notably from clarification and improved focus
of theme (1987: 85).
The critics comments with regard to the clearer language and
explicit thematic concern of the novel will be examined further in
Chapter Seven, where I demonstrate more specifically how Fowles
employs metaphors, playing in his revision with the boundary
between what is said (text/dialogue) and what is meant (subtexts),
to reinforce the theme and the plot structure of the novel as
a whole.
58
59
60
3.2.2.2 The themes of sex, love and deception are made more explicit
Given that Nicholas has misconceptions about sex and love, the role
of sex becomes a key to the conceptual framework of the novel. One
of the changes that Fowles has made in the revision is to make some
of the sex overt. As Fowles himself says in an interview, the original
wasnt quite erotic enough. I always regretted there wasnt more
of that (see Singh 1980: 186); and in the preface to the revised
edition he declares, The erotic element is stronger in two scenes.
I regard that as merely the correction of a past failure of nerve (M2,
Foreword: 7). He claims that the reason for not explicitly describing
such sex scenes in the original version had to do with the climate
of the times in which the novel was written, and that the time of
the revision, the 1970s, gave him greater freedom to introduce
these scenes.
Three new erotic incidents are added to the revised version: two
moments of frustrated sexual possibility for Nicholas with Lily/Julie
one in the chapel (chapter 47) and one at the beach (chapter 49)
and the climax of the sexual scene (chapter 58). The major change
in the sex scene is in chapter 58. In the M1 version Nicholas is teased
into arousal, and when he is about to have sex with Lily/Julie, she
leaps out of bed, turns on the lights, and admits several men into the
room to capture Nicholas. In the M2 revision Nicholas succeeds in
having sexual intercourse with Lily/Julie before the men burst in (for
the textual comparison of the scene, see section 5.1).
Two questions have to be asked in reviewing the change of the
sexual encounters between Nicholas and Lily/Julie. Why does
Fowles regret not having the erotic scenes in the original? And do
the additional sex scenes and Nicholass final success in having sexual
intercourse with Lily/Julie in M2 create any specific meaning or
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rooms where the telephone never rings, waiting for this girl, this
truth, this crystal of humanity, this reality lost through imagination,
to return; and to say she returns is a lie.
(2) But the maze has no centre. (3) An ending is no more than
a point in sequence, a snip of the cutting shears. (4) Benedick
kissed Beatrice at last; but ten years later? (5) And Elsinore, that
following spring?
(6) So ten more days. (7) But what happened in the following
years is silence; is another mystery. (M1, chapter 78: 606; M2,
chapter 78: 645)
This paragraph is significantly different from the rest of the novel in
that it is narrated in the third person and the present tense as opposed
to first-person past. This breaking away from the previous pattern of
the narration foregrounds the paragraph and forces readers to take
special notice of it.
This paragraph signals an authorial intrusion at the end of the
novel. The whole paragraph, notice, is written in the present tense
(e.g. is, says, are waiting) with proximal spatial deixis (e.g. this girl, this
truth, this reality). These linguistic features might also belong to
Nicholas-the-narrator, who could be predicting the possibilities in his
own future. However, this explanation is unlikely for two reasons.
First, the character Nicholas is referred to in sentence (1) as the
anti-hero and him. Secondly, in the sentence we too are waiting
[. . .], the inclusive pronoun we and the adverb too reveals to us
as readers that, we are suspended in the moment of waiting as well,
eager to know what will happen to Nicholas in the future.
One of the most startling changes in the M2 edition comes in the
very last paragraph of the novel. Here is how the story ends in the
M1 version. Nicholas suspects that he is still being watched. He
explains to Alison his plan of action; that is, he will slap her and walk
away, and then they will meet at Victoria Station. The passage below
appears after Nicholas slaps Alison. He looks at her for the last time
and walks away.
(1) I gave her bowed head one last stare, then I was walking.
(2) Firmer than Orpheus, as firm as Alison herself, that other day
63
of parting, not once looking back. (3) The autumn grass, the
autumn sky. (4) People. (5) A blackbird, poor fool, singing out of
season from the willows by the lake. (6) A flight of grey pigeons
over the houses. (7) Fragments of freedom, an anagram made
flesh. (8) And somewhere the stinging smell of burning leaves.
(M1, chapter 78: 617, emphasis added)
The last paragraph in M1 version is written in the same past tense,
first-person narration as the rest of the novel, as indicated by the
verbs in sentence (1). Sentences (3) to (8) are a series of elliptical
sentences, which indicate a world frozen and suspended at the
moment of departure. We are not told whether Alison does meet
Nicholas at Victoria. However, to infer the ending, we cannot ignore
the important allusion to Orpheus (Binns 1977; see also Boccia 1980;
Nadeau 1980).
Orpheus was the greatest musician of Greek myth, whose songs
could charm wild beasts and coax even inanimate objects into
movement. When Orpheus wife, Eurydice, was killed by the bite of
a serpent, he went down to the underworld to bring her back. His
songs were so beautiful that Hades finally agreed to allow Eurydice to
return to the world of the living. However, Orpheus had to meet one
condition: he could not look back as he was conducting her to the
surface. Just before they reached the upper world, Orpheus looked
back, and Eurydice slipped back into the netherworld once again.1
From the allusion to Orpheus in sentence (2), we can infer that
there might well be a happy ending between Nicholas and Alison. The
fact that Alison walks up to Nicholas and accepts the slap, and the fact
that Nicholas is firmer than Orpheus in his determination not once
looking back, implicates that he might have his Eurydice back.
In the M2 version, however, Nicholas makes a new, final appeal
to Alison for forgiveness. At this moment, the narrative moves
abruptly into the present tense again, echoing the opening passage
of this chapter:
(1) The bowed head, the buried face.
(2) She is silent, she will never speak, never forgive, never reach a
hand, never leave this frozen present tense. (3) All waits, suspended.
64
(4) Suspend the autumn trees, the autumn sky, anonymous people.
(5) A blackbird, poor fool, sings out of season from the willows
by the lake. (6) A flight of pigeons over the houses; fragments
of freedom, hazard, an anagram made flesh. (7) And somewhere
the stinging smell of burning leaves. (M2, chapter 78: 6556,
emphasis added)
In the revised edition of The Magus the last paragraph is more
ambiguous. There seems to be no way to decide whether Alison and
Nicholas will have a future together. The change in the ending echoes
more consistently the opening paragraph of the same chapter,
written in the same third-person present narrative form. The revised
ending keeps the suspension of what we are told to expect in the
authorial intrusion in the opening paragraph. This authorial intrusion is made more obvious in M2, which points to Fowless overt
communicative intention, namely, to remind his readers of the
illusive nature of fictional reality and the artifices of the story (I will
return to this topic in section 8.1 for further discussion).
3.2.4 Characters
Some critics suggest that one of the obvious changes in the revision is
in characters (see Binns 1977; Boccia 1980; Salami 1992; Wade 1979).
They generally agree that the revision creates a sharper characterization of Conchis and Lily/Julie.
As discussed in section 3.2.2.1, Fowles has added several references
in the revision that help clarify Conchiss role as a magician and
a moral teacher in the godgame. Binns (1977: 80) points out that
Conchiss role as a psychiatrist, as a doctor, a scientist, is also repeatedly suggested and thus emphasized in the revision. Conchis himself
announces that he is a psychiatrist attempting his own brand of
situation therapy (M2, chapter 35: 231). He treats the godgame as a
psychological experiment in testing a human beings emotional
deception and Nicholas is the subject of this test, the guinea-pig. This
is mentioned more explicitly in the revised edition of The Magus.
For example, in the first edition, the concept of guinea pig appears
in chapter 74 and this reference remains unchanged in the revision.
65
66
fiance and (b) her real name is Julie Holmes. By contrast, in the first
edition, it is Conchis who tells Nicholas these two things. This type
of revision actually changes the facts in the fictional world, and so
it is difficult to examine the effect of this change from a stylistic
perspective. Nonetheless, if Lily/Julie in the revised edition is indeed
made more credible to Nicholas, it is arguable that his disbelief in
Conchiss illusions/manipulations will be increased, the shock of his
final humiliation by Lily/Julie is greater, and accordingly the lesson
he learns becomes more powerful and unforgettable.
67
Chapter Four
Quantitative Comparison
69
18,370
18,237
0.72%
172,221
191,665
11.29%
31,848
31,843
0.02%
Total
222,439
241,745
8.68%
70
Quantitative Comparison
71
72
Quantitative Comparison
73
74
Quantitative Comparison
75
Figure 4.1
76
Quantitative Comparison
77
two editions. The benefit of the TESAS/Crouch tool for this study
is that it helps to ascertain the degree of similarity between each
chapter-pair in the two editions. According to McEnery and Piao,
the evaluation of the TESAS/Crouch corpus tool shows that it is
capable of detecting and measuring text reuse with a reasonably
high rate of precision (2003: 645). Hence, the similarity scores of
each chapter-pair comparison are used as statistical indicators to
describe the pattern of Fowless revision of The Magus.
78
Table 4.2
Ch. 1
97.89%
Ch. 28
92.88%
Ch. 56
12.93%
Ch. 2
99.23%
Ch. 29
65.80%
Ch. 57
46.73%
Ch. 3
93.86%
Ch. 30
91.43%
Ch. 58
8.82%
Ch. 4
98.99%
Ch. 31
72.08%
Ch. 59
29.39%
Ch. 5
98.29%
Ch. 32
69.40%
Ch. 60
88.76%
Ch. 6
97.78%
Ch. 33
26.61%
Ch. 61
97.62%
Ch. 7
99.09%
Ch. 34
10.91%
Ch. 62
97.32%
Ch. 8
98.40%
Ch. 35
44.76%
Ch. 63
99.09%
Ch. 9
94.72%
Ch. 36
84.70%
Ch. 64
96.55%
Part I Subtotal
97.58%
Ch. 37
85.26%
Ch. 65
96.72%
Ch. 10
94.33%
Ch. 38
91.44%
Ch. 66
90.65%
Ch. 11
98.25%
Ch. 39
99.07%
Ch. 67
67.74%
Ch. 12
96.84%
Ch. 40
99.86%
Part II Subtotal
74.85%
Ch. 13
93.92%
Ch. 41
98.47%
Ch. 68
98.25%
Ch. 14
99.58%
Ch. 42
98.05%
Ch. 69
97.87%
Ch. 15
97.34%
Ch. 43
11.20%
Ch. 70
86.79%
Ch. 16
99.75%
Ch. 44
92.39%
Ch. 71
94.65%
Ch. 17
98.72%
Ch. 45
41.46%
Ch. 72
93.51%
Ch. 18
99.37%
Ch. 46
26.61%
Ch. 73
96.88%
Ch. 19
90.29%
Ch. 47
3.37%
Ch. 74
95.84%
Ch. 20
99.79%
Ch. 48
51.04%
Ch. 75
64.82%
Ch. 21
82.57%
Ch. 49
46.35%
Ch. 76
97.43%
Ch. 22
99.50%
Ch. 50
78.93%
Ch. 77
98.44%
Ch. 23
93.79%
Ch. 51
82.23%
Ch. 78
67.26%
Ch. 24
94.46%
Ch. 52
36.31%
90.16%
Ch. 25
96.05%
Ch. 53
99.34%
Ch. 26
99.33%
Ch. 54
69.24%
Total
87.53%
Ch. 27
95.68%
Ch. 55
10.46%
Quantitative Comparison
79
TESAS/Crouch:
The Magus 78 Chapter-Pair Similarity Scores
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77
Chapter-Pair No.
Figure 4.3
TESAS/Crouch comparison
also the chapters where, as Binns (1977) and Boccia (1980) point
out, Fowles has made drastic revision on the dialogue among the
characters to make the theme more explicit to his readers (cf. the
discussion in section 3.2.2).
Next I will explore another corpus tool for text comparison, to see
if the statistical result retrieved from TESAS/Crouch can be upheld.
80
These reports contain the document text with the matching phrases
underlined. (Bloomfield 2002)
To put it simply, WCopyfind also adopts an n-grams overlap approach,
namely, finding the overlap of matching consecutive words of
length n (where n is derived empirically). The software allows
the user to specify what the minimum and maximum sizes are for
phrases to be checked. Bloomfield recommends leaving this parameter at the default of 6 words; that is, it measures the overlap of
6-grams (n 6).
This system also allows for the adjustment of other comparison rule
parameters.6 Given limitations of space, I do not intend to discuss the
settings of the scanning parameters in detail (for more information,
see Bloomfield 2002). In my study, I used the default parameter
settings recommended by Bloomfield, to find absolute matching.
Figure 4.4 illustrates a comparison report of chapter 59 of The
Magus. To examine the texts in detail, we can click on the individual
files or click on the side-by-side option to display the pair of files in
adjacent panels of a new browser window. When we view the two files
Quantitative Comparison
81
82
Table 4.3
Ch. 1
97%
Ch. 28
91%
Ch. 56
8%
Ch. 2
99%
Ch. 29
62%
Ch. 57
43%
Ch. 3
93%
Ch. 30
89%
Ch. 58
5%
Ch. 4
98%
Ch. 31
70%
Ch. 59
25%
Ch. 5
98%
Ch. 32
68%
Ch. 60
85%
Ch. 6
95%
Ch. 33
22%
Ch. 61
97%
Ch. 7
98%
Ch. 34
7%
Ch. 62
96%
Ch. 8
97%
Ch. 35
41%
Ch. 63
99%
Ch. 9
99%
Ch. 36
84%
Ch. 64
95%
Part I Subtotal
97.00%
Ch. 37
84%
Ch. 65
96%
Ch. 10
92%
Ch. 38
91%
Ch. 66
90%
Ch. 11
96%
Ch. 39
98%
Ch. 67
65%
Ch. 12
95%
Ch. 40
99%
Part II Subtotal
74.00%
Ch. 13
92%
Ch. 41
99%
Ch. 68
97%
Ch. 14
99%
Ch. 42
97%
Ch. 69
97%
Ch. 15
96%
Ch. 43
8%
Ch. 70
86%
Ch. 16
99%
Ch. 44
91%
Ch. 71
68%
Ch. 17
98%
Ch. 45
37%
Ch. 72
90%
Ch. 18
99%
Ch. 46
19%
Ch. 73
96%
Ch. 19
90%
Ch. 47
0%
Ch. 74
95%
Ch. 20
99%
Ch. 48
51%
Ch. 75
62%
Ch. 21
82%
Ch. 49
44%
Ch. 76
97%
Ch. 22
98%
Ch. 50
77%
Ch. 77
97%
Ch. 23
93%
Ch. 51
82%
Ch. 78
63%
Ch. 24
93%
Ch. 52
31%
86.00%
Ch. 25
95%
Ch. 53
99%
Ch. 26
98%
Ch. 54
69%
Total
86.00%
Ch. 27
96%
Ch. 55
6%
Quantitative Comparison
83
100%
80%
60%
Crouch
40%
WCopyfind
20%
0%
1
9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77
Chapter-Pair No.
Figure 4.5
84
Quantitative Comparison
85
whether two different expressions mean the same thing or not, many
scholars have suggested different criteria. Enkvist (1988) proposes
using syntactic roles and quantifier scope as criteria to define the
content of different linguistic expressions. As he states, those wordorder permutations that do not change the basic syntactic roles of
constituents, and which do not change quantifier scope, are cognitively equivalent (1988: 1478). For example, John kicked Mary
and Mary kicked John are non-equivalent because syntactic roles have
been switched. Everybody in this room speaks three languages and Three
languages are spoken by everybody in this room are non-equivalent because
they differ in quantifier scope. Enkvists two examples can be used to
illustrate the limitations of the corpus tool in textual comparison.
If we compare the sentence pair in the first example, TESAS/
Crouch reports: the number of matched single words is 3.0 (i.e. John,
Mary, kicked), and 0.0 words are unmatched; the similarity score is
100%. The two sentences contain exactly the same words, with the
syntactic roles of John and Mary switched. The switch of syntactic roles
makes the sentences non-equivalent in content, yet they are mapped
as 100% matched.
Similarly, if we compare Enkvists second example, their similarity
score is 98.303%, which resulted from the matched n-grams (in this
room) and the matched substitutable terms (Everybody-everybody, speaksspoken, Three-three). However, although they are mapped as highly
similar, the content of the two sentences are actually non-equivalent
in that they differ in quantifier scope, as Enkvist suggests.
In both cases, the high similarity score between the obviously nonequivalent sentence pairs reveals the limitation of measuring text
similarity (in terms of meaning conveyed) by simply applying surface
linguistic criteria, that is, by counting the matched and unmatched
words.
(2) The issue of identifying synonyms and stemmers as matched
As the TESAS/Crouch statistics shows, 87.53% of words are shared,
that is, matched between the two editions of The Magus. Those
matched words include verbatim n-grams, synonyms and stemmers
(see the discussion on the Cognate approach in section 4.2.2.1). We
have to bear in mind that the main purpose of developing TESAS/
86
Crouch was to detect and measure whether a source text had been
reused or not in the domain of journalism. What had been reused
was more important in the study than how a text had been reused.
Hence stylistic variation between the source text from the UK news
agency and the reused texts in other newspapers is not the major
concern of journalistic business practice. This is the reason why
synonyms and the inflectional variants of a single word are identified
as matched.
However, the main purpose of my study is to explore whether there
is any change in text style between M1 and M2 versions, and if so,
how their text styles are different. If I take the similarity scores at
face value, I might miss some important stylistic variation in the
minimal and scattered changes in synonyms and stemmed words
which have been counted by the software as matched words between
M1 and M2.
Take, the PA news agency source text with the subsequent rewritten
text published in The Sun, for example (the example is taken from
Clough et al. 2002b: 1678).
Example 1
Original (PA) A drink-driver who ran into the Queen Mothers
official Daimler was fined 700 and banned from driving for two
years.
Rewrite (The Sun) A DRUNK driver who ploughed into the Queen
Mothers limo was fined 700 and banned for two years yesterday.
This simple example illustrates the types of rewrite that occur in a
single short sentence. TESAS/Crouch reports as below:
Quantitative Comparison
87
The size of the derived text from The Sun is 20 words; 4 words are
unmatched. The similarity score of the sentence pair is 81%, including the shared n-grams 15 words and 1 matched substitutable term
(DRUNK/drink). Despite the high degree of text reuse, however, the
style of rewrite from The Sun is markedly different from the PA report.
The style variation between the two news texts is conveyed both in the
matched and unmatched words.
Let us first look at the unmatched words. The addition of yesterday
is typical of all newspaper stories in that the reused news text is
usually published the day after the PA copy is produced. It is a nonstylistic deictic change due to a time-frame change. Nonetheless, the
use of ploughed and limo in The Sun is relatively informal or colloquial
compared with ran and official Daimler in the PA text. The lexical
changes result in different stylistic effects.
With regard to the matched words, apart from the verbatim
n-grams, the word DRUNK is counted as a matched substitutable
stemmer of drink. If my comparison focuses only on the unmatched
words, the stylistic effect (i.e. using capital letters to capture readers
attention) is likely to be unnoticed simply because they are counted
as matched. Example 1 illustrates the reason why we can not take
the TESAS/Crouch similarity score at face value in stylistic terms,
since style variation can be found both in the matched and
unmatched linguistic items.
(3) Limitations in measuring content of texts involving extensive revision
In Example 1, the expressions official Daimler and limo refer to the
same object in the text world context, yet they are counted as
unmatched linguistic items. The example shows that it is difficult
for the software to define precisely similarity or comparability of
content between two lexical items. The difficulty is even greater in
texts involving extensive revision.
With regard to the definition of content, Doleel suggests that:
Text content can be defined as the aggregate of meaning associated
with a text paraphrase which is referentially equivalent to the original
text; in other words, the original text expression and its content
paraphrase denote the same content (1971: 103, emphasis mine).
88
Quantitative Comparison
89
Texts remain
unchanged in both
versions.
87.53% Matched
12.47% Unmatched
Figure 4.6
Stylistic variations to
be found in the texts
with different degrees
of revision.
90
Chapter Five
In Chapter Four, I used the corpus tools I have chosen to assess the
degree of text similarity and present the general pattern of revision
across the 78 chapters of The Magus. In this chapter I conduct a
qualitative textual comparison of some extract pairs, not only to show
that stylistic variations are scattered here and there in the chapters
with different degrees of revision (i.e. similarity scores), but also to
explore whether the revision Fowles has made results in any consistent text style differences between the two editions as a whole.
The extracts to be analysed and compared in this chapter are taken
respectively from chs. 29, 59 and 61 of The Magus. I choose these
textual examples for two reasons. First, the three chapters have
different similarity scores which indicate different degrees of revision: 65.758% (chapter 29), 29.394% (chapter 59), and 97.622%
(chapter 61). A qualitative examination of the linguistic differences
and stylistic variations of the extracts from these three chapter-pairs
helps to show that the statistics of text similarity are not always
revealing enough in stylistic terms. Secondly, the three extracts are
important and representative in terms of the plot of the novel. The
extract in chapter 29 describes an important tableau that Conchis
intentionally stages for Nicholas to watch as part of his manipulation
of Nicholas. The extract from chapter 59 depicts the climax of
Nicholass journey, and the most shocking scenario he experiences.
The extract from chapter 61 depicts the first crucial moment of his
self-realization with regard to what he has been through in the godgame and the purpose of Conchiss manoeuverings.
This chapter is divided into five sections. In section 5.1, I revisit
Short and Seminos (2008) analysis of the passages from chapter 59,
the scene when Nicholas is overpowered and drugged. In section 5.2,
92
93
94
In the extract pair, there are two major differences in the actions: (a)
there is an addition of a third character (intruder) in the M2 version
(cf. sentence 7b) and (b) in M1 Lily/Julie covers herself with a bathrobe and stays in the room for a while, while in M2 she leaves the
room immediately. Short and Semino focus their analysis not on the
differences in actions but on the linguistic differences in the ways the
same events and actions are told.
Nicholas is the first-person narrator of the novel, who tells the
story some time after it happened. In both versions of the scene,
readers have access to the viewpoint of Nicholas-as-character,
experiencing his shock, disorientation, helplessness and anger.
Short and Seminos analysis shows that the M1 version is told more
consistently from the viewpoint of Nicholas-the-character, whereas
the M2 version mixes together the different perspectives of the
characters (experienced) event-time and the narrators codingtime memories. The linguistic features related to the uncertainty
or psychological sequencing of Nicholas-as-character and the post
hoc knowledge of Nicholas-as-narrator in both versions are listed in
Table 5.1 for a comparison.
As shown in Table 5.1, some linguistic features used to suggest the
psychological sequencing of Nicholas-as-character are retained in
the M2 version, but are used less often. For example, the use of the
passives with agent deletion is in accord with the assumption that,
due to Nicholass state of disorientation, he does not know exactly
who opens the door and who ties him up, gags him and silences him.
Four passives with agent deletion are used in the M1 version of the
episode, whereas only two are used in the M2 version.
Similarly, appositional structures are used to suggest changing
perceptions on the part of Nicholas-the-character: from a blurred,
95
M1
M2
(1a)(11a) (12b)
(12a)(15a) (14b)
(1a)(4a)
(5a)
(1b)(2b)
(2a)
nil
(5a)
(8b)(10b)
(15b)
(7a)
nil
nil
nil
(13b)
nil
(6b)(7b)
nil
(8b)(10b)
indistinct perception due to his state of disorientation to more precise identification as he partly comes to terms with what is happening
to him. In sentence (1a), the two people who burst into the room are
introduced as two black figures, two tall men in black trousers and
shirts. The noun figures is a vague reference to the individuals, who
at first are not identified even in terms of their sex, but only in terms
of colour. This is then followed by a noun phrase where the invaders
are identified more clearly in terms of their size (tall), their sex
(men), and their clothes (black trousers and shirts). It is only in
the following sentence that the two invaders are identified by name/
nickname. Again, the use of these techniques is diluted in the M2 version. Nicholass perception of the invaders is much more precise than
in M1. In sentence (1b), we know immediately the sex of the three
people (three men), and we are given a very precise description of
their clothes (dark trousers and polo-neck jumpers). The provision
of such exact detail weakens the sense of fast, blurred impressions
conveyed by the first version (for detail analysis of the other linguistic
features listed in Table 5.1, see Short and Semino 2008).
96
Short and Seminos analysis has shown that the linguistic features
used to suggest the viewpoint of Nicholas-as-character at the moment
of disorientation are used less consistently in the extract of the second edition. By contrast, the perspective of Nicholas-as-narrator in
M2 is much more prominent. As a consequence, much of the sense of
immediacy and drama in M2 is lost.
While comparing the two extracts, it is also important to note what
has been added to the M2 version by Fowles for emphasis:
(1) Some additional old contextual information, which helps to
remind readers of some minor characters or events that have
been mentioned in the earlier part of the novel;
(2) Some new figurative expressions, which have been added to suggest how Nicholas feels or perceives this shocking experience.
First, for example, instead of using scare quotes around the name of
the character Anton to highlight Nicholass uncertainty about his
real identity, we are given the exact circumstances in which Nicholas
had last seen the character while he was playing Anton (cf. sentence
6b). With respect to the addition of the third figure in the scene (the
blond-headed sailor), we are also given detailed information about
when and where Nicholas had earlier seen him (cf. sentence 7b).
Secondly, two new similes are added to the M2 extract. One is in
sentence (8b), representing Nicholass experience in terms of his
knowledge of different literary novels: like some freak misbinding in
a book, a Lawrence novel become, at the turn of a page, one by Kafka.
The other is the quasi-simile in sentence (10b): Someone met her
there, an arm went round her shoulders as if she had just escaped
from an air disaster. As Short and Semino point out, both types of
addition lessen the sense of being there with Nicholas-the-character
during his disconcerting experience, and instead emphasize rather
more the presence of Nicholas-the-narrator, reflecting on his past
experience and providing contextual information for the reader.
Short and Seminos interpretation is reasonable and true to some
extent. However, in first-person narration, it is often fairly difficult to
draw a clear distinction in viewpoint between the I-character and the
I-narrator. For example, it is arguable that sentence (8b), including
97
98
99
100
In the two versions of the scene, there is one major difference in the
action. In M1, Lily/Julie leaves Nicholas alone to watch the scene and
we later learn from Nicholas that she is playing the role of the goddess
who shoots the satyr. In M2, Lily/Julie is watching the scene with
Nicholas, and some conversation between them is added. The goddess
is played by another unknown woman. In consequence of the change
in plot, the association of the goddess (who shoots the satyr-man) with
Lily/Julie (who humiliates Nicholas later on) is made less direct and
less obvious in the M2 version than in M1. Nonetheless, in both versions,
at this point Nicholas is not aware that the tableau is intended to be
perceived as an allegorical lesson for him to learn from.
The focus of my analysis is not on the difference in the actions but
on the linguistic differences in the ways the same events are perceived
by Nicholas, and especially on how the new referents are introduced.
I do not have enough space here to quote both versions of the scene
extensively, but instead will quote smaller extracts from the passages
for more detailed analysis (for the two versions of the full text, see
Appendices C.3 and C.4). The extract I quote below describes how
Nicholas perceives that a nymph-girl is being chased by a satyr-man.
Here is the M1 version with the changes highlighted in the same style
as in section 5.1. For ease of reference, sentence numbering here
does not take account of the unquoted preceding text in the appendices describing the appearance of the first mythical figure Apollo.
The words in small capitals indicate the parts that have been
revised in M2 but with the content unchanged. The words with a line
drawn through indicate deletion, that is, they do not appear in M2.
(1a) A running girl appeared; and I thought at first by the apparent whiteness of her skin the torch did not shift to her that she
was also naked. (2a) I thought too, with increasing shock, that it
was Lily. (3a) If she had gone very quickly round the back of the
house . . . but then I could distinguish a white chiton, and dark hair.
(4a) A wig? (5a) The girl had a slim body, the right height. (6a) She
ran towards the sea between Apollo and myself on the terrace. (7a) Then a third figure appeared behind her. (8a) Another
man, running from out of the dark tunnel through the
trees. (9a) The girl was being chased. (M1, chapter 29: 1723)
101
The M1 extract seems to highlight Nicholas-the-characters psychological sequencing, uncertainty and his on-line thought processing
while he is watching the tableau, as shown in the ways he presents the
nymph figure and the satyr-man. Sentences (1a)(6a) introduce the
sudden appearance of the nymph figure. There are a number of linguistic features anchoring the characters viewpoint at that moment:
z
z
102
103
104
105
me a shock. It involved two satyrs and a woman and was very obscene
indeed (M1, chapter 17: 945; M2, chapter 17: 103). This episode
appears in chapter 17 of the novel (about 80 pages earlier) and
remains unchanged in both versions. The astonishing image of satyrs
on the kylix is recalled by Nicholas here in sentence (14b) of the
revised extract in chapter 29.
As I have pointed out, these extra contextual details seem to be
presented mostly from Nicholas-the-characters viewpoint. Nonetheless, as argued in section 5.1, in stories where a character is involved
in intense or unexpected situation, we simply assume that the character would not notice or remember so many details. Hence, in accord
with the normal assumption, it is reasonable to attribute the provision of contextual details to Nicholas-the-narrator.
Another striking difference worth mentioning is in how Nicholas
refers to the satyr figure. He is generally referred to as the man in
the M1 version; whereas in M2, the figure is more specifically referred
to as the satyr. See Figure 5.1 for a detailed account of this important lexical change.
The extra recalled information about the kylix painted with the
obscene image of satyrs in (14b) echoes the consistent one-word
change from man to satyr in the revised extract above. These two
changes foreground the important symbolic meaning of the satyr figure in the novel. Given that Nicholas is presented as a womanizer in
Part I of the novel (see section 3.1.2.1), via the Gricean maxim of
relation, Fowles seems to implicate to his readers the correlation
between Nicholas and the satyr in the scene.
The correlation is made more explicit and is confirmed in another
important change Fowles has made in the last line of the scene quoted
from chapter 59 discussed in section section 5.1. Soon after Nicholas
has sex with Lily/Julie and is overpowered by Conchiss henchmen,
he struggles to understand what is happening to him. Then this oneline paragraph is presented as the metaphorical conception of his
own situation at this moment (see the last lines of the texts in Appendices C.1 and C.2):
A man with an arrow in his heart. (M1, chapter 59: 444)
A satyr with an arrow in his heart. (M2, chapter 59: 490)
106
107
108
Conchis realized that he was the only person there who had free
will to choose what to do, and he chose not to do it. The sudden
revelation with regard to the meaning of freedom and choice makes
Nicholas [lower] the cat and decline the chance of revenge.
Here is the M1 version. The text revision marking style is the same
as in sections 5.1 and 5.2, apart from the additional marking of
double underline, which indicates the rearrangement of phrase/
sentence order or position in the discourse.
(1a) Then suddenly.
(2a) I understood what I had misunderstood.
(3a) I was not holding a cat in my hand in an underground cistern. (4a) I was in a sunlit square and in my hands I held a German
sub-machine-gun.
(5a) And my freedom too was in not striking, whatever the cost.
(6a) Whatever they thought of me; even though it would seem,
as they had foreseen, that I was forgiving them, that I was indoctrinated; their dupe. (7a) That eighty other parts of me must die.
(8a) All Conchiss manoeuvrings had been to bring me to this;
all the charades, the psychical, the theatrical, the sexual, the
psychological; and I was standing as he had stood before the
guerilla, unable to beat his brains out; discovering that there are
strange times for the calling in of old debts, and even stranger
prices to pay.
(9a) I lowered the cat. (M1, chapter 61: 4734)
Sentence (1a) is foregrounded in that it consists of two one-word
adverbial phrases standing together as a graphological sentence and
also as a paragraph. Pragmatically, the complete two adverbials can
be seen (via the maxim of relation) as circumstantial elements
modifying the predication in sentence (2a). This linguistic device
foregrounds the crucial moment of Nicholass realization. From
sentences (3a) to (8a) we are provided with the cognitive content of
what he has understood. He suddenly realizes that his freedom
of choice mirrors Conchiss wartime choice. The analogy between
Nicholass choice at this moment and Conchiss wartime choice ten
years earlier is shown in Table 5.2:
109
Nicholas
Choices
Tool
A cat (whip)
Nicholas realizes that [his] freedom too was in not striking, whatever
the cost. The adverb too emphasizes that he was making the same
choice as Conchis did ten years ago, even though it would seem to
Conchis et al., (1) that he is forgiving them; (2) that he has been
taken on their belief structure and (3) (most importantly, and as
foregrounded by the elliptical structure of the sentence) that he is
their dupe. Sentence (7a) That eighty other parts of me must die is
syntactically a dependent clause that constitutes the fourth object
of the perception verbs seem and had foreseen in (6a). It is a
modalized assertion with strong commitment. It stands alone as a
graphological sentence, which also foregrounds the crucial moment
of Nicholas-the-characters self-realization. It is the sudden revelation
that makes Nicholas put the whip down and decline the chance of
revenge. This decision is shown in sentence (9a) I lowered the cat,
which is placed after a series of Nicholass internal thoughts in (8a).
Similar to sentences (1a), (2a) and (7a), the importance of such
decision in (9a) is also foregrounded by its standing alone as a
one-line paragraph.
Here is the equivalent extract from M2 with the linguistic differences
from M1 highlighted, including the reordering of the two important
pieces of information (sentences 7a and 9a) which is marked with
double underline:
(1b) Then suddenly.
(2b) I understood.
(3b) I was not holding a cat in my hand in an underground cistern. (4b) I was in a sunlit square ten years before and in my hands
110
111
importance of the crucial information which signifies Nicholass realization. In the revision, Nicholas seems to be unwilling to reconcile
himself to being the dupe of Conchis and his henchmen, but at the
same time he knows that he has no other choice.
This point is reinforced by another textual addition that Fowles has
made in sentence (10b), I could feel tears gathering tears of rage,
tears of frustration, coordinated with the clause I lowered the cat
by the conjunction and. As the clause I lowered the cat is neither
placed as the last sentence, nor foregrounded as a one-line paragraph
in the M2 extract, the prominence of the decision itself is reduced.
The perception verb feel and the parallel noun phrases tears of
rage, tears of frustration reveal more clearly Nicholass perplexed
and emotional internal state at the moment of realization.
There are some other linguistic indicators anchoring Nicholas-ascharacters viewpoint at the event time. For example, in the M1 version,
the pronoun they in (6a) anaphorically refers to Conchis and his
companions. In the M2 version, the pronoun is replaced by a more
specific noun phrase the watching eyes in (9b), which is used synecdochically to refer to the people who are judging and watching Nicholas
in the mock trial scene. This change seems to highlight Nicholass
sense of being watched and being scrutinized at the time of the event.
Moreover, in sentence (6a), the clauses they thought of me and as
they had foreseen are subordinated assertions. They look like the
statements from the narrator about what was the case in the textual
world. In sentence (9b), however, the certainty attached to the narrative assertions is reduced by the modal auxiliaries might and must:
whatever the watching eyes might think of me and as they must have
foreseen. The modal might indicates the lack of certainty; the modal
must, however, indicates relatively strong certainty about something
that Nicholas has not witnessed but is inferring. The addition of might
and must suggests that in the revised version we now have the viewpoint of Nicholas-as-character rather than Nicholas-as-narrator.
112
113
M1
revision tendency
implicit
story events or actions
literal
I-character's
viewpoint consistent
perceptual point of view
showing
fiction emotions
Figure 5.2
versions
TEXT
VIEWPOINT
EFFECTS
M2
explicit
I-character's internal world
figurative
telling
artifact emotions
114
115
mythical figures (Apollo and the goddess) retreat from the yard (see
Appendices C.3 and C.4).
(M1, chapter 29: 1725)
The beam went out. I saw them
retreat into the dark penumbra
of the trees. Silence. Night.
As if nothing had happened.
116
Chapter Six
118
Figure 6.1
119
reference corpus for the M2 edition, to see how different the two
editions are in linguistic terms. Figure 6.1 shows the comparison result
of the POS frequency lists between the two editions, for example.
Notice that the log-likelihood (LL) statistic is employed by Wmatrix
in any level of frequency comparison. In all cases the comparison
shows the most significant key items at the top of the list since they
are sorted by the descending LL values. The LL statistics show how
significant the relative frequency differences are between the two
corpora. The + and codes indicate respectively the over-use and
under-use of each linguistic item in one corpus as compared to the
other corpus. To be statistically significant we could look at items with
a LL value over 6.63, as this is the standard cut-off for 99% confidence of significance (see Rayson 2003: 95100).
120
Ch. 31
121
3,715
No. of wordtokens in M2
3,261
No. of wordtokens
increased or
decreased
% of wordtokens
increased or
decreased
Similarity
Score (%)
454
12.22%
72.08%
69.40%
Ch. 32
679
856
177
26.07%
Ch. 33
1,958
2,509
551
28.14%
26.61%
Ch. 34
2,091
3,371
1,280
61.21%
10.91%
Ch. 35
3,219
5,012
1,793
55.70%
44.76%
Ch. 36
2,373
2,686
313
13.19%
84.70%
Ch. 37
1,797
1,892
95
5.29%
85.26%
Ch. 43
2,859
5,720
2,861
100.07%
11.20%
Ch. 45
4,841
4,773
68
1.40%
41.46%
Ch. 46
6,943
8,632
1,689
24.33%
26.61%
Ch. 47
2,650
4,214
1,564
59.02%
3.37%
Ch. 48
639
1,091
452
70.74%
51.04%
Ch. 49
6,168
8,959
2,791
45.25%
46.35%
Ch. 50
4,114
4,482
368
8.95%
78.93%
Ch. 51
2,816
2,733
83
2.95%
82.23%
Ch. 52
4,183
4,857
674
16.11%
36.31%
Ch. 54
1,911
2,485
574
30.04%
69.24%
Ch. 55
3,003
3,183
180
5.99%
10.46%
Ch. 56
3,124
3,452
328
10.50%
12.93%
Ch. 57
1,602
2,451
849
53.00%
46.73%
Ch. 58
Ch. 59
5,794
8,949
3,155
54.45%
8.82%
29.39%
Sample
Total
66,479
85,568
19,089
28.71%
43.13%
The Magus
Total
222,439
241,745
19,306
8.68%
87.53%
122
123
124
125
126
127
M2 Sample
freq.
(%)
M1
1240
(1.93)
1315
(1.59)
B5
305
(0.48)
293
(0.35)
33
(0.05)
15
(0.02)
12.27 Telecommunications
178
(0.28)
168
(0.20)
Sem Tag
Q1.3
H5
LL
Semantic category
Note: M1 in the first row refers to the first edition of The Magus, and M1 in line two of the first column
refers to a particular USAS semantic tag.
M1
B5
Q1.3
H5
The statistics show that the lexical items related to the semantic field
of B5, Q1.3 and H5 are significantly under-used because of textual
deletion from M1 to M2, as the raw frequencies of the terms relating
to these three semantic categories are reduced in the M2 edition (see
Table 6.2). Upon examining the concordance examples, I would
argue that the deletion of these types of words from the M2 edition
mainly results in some minor change in the plot or small-scale details
of the textual actual world in the M2 version.
128
Concordance 6.1
In Concordance 6.1, the six entries describe a bell that rings persistently in the middle of Nicholas and Lily/Julies meetings. The ringing
bell is a deliberate signal from Conchis, in an attempt to interrupt
them under the pretext of calling Nicholas for lunch. Similar
expressions are repeated several times in M1. In stylistic terms, if
the repetitions occur within a relatively short stretch, we may infer
the tension in the situation. The deletion of these repeated textual
examples will thus reduce such a stylistic effect. However, given that
the six entries appear on different occasions in chapters 31, 34, 47,
52, it seems more likely that Fowles has deleted these similar entries
(scenarios) to remove repetition.
Similarly, if we examine the deleted examples of the semantic fields
B5 and H5, we find that B5 (clothes and personal belongings) mostly
relates to descriptions of the physical appearance of the characters,
and H5 (furniture and household fittings) mostly relates to descriptions
of the external environment. For example:
She was wearing another beautiful dress, in a charcoal-amberindigo art nouveau fabric, with an almost ground-length paleyellow stole. B5
He raised his eyebrows a fraction as if I surprised him, but went up
the steps; put his glasses on the old cane couch, and turned back to
the tea-table. I stood by my chair, and gave him his own interrogative
shake of the head. H5
129
Concordance 6.2
130
Table 6.3
SemTag
M1 Sample
freq.
(%)
M2 Sample
freq.
(%)
N5++
115
(0.18)
230
(0.28)
15.40
Quantities
A5.2+
70
(0.11)
151
(0.18)
13.36
Evaluation: -Truth/false
A5.1++
15
(0.02)
51
(0.06)
12.66
Evaluation: -Good/bad
Z7
100
(0.16)
195
(0.24)
11.75
If
A7
45
(0.07)
93
(0.11)
7.07
Unlikely
384
(0.60)
588
(0.71)
6.94
Knowledge
X2.2+
LL
Semantic category
131
Referring to the USAS tagset, the six semantic categories are defined
as below (+ or after the tag is used to indicate a positive or
negative position on the relevant semantic scale), along with the
over-used words in each semantic category listed in descending
frequency in the M2 sample:
z
N5++
A5.2+
A5.1++
Z7
A7
X2.2+
The fact that half of the key over-used semantic concepts are related
to psychological actions and states is significant itself. It indicates an
important tendency in Fowless revision of The Magus. If we examine
the concordance examples in detail, we can also see some recurring
collocational patterns in the six semantic categories. That is, the
linguistic features denoting Nicholass psychological viewpoint (cf.
section 6.3) are made more prominent in the texts, which engage
the readers attention to Nicholass online thought process and his
internal world. The six key semantic categories and the recurring
semantic patterns will be discussed in more detail in sections 6.4.2.1
6.4.2.3, under three subheadings: (1) comparison and evaluation;
(2) hypothesis and inference and (3) (un)certainty.
132
133
I got, the more nefarious I felt, and the more nefarious I became). He is
also constantly evaluating his situation and how he could deal with
Conchis et al. (e.g. I had better believe him now; the faster I set things
in motion, the better).
If we examine further how the most frequently over-used words more
and better are used in the M2 sample corpus, we get the following results:
z
134
Concordance 6.4
135
136
drama is that in your role you do not know what you can believe
and what you cannot (M1, chapter 54: 401; M2, chapter 54: 435).
Conchiss remark summarizes Nicholass stumbling journey to
self-knowledge. Each line of his attempt to demystify the unusual
incidents leads to a false understanding or a dead end, because he
cannot know for sure whether Conchis et al. have told him the truth
or not. Hence, throughout the novel, Nicholas is constantly struggling with what he knows and what he does not. It is this aspect
of changing factivity which foregrounds the detective story plot style
and helps to emphasize Nicholass changing psychological state as he
reacts to changes in his assumptions about the world he is struggling
to understand.
The detective story pattern is the same in both editions. However,
in the M2 version, Nicholass emotive inferential reasoning process is
made more prominent by the over-use of the semantic fields Z7
(conditional terms) and X2.2+ (terms relating to knowledge), and by
the repeated co-occurrences of the linguistic features denoting his
internal feelings and personal attitudes in Concordance 6.4 and
other unlisted examples:
Affective expressions and words denoting perceptions/cognitions:
truly unpleasant, felt less battered, thinking desperately, profoundly relieved,
felt guilty, entranced, unusual, very frightened, fear, terror, despair, shock
Evidential expressions indicating certainty/doubt: seemed, supposed,
surely, probably, as if, in fact, something strange, felt certain, guess, doubt,
genuinely, incredulous, suspected, would not wash, doubting, bluffing
Hedges: some, something, in some way, someone, in a way, some sort of, in
a odd way, somehow, in some intuitive way
Emphatics: really, only, so + adv., too far, at all, almost, too, very, far more
Modal verbs indicating possibility/prediction: couldnt, could, must
be, might, would, must
Other linguistic indicators:
proximal deictic expressions: this, now
graphological device: ellipsis (. . .) indicating on-line thought process
The frequent occurrence of affective and evidential stance markers,
emphatics, hedges and modalities reflects the emotional intensity
137
138
Concordance 6.5
True/false
139
Table 6.4
chapters
Frequency in
M2 Samples
In speech
In narration
(more)
230
86 (37%)
144 (63%)
A5.1++ (better)
51
24 (47%)
27 (53%)
N5++
Z7
(if)
195
116 (59%)
79 (41%)
X2.2+
(KNOW)
405
224 (55%)
181 (45%)
A7
(hesitated, doubt)
93
7 (8%)
86 (92%)
A5.2+
(truth)
151
79 (52%)
72 (48%)
}
}
}
Comparison and
evaluation
hypothesis and
inference
(un)certainty
140
141
for the next weekend and suggests that he accepts Alisons invitation
to join her in Athens for a holiday. Nicholas is annoyed by the fact
that Conchis has halted the masque so abruptly. Below I place the
extracts from the two editions side by side for ease of comparison.
The words with a line drawn through indicate the parts that have
been deleted, and so do not appear in the M2 version; the words in
boldface in the M2 extract indicate the added texts that do not appear
in the original. The words underlined indicate the linguistic markers
of Nicholass mental activities or psychological states in each
edition.
(M1, chapter 37: 230)
142
exploited and excluded; angry with myself; I was mad; even madder; frightened; changed my mind; supposed; a large component of envy; grasshoppered.
Ellipsis (. . .) is used twice, which also indicates Nicholass on-line
thought process. There are also non-factive evidential expressions (no
longer knew; could not imagine) and emphatic expressions (as much . . .
as; so abruptly). These changes altogether expose Nicholass uncertainty/doubt and his emotions more explicitly to the reader. The M2
extract well illustrates the generalized patterns in Fowless revision
that I have uncovered in this chapter.
Given that the M2 version makes Nicholas-the-characters subjective
psychological viewpoint and his online speculative inferential process more prominent, it foregrounds his struggle to comprehend the
factuality of his experience. As a consequence, readers are exposed
more overtly to his alternative possible worlds (cf. McIntyre 2006;
Ryan 1991). We perceive the textual actual world, in Ryans terms,
indirectly through its reflection in Nicholass subjective world.
We are thus challenged to make sense of what happens in the actual
domain of the fictional world. The more prominent epistemic
uncertainty and reflections in M2 lend the story more postmodern
literary qualities. We may assume that, consequently, the M2 readers
are pushed towards an additional level of text processing, to reflect
on the reality which Conchis/Fowles creates in the fictional world,
as compared to the more straightforward and story-driven narrative
like M1. I will come back to this point in Chapter Eight.
Chapter Seven
144
Figure 7.1
145
146
7.2.1 Simile
Most scholars see similes as statements performing overt comparisons.
Miller (1993: 373) emphasizes that simile is a figure of speech in
which two essentially unlike things are compared, often in a phrase
introduced by like or as. The focus on the unlike aspect makes similes different from other similarity statements. Ortony (1993a: 348)
refers to ordinary similarity statements as being literal comparisons
and similes as being nonliteral comparisons (cf. Ortonys discussion
of the two sentences Encyclopedias are like dictionaries and Encyclopedias
are like gold-mines).
If we agree that simile involves non-literal comparison, simile and
metaphor are closely linked, although there is much controversy as
to the precise way they are related (see Glucksberg and Keysar 1993;
Ortony 1993a; Partington 2006; Thomas 1969). Thomas defines
simile as a restricted metaphor which says A is like B (1969: 48).
If a metaphorical statement serves the function of transferring and
ascribing the features of the source domain to the target domain, the
simile statement A is like B ascribes only certain, often unspecified,
features of B to A. That is, not all the features of the source domain
are to be assigned to the target domain, and the selection of features
is generally left to the reader (Thomas 1969: 42).
In terms of effects, Miller (1993) sees simile as relating very closely
to metaphor. It can link together two domains of knowledge or
experience in original and revealing ways, and what makes a simile
striking is an authors sensitivity to previously unnoticed resemblances.
147
In such cases, finding grounds for the comparison may be a nontrivial task for the reader, as Thomas (1969) also suggests. Therefore,
Miller (1993: 375) argues that similes are less interesting than
metaphors only in that the signals of the similitude (e.g. as, like) are
explicit; nonetheless, it is still important to recognize the potential
interpretative power and problems similes can pose.
7.2.2 Metaphor
In classical theory, metaphor was typically viewed as a characteristic of
language alone, a matter of words, rather than thought. Metaphorical
expressions were assumed to be devices found only in literary works,
not in everyday language. Over the past decades, however, it has been
shown that metaphor is prevalent in all language, and research on
metaphor has been dominated by the exploration of the relationship
between language and thought (e.g. Gibbs 1994; Ortony 1993b;
Sperber and Wilson 1995). In particular, the study of the conceptual
framework of metaphor has been at the core of the research programme now known as cognitive metaphor theory, a ground-breaking
development that was prompted by Lakoff and Johnson (1980),
Lakoff (1987), Lakoff and Turner (1989) and others.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) redefine metaphor as a cross-domain
mental mapping between two concepts which enables us to interpret
the one in terms of the other, normally to interpret abstract concepts
in terms of familiar, everyday cognitive experiences. The conceptual
mappings apply not just to novel poetic expressions, but to much
of ordinary everyday language. In brief, metaphor is both language
and thought.
Cognitive metaphor theory draws an important distinction between
metaphorical concepts and linguistic metaphorical expressions. As Lakoff
and Johnson (1980) argue, metaphor, as a phenomenon, involves
both conceptual mappings and individual linguistic realizations.
They use the term metaphor to refer to the conceptual mapping,
and the term metaphorical expression to refer to an individual
linguistic expression (a word, phrase or sentence) instantiating
these mappings (see Lakoff 1993: for a substantial overview of the
contemporary theory of metaphor).
148
To mark the difference, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) first adopt a strategy for naming such conceptual mappings. They are conventionally
represented in small capitals and expressed in the form target
domain is/as source domain (e.g. life is a journey), which can
be realized in various linguistic expressions (e.g. you are far from
your true self, as indicated by Conchis for Nicholass journey to
self-realization). This convention will be followed throughout the
following sections of this chapter. I will show how Fowles uses
the three major metaphors (journey, play, game) to represent
Nicholass life experiences in The Magus original, and further elaborates in his revision the educational purpose of the journey, as well
as Nicholass psychological process of understanding the events
through more frequent and extended metaphorical expressions
drawn from these source domains.
149
150
151
152
153
154
Metaphorical expressions
Conceptual mappings
I had been a mere side-plot, tried to gain too much prominence (2b) life is a play
defeated (1b), experiment (2b), discarded (2b)
life is a game
life is a learning
process
had a sense of being taken apart, disconnected from a previous self (13b) person out of control
like lying on the workshop bench, a litter of parts, the engineer gone . . .
is a divided self4
and not being quite sure how one put oneself together again (13b)
155
156
157
the target domain is not perfect either, as this method can only be
used to identify expressions manifesting conceptual mappings that
are known in advance (see Deignan 2005: 924; Stefanowitsch 2006a:
26, for an overview of the problems and strategies of extracting
linguistic expressions manifesting conceptual mappings).
Among the automatic or semi-automatic strategies for extracting
metaphors, manual post-editing is still required in order to remove
false hits (e.g. the literal use of the lexical item in search). However,
as Stefanowitsch (2006a: 4) points out, the above-mentioned disadvantages are counterbalanced by the fact that corpus method allows
fast identification over large amounts of text. Post-editing takes less
time than that required by completely manual identification.
158
7.4.3 Methodology
Since corpus methodology has been proposed, metaphor researchers have used both small corpora, of a size that can be searched by
159
160
161
As I will demonstrate later, I start (in the first two steps in section 7.5)
with comparing the frequency of similes in both editions and examine
in particular the metaphorical patterns shown in the additional
similes in The Magus revision. The concordancing of the simile
connectives used in the M2 Part II helps me (in the third step in
section 7.6) to, (a) observe the overall configuration of three conceptual mappings Fowles intends to reinforce in his revision, that is, life
is a purposeful journey (a learning process), life is a play, and
life is a game and (b) identify a set of (journey, education, play,
game) source domains vocabulary and retrieve most, if not all, of the
metaphorical expressions instantiating these mappings in Part II of
both editions. After extracting the metaphors, I then conduct a comparative analysis of the retrieved figurative data (in the last two steps
in section 7.7). I first deal with the metaphorical expressions that
appear in both editions, to see the original metaphorical patterns
Fowles intended to display in The Magus. I then deal with the patterns
of the metaphorical expressions that appear in the M2 version only, to
see what kinds of changes Fowles has made in his revision.
162
use. For example, the word like can be used as a verb, meaning enjoy
or want, and the word as can be used as conjunctions, meaning
because, while or when; they can also be used to perform all
kinds of explicit literal comparisons (cf. Ortony 1993a). Those invalid
entries are all removed from the concordanced list. While quantifying the figurative examples, comparative expressions, for example,
as brutal and unexpected as a slap across the face, are generally
counted as one occurrence of metaphorical use, even though as
appears twice in the statistics.
7.5.1 Results
Following the above methodology, I arrive at the quantitative result
presented in Table 7.2. Apart from as, like and seem, there is not much
statistical difference in the use of the other potential simile connectives listed above, and hence they are not shown in the table.
Table 7.2 shows the raw frequency of the simile signals as, like and
seem in Part II of M1 and M2, the frequency of the identical entries
(i.e. the parts which remain unchanged), and the textual differences
in quantitative terms (i.e. the number of original entries that no
Table 7.2
simile
signals
Total in Part II of
The Magus
M1
Identical
entries
1169
Textual revision in M2
(deletion & addition)
273
896
as
M2
1308
412
M1
488
104
384
like
M2
558
174
M1
235
55
180
seem*
M2
297
117
Lit.
250
Fig.
23
Lit.
323
Fig.
89
Lit.
70
Fig.
34
Lit.
91
Fig.
83
Lit.
46
Fig.
Lit.
86
Fig.
31
Figurative
density
x3.9
x2.4
x3.4
163
longer exist in M2 and the number of entries that are newly added
to M2). The table also shows the quantity of the literal and figurative
uses of each simile signal among those deleted and added entries in
each edition.
Take as, as an example. The occurrence of as is 1169 in M1 Part II
and 1308 in M2 Part II, among which, there are 896 identical entries.
After subtracting the identical entries from the total, the remaining
items indicate the actual textual revision Fowles has made. That is,
273 entries which were originally in M1 no longer appear in M2 and
412 entries are added in M2. Among the remaining entries of as in
M1, only 23 entries are used metaphorically, whereas in M2, 89 entries
are used metaphorically.
If we simply compare the frequency of occurrence without taking
into account what is deleted or added between the two editions,
we will see that the figurative use of as in M2 Part II is 3.9 times
more frequent than in M1 Part II; like 2.4 times, and seem 3.4 times
more. The M2 revision exhibits what Partington (2006) calls a higher
figurative density than the original. The more frequent figurative
use of as, like, seem is a simple reflection of this overall density.
164
Concordance 7.1
Concordance 7.2
165
166
167
Concordance 7.3
168
z
z
z
z
z
Concordance 7.4
z
z
z
z
z
Concordance 7.5
z
z
z
z
169
Table 7.3 gives a simple indication of the strength of the metaphorical patterns observed from the simile concordance examples.
Concordance 7.3Concordance 7.5 have shown two prominent
features of the figurative language in M2 Part II. First, there are quite
a large number of metaphors, although drawn from various source
domains, conveying strong emotive and evaluative connotations. This
result helps to confirm my second hypothesis formed in Chapter Five,
as
(40 entries)
like
(35 entries)
seem*
(20 entries)
play
10
(25%)
(35%)
game
12
(30%)
13
(37%)
(25%)
(23%)
(17%)
(5%)
(13%)
(11%)
(0%)
18
(45%)
18
(51%)
13
(65%)
No. of
instances (%)
Thematic
Intertextual
Emotive/evaluative
(14%)
170
namely, we see more figurative (re)presentations of Nicholas-thecharacters cognitive and emotional experiences in the M2 version.
Secondly, metaphors drawn from the two source domains, play
and games, occur repeatedly in the data (see Table 7.3), which
seem to be the major metaphorical groupings Fowles intends to
reinforce in his revision.
After observing the concordance examples of as, like and seem used
in each edition and discovering the patterns shown in the textual
additions, I start to wonder whether the patterns discovered exist in
the texts that remain unchanged in the two editions (i.e. the identical entries shown in Table 7.2). Hence, I go back to check this part
of the concordancing data. Interestingly, among the 896 identical
entries of as, only 19 instances of metaphorical expressions are found
involving the source domains to do with play and games; for like, 9
instances out of 384 identical entries; for seem*, 3 instances out of 180
identical entries. The low occurrence frequency of the play and
game metaphors among the shared entries not only makes the patterns discovered in this section more prominent, but also points to
the significant tendency of Fowless revision in figurative language.
Before we proceed to the next section, it is worth mentioning
another implication of this finding. Partingtons (2006) study suggests that speakers in uncertain circumstances tend to use language
more loosely than they might wish; and Sperber and Wilson (1995)
claim that one way of using language loosely is to speak figuratively.
With regard to The Magus revision, the frequent use of non-factive
expressions (e.g. as if, seem) along with a metaphor or simile comparison seems to indicate Nicholass (the characters) inability to be precise because he is grappling with a complex concept or incredible
situation. Concordance 7.3Concordance 7.5 contain quite a few
metaphorical examples which reveal Nicholass uncertainty about
the factuality of the game and Lily/Julies role in it.
171
172
I am aware that this methodology is not capturing all of the metaphors to do with these source domains, given the vocabulary set I
have got may not be perfect. There might be other metaphors turning up with other vocabulary. Hence I went manually through a large
portion of the novel to check up on the automatic search. In this
step, I also found some more metaphorical expressions which are not
retrieved by the computational search. I include them in the list.
Although I can not claim that I have found all of the metaphors
related to these source domains, it seems to me that very few were
missed by the hand checking.
The final result of the combined automatic and non-automatic
search is listed in Appendix E, with the metaphorical instances that
appear in both editions marked in boldface. Table 7.4 below gives
a general quantification of each type of metaphors shown in the
figurative examples in each edition.
As Table 7.4 shows, a total of 272 metaphorical instances were
identified in M2 Part II, among which, only 75 occur in M1 Part II.
That is, the additional metaphorical expressions in the revision are
approximately 3.63 times more than in the original. The table also
indicates that the patterns discovered exist in M1, but they are made
more prominent in M2 as a consequence of the fact that more relevant metaphors occur. play metaphors increase 3.13 times more in
the revision than in the original; game metaphors 5.86 times more.
Metaphors that are thematically related to the educational aspect
of Nicholass journey or the psychological experimental aspect of
Table 7.4 The intensity of the metaphorical patterns
between Part II of M1 and M2
Categories
No. of
M1 Part II
instances
(Total 75)
M2 Part II
(Total 272)
Increase
(3.63 times)
play
40
125
3.13
game
14
82
5.86
Thematic
12
40
3.33
19
4.75
11
45
4.09
Intertextual
Uncategorized
173
7.7.1.1
174
7.7.1.2
LIFE IS A PLAY
175
(209) You have much to learn. You are as far from your true self as
that Egyptian mask our American friend wore is from his true face.
Extract (154) is part of a conversation between Nicholas and
Conchis. Nicholas reminds Conchis of the fact that he is not an actor,
which is literally true; however, Conchis replies metaphorically. By
flouting the Gricean maxim of quality and relation, Conchis (Fowles)
is implicating to Nicholas (readers) that he is playing a role in his
real life without realizing it himself (i.e. acting as if [he] couldnt act).
Extract (209) is Conchiss explicit remark on his intended purpose
of engineering Nicholas, who is far from his true self, into the quest.
The message Conchis (or Fowles) intends to communicate through
the metaphor is: playing a role and wearing a mask in a theatre are
like having ones true self and true face in disguise; both correspond
to ones superficial self in life, that is, being shallow and insincere,
with the true face hidden behind a role/mask.
Similar to the important correlation of the play metaphor with regard
to Nicholass journey, the conceptual mappings of life is fiction are
also exploited by Fowles in The Magus original, interacting with the
play metaphor, as shown in the following examples.
(162) The third person is apt, because I presented a sort of fictional
self to them, a victim of circumstances, a mixture of attractive
raffishness and essential inner decency. (Note: them refers
to the twin sisters.)
(270) all my life I had tried to turn life into fiction, to hold reality away;
always I had acted as if a third person was watching and listening
and giving me marks for good or bad behaviour a god like novelist, to whom I turned, like a character with the power to please, the
sensitivity to feel slighted, the ability to adapt himself to whatever
he believed the novelist-god wanted. This leechlike variation of the
super-ego I had created myself, fostered myself, and because of it
I had always been incapable of acting freely. It was not my defence;
but my despot. And now I saw it, I saw it a death too late.
The concept of a role in a play is similar to that of a character in a
novel, in the sense that both are fictional. Thus, in extracts (162) and
176
(270), we can see the play and fiction metaphors are interacting
with each other. These two examples occur in Nicholass narration.
In extract (162), Nicholas refers to his self-introduction to the twin
sisters as a way of presenting a sort of fictional self, as if he is talking
about someone elses life. Extract (270) is from the narrators viewpoint. Nicholas is reflecting on his own past after Alisons death, and
regrets his selfishness, as indicated particularly in the metaphorical
sentence: This leechlike variation of the super-ego I had created myself,
fostered myself, and because of it I had always been incapable of acting
freely. The expression acting as if a third person instantiates the metaphors of play and fiction, indicating that Nicholas is leading an
inauthentic life, in philosophical terms.
These particular mappings are most relevant to the theme of The
Magus. As I examined in section 3.1.2.1, from Nicholass narrative in
Part I of the novel, readers may infer his character flaws (e.g. his sense
of superiority, his selfishness and dishonesty), revealed especially in
his frivolous playboy attitude in interpersonal relations. In a sense,
the uninitiated Nicholas is living his life with the superficial rather
than the true self, which accounts for the necessity of his journey to
self-knowledge.
7.7.1.3
LIFE IS A GAME
177
Target
Source
freq.
% in M1
Life
Journey
12
16%
40
14
53%
18%
In next section, my analysis will show how these patterns are strengthened and extended in the revised version of The Magus.
178
By playing with the boundary between the two source domains, play
and games (i.e. masque and godgame), and the boundary between
the literal (text/dialogue) and the metaphorical (subtexts, cf. also
the Gricean pragmatic account of implicature), Conchis compels
Nicholas (and Fowles compels the reader) to work out what is
happening to him and why, and to continue searching for the truth,
for the meaning lying underneath Conchiss manipulation. By
stressing the play and game elements so forcefully in the revision,
Fowles also presents a stronger self-reflexive consciousness of the
illusive nature of the fictional reality, and shows more obvious
intention to remind readers of the artificiality of novel/fiction in
The Magus. These points will be elaborated further in the following
three subsections.
7.7.2.1
PLAY
179
180
7.7.2.2
GAME
181
182
183
184
7.7.2.3
Concordance 7.6
Among the 15 examples, entries (1), (4) and (15) are Conchiss
remarks; entries (2), (5), (13) and (14) are the twin sisters remarks.
All of them occur in their conversations with Nicholas. The entries
shaded in grey, that is, (3) and (6)(12), are Nicholass remarks or
thoughts. If we examine the lines carefully, we will see that in his revision Fowles seems to be playing more obviously with the boundary
between the two source domains, play and games; and at the same
time he is playing purposefully with the boundary between the literal
(what is said by the characters in the text/dialogue) and the metaphorical implicature (what they really mean). Consider Conchiss
remarks first. Under the pretext of Lily/Julies illness (her schizophrenia), Conchis warns Nicholas that she is acting, amusing herself
with you (cf. entry 1) and assigns Nicholas a role (cf. entry 4) in this
pretend game to help him with the psychological treatment for Lily/
Julie, as he states his purpose clearly: I wish to bring the poor child
185
to a realization of her own true problem by forcing her to recognize the nature
of the artificial situation we are creating together here (cf. extract (115) in
Appendix E).
In the meantime, the twin sisters also tell Nicholas explicitly that
they are playing parts at Conchiss request: Ive made it very clear
to Maurice that Ill play parts for him (cf. entry 2); and he wanted to
mount a situation in which we two were to play parts (cf. entry 14).
These explicit remarks from Conchis and the twin sisters make the
role-playing and game-playing become literally true. Nonetheless,
there is an obvious contradiction between Conchiss remarks and
those of the twin sisters. The conflict and uncertainty about who is
telling the truth propels Nicholas to continue with his quest.
The play metaphor brings in Stanislavskis concept of subtexts,
which is employed by Conchis in his implicit teaching. As shown in
extract (115) mentioned above, the poor child literally refers to
Lily/Julie, but is meant to be Nicholas. Conchis wants to bring
Nicholas to a realization of his own problem through recognizing the
artificial situation created in his domain. His mysterious intention is
like the subtexts of a play, and Nicholas has to search for the meaning
lurking beneath the text/dialogue of the play (the masque) which
Conchis implements for him. The idea of a subtext brings out the
idea of searching for truth, which is also instantiated in the plot
structure of the novel, given that reading the novel is like reading a
detective story. In brief, by playing with the boundary between the
two source domains (play and games), and the boundary between
the literal (text/dialogue) and the metaphorical (subtexts), Fowles
compels his readers, just like Conchis compels Nicholas, to work out
what is implicated behind the story. The subtext is not spoken, but
rather, needs to be inferred metaphorically.
186
PLAY
fictional / illusive
nature of reality
Su
pe
(p rf
(w layi icia
ea ng
lS
rin
g m roles elf
as )
ks
)
JOURNEY TO SELF-REALISATION
GAME
(NO MASK)
True Self
(No Game)
187
Chapter Eight
Stylistic Differences
189
190
Stylistic Differences
191
192
Stylistic Differences
193
194
Stylistic Differences
195
196
Part III
Chapter Nine
200
201
202
203
204
205
an end; (2) when its findings have empirical validity such as aesthetic
effect and artistic emphasis and (3) when its observable data are
adequate both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The last principle of corpus stylistic study, and the greatest challenge,
lies in how to explicate and operationalize stylistic intuitions in van
Peers (1989: 305) words, that is, how to develop reliable methods
of quantification and to strike a balance between quantitative and
qualitative analyses. While operationalizing stylistic intuitions, we
should spell out the steps that lie between what is observed and the
interpretation placed on those observations; that is, to incorporate
the observed corpus data and our quantifications into a synthetic
discussion of the chosen literary works. Surely it is unlikely to completely eliminate subjective factors in analysis, but we should, as
Stubbs (2007a: 131) suggests, make explicit how our observations
are constrained by what is possible and/or convenient, and how
different aspects of reality are therefore emphasized by available data
and observational methods.
In an approach which unites empirical science and hermeneutic
art, achieving a comfortable balance takes time. Stylisticians should
remain self-reflective about the directions that corpus linguistics
might take, so as to open up productive new avenues to literary
studies, prose fiction in particular.
(1)
psd
(2)
ps
(3)
psng =
lsw + lng
m2
2x(lsw + lng)
m1 + m2
lng
lsw + lng
Appendix A
207
(4)
ws
d1 + d2 + d3 =1
The ws indicates the overall similarity
between the sentence pair.
The three parameters d1, d2 and d3 are weights for each of the three
scores. They have been determined empirically and are currently
set to: d1 = 0.85, d2 = 0.05 and d2 = 0.1. A threshold of ws, 0.65 by
default, is used to determine whether or not a pair of sentences are
definitely related. Those sentence pairs which produce a ws score
higher than the threshold are taken to be highly related (for detailed
computation, indication and evaluation of the scores, see Clough
et al. 2002a; McEnery and Piao 2003; Piao 2001).
B.1
245,136
178,817
787
233
72.93%
26.65%
87.531%
Part I
2nd
Matched
Unmatched
Edition n-grams single words substitutable terms
words
Ch. 1
1,709
1,671
38
97.78%
2.22%
97.893%
Ch. 2
652
647
99.23%
0.77%
99.232%
Ch. 3
2,686
2,482
31
167
92.41%
6.22%
93.857%
Ch. 4
3,853
3,795
16
41
98.49%
1.06%
98.987%
Ch. 5
2,345
2,301
41
98.12%
1.75%
98.294%
Ch. 6
1,034
1,007
23
97.39%
2.22%
97.776%
Ch. 7
2,962
2,930
29
98.92%
0.98%
99.089%
Ch. 8
2,936
2,883
49
98.19%
1.67%
98.398%
493
467
26
94.73%
5.27%
94.724%
18,670 18,183
58
10
419
97.39%
2.24%
97.583%
Ch. 9
Sub-Total
B.2
Matched
Unmatched Similarity
n-grams (%)
(%)
Score
Total
2nd
Edition
Unmatched
Ch. 10
2,048
1,924
Matched
n-grams (%)
Unmatched (%)
Similarity Score
words
117
93.95%
5.71%
94.334%
Ch. 11
1,775
1,733
32
97.63%
1.80%
98.254%
Ch. 12
982
947
31
96.44%
3.16%
96.843%
Ch. 13
3,599
3,352
21
220
93.14%
6.11%
93.915%
Ch. 14
962
958
99.58%
0.42%
99.584%
Ch. 15
3,426
3,302
31
92
96.38%
2.69%
97.344%
Ch. 16
786
783
99.62%
0.25%
99.746%
Ch. 17
3,043
2,988
14
41
98.19%
1.35%
98.718%
Ch. 18
3,838
3,805
24
99.14%
0.63%
99.374%
Ch. 19
2,801
2,520
273
89.97%
9.75%
90.290%
Ch. 20
1,893
1,885
99.58%
0.21%
99.789%
Ch. 21
1,073
886
187
82.57%
17.43%
82.571%
Ch. 22
1,801
1,786
12
99.17%
0.67%
99.500%
Ch. 23
3,302
3,081
14
205
93.31%
6.21%
93.792%
Ch. 24
2,618
2,465
146
94.16%
5.58%
94.462%
Ch. 25
1,470
1,408
58
95.78%
3.95%
96.054%
2,362
2,334
18
98.81%
0.76%
99.325%
2,866
2,725
10
125
95.08%
4.36%
95.675%
Ch. 28
1,489
1,376
106
92.41%
7.12%
92.882%
(Continued)
209
Ch. 26
Ch. 27
Appendix B
Part II
2nd
Edition
210
Matched
Unmatched
5,687
3,708
Ch. 30
1,481
Ch. 31
3,295
Ch. 32
866
Ch. 33
2,582
Ch. 34
Matched
n-grams (%)
Unmatched (%)
Similarity Score
34.31%
65.798%
words
10
1951
65.20%
1,347
128
90.95%
8.64%
91.426%
2,350
13
926
71.32%
28.10%
72.079%
600
265
69.28%
30.60%
69.395%
666
10
1899
25.79%
73.55%
26.607%
3,520
371
3138
10.54%
89.15%
10.910%
Ch. 35
5,069
2,222
27
11
2809
43.84%
55.42%
44.761%
Ch. 36
2,700
2,279
413
84.41%
15.30%
84.703%
Ch. 37
1,909
1,625
282
85.12%
14.77%
85.262%
Ch. 38
2,758
2,506
12
237
90.86%
8.59%
91.443%
Ch. 39
1,395
1,381
13
99.00%
0.93%
99.068%
Ch. 40
1,432
1,425
99.51%
0.21%
99.860%
Ch. 41
2,026
1,992
31
98.32%
1.53%
98.470%
Ch. 42
5,287
5,162
16
108
97.64%
2.04%
98.052%
Ch. 43
5,858
631
16
5208
10.77%
88.90%
11.199%
Ch. 44
6,794
6,272
517
92.32%
7.61%
92.391%
Ch. 45
4,899
1,996
24
2873
40.74%
58.64%
41.457%
Ch. 46
8,888
2,275
53
14
6546
25.60%
73.65%
26.609%
Ch. 47
4,272
133
4133
3.11%
96.75%
3.371%
Appendix B
18
Ch. 48
562
543
50.86%
49.14%
51.042%
Ch. 49
9,084
4,170
26
4880
45.90%
53.72%
46.346%
Ch. 50
4,508
3,524
23
953
78.17%
21.14%
78.927%
Ch. 51
2,785
2,285
495
82.05%
17.77%
82.226%
Ch. 52
4,910
1,761
16
3130
35.87%
63.75%
36.314%
Ch. 53
9,201
9,132
62
99.25%
0.67%
99.337%
Ch. 54
2,503
1,720
773
68.72%
30.88%
69.237%
3,212
317
12
2878
9.87%
89.60%
10.461%
3,535
434
10
3085
12.28%
87.27%
12.929%
Ch. 57
2,474
1,139
11
1322
46.04%
53.44%
46.728%
Ch. 58
8,460
696
29
10
7725
8.23%
91.31%
8.818%
Ch. 59
728
202
518
27.75%
71.15%
29.394%
Ch. 60
2,509
2,212
12
282
88.16%
11.24%
88.761%
Ch. 61
9,629
9,372
15
232
97.33%
2.41%
97.622%
Ch. 62
3,805
3,687
10
105
96.90%
2.76%
97.320%
Ch. 63
3,060
3,030
28
99.02%
0.92%
99.085%
Ch. 64
2,431
2,337
85
96.13%
3.50%
96.545%
Ch. 65
2,679
2,585
90
96.49%
3.36%
96.716%
Ch. 66
2,961
2,671
12
277
90.21%
9.35%
90.645%
Ch. 67
1,655
1,109
194,086
132,144
534
67.01%
32.27%
67.735%
574
187
61,174
68.09%
31.52%
74.853%
211
Appendix B
Ch. 55
Ch. 56
Sub-Total
B.3
1,105
212
Unmatched
words
Matched
n-grams (%)
Ch. 68
1,603
1,572
28
98.07%
1.75%
98.253%
Ch. 69
1,457
1,423
31
97.67%
2.13%
97.872%
Ch. 70
2,612
2,254
346
86.29%
13.25%
86.791%
Ch. 71
4,003
3,763
19
215
94.00%
5.37%
94.654%
Ch. 72
4,237
3,939
16
278
92.97%
6.56%
93.510%
Ch. 73
4,097
3,933
32
130
96.00%
3.17%
96.876%
Ch. 74
1,753
1,664
15
73
94.92%
4.16%
95.836%
Ch. 75
3,226
2,062
17
1142
63.92%
35.40%
64.817%
Ch. 76
4,118
3,986
23
107
96.79%
2.60%
97.426%
Ch. 77
1,089
1,068
17
98.07%
1.56%
98.439%
Ch. 78
4,248
2,826
16
11
1395
66.53%
32.84%
67.256%
32,443
28,490
155
36
3,762
87.82%
11.60%
90.157%
Sub-Total
B.4
Matched
Appendix B
Part III
2nd Edition
z
z
214
Appendix C
Appendix C
215
The absurd memory of the pile of exam papers I had still to mark
flicked through my mind. Joe and Anton held my left arm like a
vice. I resisted for a moment, then gave in. A dab of wet. The needle pricked into my forearm. I felt the morphine, or whatever it was,
enter. The needle was withdrawn, another dab of something wet.
Conchis went back to his table. I lay for half a minute or so,
then looked to see what he was doing. He was sitting by the
table, his legs crossed. A black medical case lay on the table
in front of him. Everyone was silent.
I tried to realize what I had got into; a world without limits.
A man with an arrow in his heart. (M1, chapter 59: 444)
216
Appendix C
Appendix C
217
218
Appendix C
ghost of a very contemporary wink. But she was gone so quickly that
I was left only the more confused.
I went to the parapet that faced east. The gravel, and then across
the clearing, the trees. I could see nothing unusual. Darkness
and stillness. I listened for the sound of her footsteps downstairs, but
there was silence there too. Then the sound came again. It echoed
faintly from some steep hillside inland, its primitive timbre seeming
to wake the landscape and the trees, to summon from some evolutionary sleep. Another long silence. Then suddenly there was a movement in the pines.
A dim figure stood out in the starlight some fifty or sixty
yards away. I had an impression of whiteness. Then from beyond
the cottage there was a beam of light; not very strong, as
a hand-held torch might give. With a shock I realized that the
figure was that of an absolutely naked man. He raised the horn he
was carrying and again came the call. He was near enough for me to
see, with the aid of the weak beam of light, dark pubic hair and the
pale scape of his penis. He was tall, well built, well cast to be
Apollo. On his head I made out a crown of leaves; the glint of
golden leaves, laurel-leaves. The light made his skin even paler,
so that he stood out like marble against the black trees. He was
facing the house, facing me, the horn in his right hand.
Suddenly there was a new sound, even stranger, of a woman or
a boy, I couldnt tell, calling from where the track out of Bourani
disappeared into the trees. It was a chanted sound, a triphthong
hauntingly prolonged, an echo of the horns echo. Eia. Eia. The
man dropped his arm and turned and went a pace or two to the
north. I saw him raise his yard-long horn, a narrow crescent
with a flared end. He called back; and the other call came back at
once, so that the echoes of the two calls intermingled. Eia. Eia.
Like the man I was watching the trees to the north, the dark tunnel
where the track disappeared.
A running girl appeared; and I thought at first by the apparent
whiteness of her skin the torch did not shift to her that she was
also naked. I thought too, with increasing shock, that it was Lily.
If she had gone very quickly round the back of the house . . . but then
I could distinguish a white chiton, and dark hair. A wig? The girl had
Appendix C
219
a slim body, the right height. She ran towards the sea between
Apollo and myself on the terrace. Then a third figure appeared
behind her. Another man, running from out of the dark tunnel
through the trees. The girl was being chased. I flashed a look
round. Conchis sat exactly as before, as if he disapproved sternly of
this interruption.
The nymph-girl ran through the beam of light that shone on Apollo
and had almost reached the seaward side of the clearing when several
things happened. Apollo blew his horn again, but this time it was a
single wild note, sustained then abruptly ended. He struck a new
pose, his hand pointing at the satyr-man, who stopped at the sound.
Simultaneously a much stronger beam shone out from directly
underneath me. Someone else was standing under the colonnade. The beam moved, caught up the still running figure of
the girl, her white back and her black dishevelled hair
and her seemingly near-exhausted legs, as she plunged into
the trees. She disappeared. The light went out for two moments.
And then, in a brilliant coup de thtre, it went on again, and
standing there, exactly in the place where the first girl had
disappeared, a place where the ground rose a little, was yet
another, the most striking figure of all. It was Lily, but
metamorphosed.
She had changed into a long saffron chiton. It had a thin
blood-red hem where it ended at the knees. On her feet were black
buskins with silver greaves, which gave her a grim gladiatorial look, in
strange contrast to her bare shoulders and arms. The skin was unnaturally white, the eyes elongated by black make-up, and her hair was
also elongated backwards in a way that was classical yet sinister. Over
her shoulders she had a quiver. In her left hand she held a long
silver-painted bow. Something in her stance, as well as her
distorting make-up, was genuinely frightening.
She stood, cold and outraged and ominous for a long
second, and then she reached back with her free hand and with a
venomous quickness pulled an arrow out of the quiver. But just as
she began to fit it to the bow-string, the beam tracked like lightning
back to the arrested man. He was standing, darker-skinned, in a
black chiton, spectacularly terrified, his arms flung back, and his
220
Appendix C
Appendix C
221
parapet, even if it had not been night. Conchis still sat with his
oblivious face. Lily stood and held out a hand.
Come.
I let her lead me to where we had stood before, at the eastern end
of the terrace. She stared down into the trees, and I glanced at her
profile.
Someone seems to be mixing metaphors.
She couldnt quite press the smile out of her mouth. My hand was
gently squeezed.
Be good. Watch.
The gravel, the clearing, the trees: I could see nothing
unusual.
I just wish I had a programme. Thats all.
How very dull of you, Mr. Urfe.
Nicholas. Please.
But whatever answer she might have given to that was forestalled.
From somewhere between the house and Marias cottage
there came a beam of light. It was not very strong, from a
small electric torch. In it, some sixty yards away on the edge
of the pines, a figure stood like a marble statue. With a new
shock I realized that it was that of an absolutely naked man. He was
just near enough for me to make out the black pubic hair, the
pale scape of his penis; tall, well-built, well cast to be Apollo.
His eyes seemed exaggeratedly large, as if they had been made up.
On his head there was a glint of gold, a crown of leaves; laurel-leaves. He was facing us, immobile, with his yard-long
horn, a narrow crescent with a flared end, held slightly out
from his waist in his right hand. It struck me after a few seconds
that his skin was an unnatural white, almost phosphorescent in the
weak beam, as if his body as well as his face had been painted.
I looked back: Conchis still sat as before . . . then at Lily, who
watched the figure without expression, yet with a kind of intentness
as if she had seen this rehearsed, and was now curious to see the full
performance that silenced any desire in me to be facetious. The
charade itself shocked me less than the revelation that I was not the
only young male at Bourani. I knew that at once.
Who is he?
222
Appendix C
My brother.
I thought you were meant to be an only child.
The Apollo figure raised his horn sideways and blew a different
note, sustained, yet more urgent, as if calling lost bounds. Lily said
slowly, without taking her eyes from him, That is in the other world.
And then, before I could challenge her further, she pointed to our
left, beyond the cottage. A faint light shape came running out of
the dark tunnel where the track to the house emerged from
the trees. The torch-beam moved to her it was a girl, and
she too was naked, except for antique sandals that were laced up
her calves; or perhaps not quite naked either the pubic hair had
been shaved or she wore some kind of cache-sexe. Her hair was bound
back in a classical style, and as with the Apollo her body and face
seemed unnaturally white. She was running too quickly for me to see
her features. She threw a look back as she came towards us, she was
being chased.
She ran towards the sea, between the Apollo and the two of
us standing on the terrace. Then a third figure appeared behind
her. Another man, running out of the trees and down the track.
He was got up as a satyr, in some kind of puffed-out hairy tights, goathaunches; and he had the traditional head, a beard, two stubby horns.
His naked torso was dark, almost black. As he ran closer, gaining on
the girl, I had my next shock. A huge phallus rose from his loins.
It was nearly eighteen inches long, far too massive to be meant
realistically, but it was effectively obscene. I suddenly remembered
the painting in the bowl of the kylix in the room below us; and
also remembered I was a long way from home. I felt unsure, out of
my depth, a lot more innocent and unsophisticated at heart than
I liked to pretend. I slid a quick look at the girl beside me. I thought
I detected a faint smile, a kind of excitement at cruelty, even when
being mimed, that I did not like; it was very remote from the
Edwardian other world whose clothes she still wore.
I looked back at the nymph, at her white back and dishevelled hair, her seemingly near-exhausted legs. She plunged
into the trees going down towards the sea, and disappeared
and then, in a coup de thtre, a much stronger beam shone out
from directly beneath where we stood. Standing there, in the
Appendix C
223
place where the first girl had just disappeared, a place where
the ground rose a little before falling abruptly towards
the beach, was yet another, the most striking figure of all,
a woman in a long saffron chiton. It had a blood-red hem where
it ended at the knees. On her feet were black buskins with silver
greaves, which gave her a grim gladiatorial look, in strange contrast
to the bare shoulders and arms. Again the skin was unnaturally
white, the eyes elongated by black make-up, and the hair was also
elongated backwards in a way that was classical yet sinister. Over her
shoulders she had a silver quiver and in her left hand, a silver
bow. Something in her stance, as well as the distorted face, was
genuinely frightening.
She stood there for several moments, cold and outraged and
ominously barring the way. Then she reached back with her free
hand and with a venomous quickness pulled an arrow out of the
quiver. But before she could fit it to the bow-string, the beam tracked
back to the arrested satyr. He stood spectacularly terrified, his arms
flung back and his head averted, the mock phallus in the better light
I could see it was jet black still erect. It was a pose without realism,
yet dramatic. The beam swept back to the goddess. She had her bow
at full stretch, the arrow went. I saw it fly, but lost it in the darkness.
A moment later the beam returned to the satyr. He was clutching
the arrow or an arrow to his heart. He fell slowly to his knees,
swayed a second, then slumped sideways among the stones and thymebushes. The stronger torch lingered on him, as if to impress the
fact of his death; then it was extinguished. Beyond, in the weaker
original beam, Apollo stood impassively, surveying, a pale marmoreal
shadow, like some divine umpire, president of the arena. The goddess
began to walk, a striding huntress walk, her silver bow held in one
hand by her side, towards him. They stood facing us for a moment,
then each raised a free hand, the palm bent back, in a kind of final
tableau, a grave salutation. It was another effective gesture. It had a
fleeting, but genuine, dignity, the farewell of immortals. But then
the remaining light went out. I could still just distinguish
the two pale shadows, turning away now with the rather mundane haste of actors eager to get off stage while the lights
are down. (M2, chapter 29: 1803)
POS Tag
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Significant differences at the POS level in the three parts of the novel
Appendix D
SemTag
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M2 All(%)
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Significant differences at the semantic level in the three parts of the novel
Ch
13
1. His eyes were those of a chess-player who has made a good move.
17
2. It is what I mean by hazard. There comes a time in each life like a point of
fulcrum. At that time you must accept yourself. It is not any more what you will
become. It is what you are and always will be. You are too young to know this.
You are still becoming. Not being.
3. I nodded, cautious, not concerned with understanding; because underlying
everything he did I had come to detect an air of stage-management, of the planned
and rehearsed. He did not tell me of his coming to Bourani as a man tells
something that chances to occur to him; but far more as a dramatist tells an
anecdote where the play requires.
19
21
8. If in one way he seemed a more human person, more normally fallible, than
before, that was tainted by what seemed like a lack of virginity in the telling.
9. Calculating frankness is very different from the spontaneous variety; there was
some fatal extra dimension in his objectivity, which was much more that of a
novelist before a character than of even the oldest, most changed man before his own real
past self.
10. It was finally much more like biography than the autobiography it purported to be;
patently more concealed lesson than true confession.
11. It was not that I was so self-blind that I saw nothing to be learnt.
Appendix E
227
23
12. Is this how they teach you at Oxford now? One reads last chapters first?
13. In some obscure way, one I was to become very familiar with, it flattered me:
I was too intelligent not to be already grasping the rules of the game we played.
14. It was no good my knowing that old men have conned young ones like that ever
since time began.
15. I still fell for it, as one still falls for the oldest literary devices in the right hands and
contexts.
24
16. I shall never forget these last two days. Even though I dont know why Im elect.
Or elected. Perhaps your ignorance is why.
17. I had indeed, it seemed, passed some test.
25
18. as I walked there came the strangest feeling, compounded of the early hour,
the absolute solitude, and what had happened, of having entered a myth; a
knowledge of what it was like physically, moment by moment, to have been
young and ancient, a Ulysses on his way to meet Circe, a Theseus on his journey to
Crete, an Oedipus still searching for his destiny.
27
19. After all, it was a masque, and I wanted, or after a very short while began to
want, to play my part. I found something a shade patronizing in her attitude, and
I interpreted it as an attempt to upstage me; perhaps to test me, to see if I was
worth playing against.
29
20. I could still just distinguish the two pale shadows, turning away now with the
rather mundane haste of actors eager to get off stage while the lights are down.
21. I could try to be content as a spectator, to let these increasingly weird incidents
flow past me as one sits in a cinema and lets the film flow past. But even as I
thought that, I knew it was a bad analogy. People dont build cinemas for an
audience of one, unless they mean to use that one for a very special purpose.
22. His eyes were even more intense than usual, like black phosphorus, almost
leechlike; much more the eyes of a scientist checking the result of an experiment, the state of
the guinea-pig, than of a host seeking approval from a guest after a spectacular
entertainment.
23. I smiled and shook my head. This time I take the tooth. This time it may be real.
24. At least Im beginning to realize that all your dice are loaded. Then you cannot
possibly win.
25. Conchis was evidently like certain modem poets: he tried to kill ten meanings with
one symbol.
26. I looked back: Conchis still sat as before . . . then at Lily, who watched the
figure without expression, yet with a kind of intentness as if she had seen this
rehearsed, and was now curious to see the full performance that silenced any
desire in me to be facetious. The charade itself shocked me less than the
revelation that I was not the only young male at Bourani.
228
Appendix E
30
27. The masque, the masque: it fascinated and irritated me, like an obscure poem.
28. I was intensely aware that our relationship, or my position, had changed again; as
I had been shifted from guest to pupil, now I uneasily felt myself being manoeuvred into
a butt.
29. Things like the humanity in his playing of Bach, in certain aspects, however
embroidered, of his autobiography, were undermined, nullified by his perversity
and malice elsewhere.
30. He must know it, therefore must want me to flounder; flounder indeed, since the
curious books and objects he put in my way, Lily herself, and now the
myth-figures in the night with all their abnormal undertones had to be seen as a
hook, and I couldnt pretend that it had not sunk home.
31
31. I stared out to sea, a little on the same principle as Ulysses when he tied himself to the
mast.
32. You keep suggesting youre playing this pretend game to please the old man. If you
want me to join in, I think youd better explain why.
33. I pretended to read it, did the same tracing of the lines; and tried to read it
quite seriously in the manner of Sherlock Holmes.
34. The girl beside me was making a brave effort or perhaps casting had preceded
narrating.
35. But all the acting skill in the world couldnt carry off this present role.
36. I had the impression that for once I had shocked her out of acting.
37. Shall we walk out there? If thats what the script says.
38. But since it is clear that we are incapable of speaking the same language, we shall
just walk. I smiled and shrugged: a truce, if she must.
32
39. She gave strongly the impression that she was playing with me amusing herself
as much as acting a role at Conchiss command.
40. But all games, even the most literal, between a man and a woman are implicitly
sexual; and here on the beach she had almost ingenuously set out to captivate me.
41. It must have been on the old mans orders, yet behind the flirtatiousness, the
mischief, I had glimpsed a different sort of amusement and one not compatible
with that of a mere actress for hire.
42. Besides, her performance had been much closer to inspired amateurishness than
to the professional.
43. In theatrical terms, the effect, despite the elaboration of the mounting, was much
more of a family charade than of the wished-for total illusion of the true theatre; in her
every glance and humour hung the suggestion that of course my leg was being
pulled.
44. In short, if it was her role in the charade to seduce me, I should be seduced.
45. I was both a sensualist and an adventurer; a failed poet, still seeking resurrection in
events, if not in lines.
33
46. You make a rotten Caliban. Then perhaps you shall take the part. I was rather
hoping for Ferdinand.
47. We were evidently still playing games, but in a different, rather franker key.
48. Forbidden. By Prospero? Perhaps!
49. Thats how it began in Shakespeare. By being forbidden. She looked down.
Although of course his Miranda was a lot more innocent! And his Ferdinand.
Appendix E
229
50. She was wearing absurd black lace-up boots. The echo now was of some
antiquated village schoolroom, or perhaps of Mrs Pankhurst, a first timid
attempt at female emancipation.
51. It was no good; she wouldnt lay down the other mask.
52. Youre trying very successfully to captivate me. Why? . . . Then she picked
up the mask and held it like a yashmak again. I am Astarte, mother of mystery.
53. I wanted her to know that she was getting very near the bottom of the locker in her
improvisings.
54. Sorry, Im an atheist. She put down the mask. Then I shall have to teach you
faith.
55. I left a pause. I dont find one aspect of your antics here quite so amusing as
the others.
56. It was closed, reluctant, but it seemed to be acting no longer. Then you admit it
is a game? Part of it.
57. It is like hide-and-seek, Nicholas. One has to be sure the seeker wants to play. One
also has to stay in hiding. Or there is no game.
58. Play your charade. But for Christs sake stop flogging a dead horse. Right?
59. I remained swing down into her eyes, and I knew I had won. The fear had given
way to a surrender.
(cf. M1: I knew I had called her bluff then; regain the initiative.)
60. Only, you know, its ones sense of reality. Its like gravity. One can resist it only
so long.
61. I was shown a new vista: the possibility that she had been playing her part under
some form of duress.
62. What you said this morning . . . there is a kind of script. Im meant to take and
show you something.
63. I sensed, behind the outward daring, the duplicities of the past she had been
playing, a delicious ghost of innocence, perhaps even of virginity . . .
64. I had also a return of that headlong, fabulous and ancient sense of having entered
a legendary maze . . .
65. There was no one in the world I wanted to change places with, now that I had
found my Ariadne, and held her by the hand.
34
66. It was a little like goading a recalcitrant mule a very charming mule, but one that
seemed scared of every step it took forward.
67. And the point is, if I answer all the questions I fully understand you must be
burning to ask, it . . . it would be like telling you the story of a mystery film just before
you went to see it.
68. If you like were a few steps further into the maze. That doesnt mean were any
nearer the centre than you.
69. Nothing to do with telepathy. Thats just a blind. A metaphor.
70. Hide-and-seek . . . its really much more like blind mans buff. Being spun so much
that you lose all sense of direction. You begin to see double, triple meanings in everything
he says and does.
(cf. M1: I feel as if Ive been too well spun in a game of blind-mans-buff.)
71. Its all so fragile. Like a spiders web. Intellectually. Theatrically, if you like. There
are ways we could behave that might destroy it all at once. She gave me
another look. Seriously. Im not playing games now.
72. He surely cant expect me to go on swallowing the Lily thing.
73. So all this could be a part of the plot? Yes. In a way it is. She took a deep
breath. Very soon your credulity is going to be stretched even further.
230
Appendix E
74. but about her I was getting, if not many factual, at least some psychological and
emotional answers . . .
75. I imagined a girl who had perhaps been a little bit of a blue-stocking, despite her
looks; certainly more an intellectual than an animal creature, but with a repeated and
teasing hint of something dormant there, waiting to be awakened.
76. I knew she was still acting in a way, but I felt it was defensive now, a way of
hiding what she felt about me.
77. This first act has apparently required you to attract me. Anyway, thats been the
effect. You may be another fly in the web, but youve also been doubling as the kind
they tie on hooks. It was a very artificial fly.
78. I feel Im some sort of guinea-pig, God knows why. Its mad . . .
79. He must have sold you something better than just playing games.
80. he did sell us something better. And guinea-pig . . . thats not quite right.
Something better than that, too.
81. I feel like an over-carbonated soda-bottle. Bubbling with questions.
82. You must have seen youre in the hands of someone whos very skilled at rearranging
reality.
35
83. I felt pretty sure that his leading actress had not been lying to me, at least as
regards her admiration for him and her belief that he was not an evil man.
84. I was beginning to lose my sense of total sureness that he was inventing a new
stage of the masque.
(cf. M1: to lose my sense of total sureness that he was inventing a new
explanation of the masque.)
85. the cunning little bitch, the cunning old fox, theyre throwing me backward and
forwards like a ball.
86. Hide-and-seek? Of course. The hider must have a seeker. That is the game. A seeker
who is not too cruel. Not too observant.
87. Julie was in danger of becoming, like many-such striking cases, something of a
monster in a psychiatric freak show. That is what I am now trying to guard against.
88. I began to swing the other way after all, she had warned me, I was to have my
credulity put on the rack again.
89. Before you told me this, I. was going to congratulate you on hiring such a
skilled young actress. I see events have forestalled me. She has adopted a new role
towards you. Yes?
90. But she is a skilled young actress. Let me warn you that some of the cleverest
confidence tricksters in the history of crime have also been schizophrenics.
91. You must not force her into corners. If you do, she will tell you lie upon lie until
your head swims with them.
92. I had the familiar feeling that came in conversation at Bourani, of not knowing
quite what statements applied to in this case, whether to the assumption that
Lily really was a schizophrenic or to the assumption that of course I knew that
her schizophrenia was simply a new hiding-place in the masque.
93. I had the distinct feeling that he was a chess master caught between two moves;
immensely rapid calculation of combinations.
94. I hadnt played chess for years; but I remembered that the better you got, the more it
became a game of false sacrifices. He was assaying not my powers of belief, but my
powers of unbelief.
95. It didnt wash, it didnt wash. There were various things about Lily, looks,
emotional non sequiturs, those sudden tears, that in retrospect seemed to
confirm his story.
Appendix E
231
36
96. All the time I wanted to challenge him, but I was frightened of the growing
resentment I was beginning to store against him: that things might explode
into the kind of confrontation where I could only lose everything be firmly told
never to return.
97. Then I sensed that he was in any case prepared, more than ready to throw up
further clouds of obfuscating sepia if I really pressed him.
98. My only defence was, as best as I could, to answer enigma with enigma.
99. on one level I listened to an impressively shrewd old doctor, on another I was a
mouse before a cat.
100. I was also on tenterhooks for Julie to appear; and curious to know what
experience I was to have that evening.
37
101. I could not imagine why else he should have halted the masque so abruptly. If it
had been only an amusement . . .
102. Now I saw Conchis as a sort of novelist sans novel, creating with people, not words;
now I saw him as a complicated but still very perverse old man; now as a
Svengali; now as a genius among practical jokers.
103. I walked back through the darkness, feeling depressed, and increasingly
furious that Conchis could spirit his world away; deprive me of it, like a callous
drug-ward doctor with some hooked addict.
104. I could not imagine why else he should have halted the masque so abruptly. If it
had been only an amusement . . .
105. But no one was; so I embarked for my lack of a better.
38
106. I knew that if I was in Athens at all, it was out of a desire to play my own double
game with Conchis.
(cf. M1: I knew that if I was in Athens at all, it was mainly out of despite.)
107. Twenty-four hours before . . . , Alison had seemed a pawn to be used at least
one counter-move I could make.
(cf. M1: to think of her as something that could be used if nothing better
turned up)
108. I saw it as a kind of test, as well: of both my depth of feeling about Julie and my
doubts.
109. Alison could stand for past and present reality in the outer world, and I would put
her secretly in the ring with my inner adventure.
110. Also I had hit, during the long night on the boat, on a way of keeping the
meeting safely antiseptic something that would make her feel sorry for me
and keep her at arms length.
43
111. I was like one of Ulysses sailors turned into a swine, and able now only to be my new
self . . . . What I really wanted to say was that I was enchanted and that I had,
absurd though it was, to be free to be enchanted.
112. It was as if he were congratulating an especially bright pupil; and was blind, as
nonsensically blind as one of Lewis Carrolls queens before Alice, to my obvious
bewilderment.
113. Metaphorically, if not literally, I bit my lips.
114. he waved his hand, as if my part in all this was too manifest now to need
specifying in detail.
115. I wish to bring the poor child to a realization of her own true problem by forcing her to
recognize the nature of the artificial situation we are creating together here.
116. I knew I would have to watch her like a hawk now.
232
Appendix E
117. There was also the increasingly strong possibility that they were acting in league
to gull me . . .
118. she was as desirable in modern dress as in costume . . .
119. There was a tiny air about her of having been caught out of costume . . .
120. So what are you officially playing now?
121. Why wont you answer my question about your new role?
122. She had just done the one thing she would never do, if the old man had been
telling me the truth unless she was so insanely cunning, or cunningly insane,
that she was beating him at his own game. I remembered Occams razor: always
believe the simplest of several explanations. But I played safe.
123. But miraculously, or so it seemed to me, her right eyelid fluttered: I was not to
believe a word of all this little scene . . . . I felt a purr inside me. That one shadow
of a wink had made all his deceptions hollow and tolerable; it also allowed me to
deceive in return.
124. I felt each stroke was symbolic. Something more than wood was being hewn into
manageable lengths. As I neatly stacked the branches, I felt I was also beginning to
neatly stack the mystery of Bourani and Conchis.
125. In some way he was using us as personifications of his irony, as his partners in
exploring ambivalence.
126. Every truth in his world was a sort of lie; and every lie a sort of truth.
127. He was in any case far too intelligent to expect us not to see through the
surface aspect of his masques; secretly he must want us to . . . and as for
whatever deeper purpose, inner meaning they had, I was content to wait now.
44
128. She was not being natural, and I realized that this was some kind of pre-arranged scene . . . she was saying what Conchis wanted.
45
129. I knew he was initiating another shift in our relationships, or the conventions
that ruled them.
(cf. M1: he was commencing another shift in our relationships, or the
pretences that ruled them.)
130. In some way we were both cast now as his students, his disciples.
131. Then I felt her foot: a fleeting touch like a snatched kiss.
132. He might have his profound side, but another was that of a cunning old
charlatan.
133. He inclined his head, like some seasoned impresario too accustomed to first-night
compliments to take them very seriously.
134. the sense that I was now deep in the strangest maze in Europe. Now I really was
Theseus; somewhere in the darkness Ariadne waited; and perhaps the Minotaur.
(cf. M1: Now I was Theseus in the maze; somewhere in the darkness Ariadne
waited; and the Minotaur.)
135. I didnt show it, but I felt like an over-confident chess-player who suddenly sees that
his supposedly impregnable queen is only one move from extinction.
136. The tea-throwing scene had seemed too far out of character if she was cunningmad; but cunning-madder still might have precipitated it just to plant the
wink at the end; then those collusive bare feet under the table, the message
with the matches . . .
137. We dont blame you. Julies misled far greater experts than you. Why are you
so sure Im misled?
138. Honestly, were not blaming you. I know how clever she is at suggesting that
the madness is in everyone around her. The damsel-in-distress line.
Appendix E
233
147. There was a deserted silence about the house that puzzled me. I had expected
Conchis, more comedy; not an empty stage.
148. I walked to the statue, all round the domaine, like a man searching for a lost key . . .
149. Julie added, After Id put on another of my celebrated madwoman acts.
150. He kept talking about our helping him cross a frontier to a new world that
was half art and half science. A unique psychological and philosophical adventure.
What might be an extraordinary voyage into the human unconscious. Those were
all phrases he used.
151. If we knew, we would contaminate the purity of the experiment. His words again.
He did give us more analogies than weve ever had since. In one way it was to
be a sort of fantastic extension of the Stanislavski method. Improvising realities
more real than reality. You were to be like a man following a mysterious voice,
several voices, through a forest of alternative possibilities who wouldnt even know
themselves . . . Another parallel was a play, but without a writer or an audience.
Only actors.
152. He must be dying to know what youre really feeling and thinking. Since
youre at the centre of it all. The chief guinea-pig.
153. I think thats some kind of clue. The place of mystery in life. Not taking
anything for granted. A world where nothing is certain. Thats what hes trying to
create here. With himself cast as God.
154. It must have been obvious I was no actor. It wasnt at all. I thought you were
brilliant. Acting as if you couldnt act.
155. Weve long realized that the first line he gave us that we should mystify you
was a blind. According to the script we deceive you. But the deceiving deceives
us even more. This script? Script is a joke. He tells us roughly when to
appear and disappear in terms of exits and entries. The sort of atmosphere to
create. Sometimes lines.
234
Appendix E
156. All along he says that if things dont go quite as planned it doesnt matter. As
long as we keep to the main development . . . . Its also all about role-playing. How
people behave in situations they dont understand.
157. Thats why I put on that dreadful act. It was a nice act.
158. I think for him its like some mathematical proposition. Except that were all x, and
he can put us where he likes in his equation.
159. He does keep running you down terribly. To both of us. As if hes apologizing to
the hounds for having provided such an awful fox. Which is palpably absurd.
Especially when youve done all the hunting.
160. Yesterday afternoon, after my little scene. Another magician once sent a young man
hewing wood. I missed that. Prospero and Ferdinand.
161. We are being watched. That Joe character.
47
162. The third person is apt, because I presented a sort of fictional self to them, a
victim of circumstances, a mixture of attractive raffishness and essential inner
decency.
163. I felt both sexually and socially deprived, I did not expect we should be able to
meet during the week; but yet a deep excitement buoyed me on, a knowledge like
that of the poker-player who needs only one more card to have an unbeatable hand.
(cf. M1: at last having in my hand, after a long run of low cards, the joker and all
four aces. Or three, at any rate.)
164. I was tempted to watch it out of sight; but then, knowing I was probably being
watched as well from out there, decided that I did not want to play the wistful
marooned man.
165. A few moments later I set off back to my dull, daily penal colony on the far side of
the dream; as Adam left the Garden of Eden, perhaps . . .
48
166. I also kept remembering how near I had been, on more than one occasion, to
swallowing the story about schizophrenia.
167. It was just conceivable that the sisters were in some way still running with the
hare and hunting with the hounds that is, Julie might find me physically
attractive and yet still be prepared to mislead me about her real background.
49
168. . . . he informed us that all that had happened so far was merely a rehearsal.
Honestly, you should have seen his smile. It was so smug. Just as if we were two
students whod passed some preliminary examination.
169. Actually he said hed feared the worst as soon as he set eyes on you. What
worst? That the cheese on his trap might fall for the mouse.
170. Did you believe him? She hesitated. As much as one can ever believe him.
Ive even been given a carrot to dangle in front of your nose.
171. all of which gave her a genuinely nymph like quality . . . . This girl did quite
literally flee the satyr and invite him on. There was a wild animal in her, but a
true wild animal, intensely suspicious of wrong moves, of too obvious attempts
to tame.
172. I would have had it go on all night, this being seduced that was also a
seduction, this sudden conversion of the aloof, the fastidious, the voice that
quoted Sophocles, into an obedient geisha, an adorable mermaid though not
physiologically the latter.
173. Her face seemed softer, simpler, maskless now. I also knew, with an inwardly
crowning elation, that it had destroyed whatever last traces had remained of
the suspicion Conchis had tried to sow between us.
Appendix E
235
174. we had not been spied on, I was at last sanctioned as the Ferdinand to his
salt-haired, clinging, warm-mouthed Miranda.
175. Julie entranced me. It was as if I had stumbled on a sleeping princess and found
her, once woken, not merely in love with me, but erotically starved, deliciously
eager to exorcize whatever sour and perverse lovemaking had gone on with her
ill-starred choice of the previous year.
176. If you have a private menagerie, your concern is to keep the animals in, not to
dictate exactly what they do inside the cage. He constructed bars around us, subtle
psychosexual bars that kept us chained to Bourani. He was like some Elizabethan
nobleman. We were his Earl of Leicesters troupe, his very private company; but he
might well have incorporated the Heisenberg principle into his experiment, so
that much of it was indeterminate, both to him as observer-voyeur and to us as
observed human particles.
177. He thought the girls and I were green, innocents; but we could outperfidy his
perfidy, and precisely because we were English: born with masks and bred to lie.
178. [Conchis] had not allowed for the way his bait would prove she was on the
mouses side. I knew she must be totally innocent of this new trap; and the mouse
was turned fox, not to be tricked so easily.
179. I got into them safely, stopped a moment, trying to work out what insane new
trick Conchis was playing.
180. What the bloody hells the game?
181. This scene was so well organized, so elaborate. I fell under the spell of Conchis the
magician again.
182. There was a tense silence. I was cast as a spectator in some way, not as the
protagonist.
183. The cast had re-embarked.
184. Once more I was a man in a myth, incapable of understanding it, but somehow
aware that understanding it meant it must continue, however sinister its peripateia.
50
185. It was as brutal and unexpected as a slap across the face; dateless, placeless,
without superscription.
186. I knew a stunned plunge of disappointment and a bitter anger. What right had he
to issue such an arbitrary ukase?
187. I chillingly realized that the Occupation episode could also have been a finale, a
notice of dismissal . . .
188. I recalled the parallels with The Tempest, and that old mans trial of the young
usurper in his domaine.
189. I remembered Julie . . . not only the naked body in the sea, but her intuitive
trust in our Prospero.
190. I decided by the time I went to bed that it must be taken as some last black joke
on his part, some testing trick analogous to the dice-game and the suicide pill.
191. He might carry on with some comedy of intense disapproval, but he would be
there; and his other puppet would also be there to help me finally call his bluff.
192. It swivelled its massive square head from side to side in an arachnoidal parody
of Conchiss quizzing; and once again, as with the owl, I had an uncanny
apprehension of a reality of witchcraft; Conchiss haunting, brooding omnipresence.
193. I had assumed the experiment needed my presence above all; but perhaps it
didnt, and I had been a mere side-plot, discarded as soon as I had tried to gain too
much prominence.
236
Appendix E
194. All those kisses, franknesses, caresses, that token coupling in the night water .
. . no girl could pretend to want and to enjoy such things unless she was a
prostitute.
195. I was being taught some obscure metaphysical lesson about the place of man in
existence, about the limitations of the egocentric view.
196. But it seemed much more like a piece of gratuitous cruelty, closer to tormenting
dumb animals than any true teaching. I was drowned in a sea of mistrust not only
of outward appearances but of deeper motives as well.
197. For weeks I had had a sense of being taken apart, disconnected from a previous self
or the linked structures of ideas and conscious feeling that constitute self; and now it
was like lying on the workshop bench, a litter of parts, the engineer gone . . . and not
being quite sure how one put oneself together again.
198. And anyway . . . I stood up and screwed out my promiscuity of mind with my
cigarette. [Alison] was spilt milk; or spilt semen. I wanted Julie ten times more.
(cf. M1: I stood up then and screwed my randiness out with my cigarette.
All that was spilt milk. Or spilt semen.)
51
199. I forgot, he has let slip that he wants to tell you the last chapter (his words) of
his life and also that you will be expecting it now.
200. Obviously the old devil was still up to his tricks.
201. In a way her death was the final act of blackmail; but the blackmailed should
feel innocent, and I felt guilty.
52
Appendix E
237
52
209. You have much to learn. You are as far from your true self as that Egyptian mask
our American friend wore is from his true face.
210. Because you have proved incapable of playing your part properly.
211. I am telling you, as the director, if you like, that you have failed to gain a part. But if
it is any consolation, I will also tell you that even if you had gained it, it would
not have brought you what you wish . . . the young woman you find so seductive.
That was always to be the fixed point of conclusion this summer.
212. It is you who would not have wanted to see her again. The comedy is over.
213. But I intend to see the actress home afterwards.
214. Her promises are worth nothing. All here is artifice. She is acting, amusing
herself with you. Playing Olivia to your Malvolio.
215. I also know youre far too humane a man to think you can command peoples
emotions so easily. It is simpler than you think. When you know the plot.
216. Were all happy to admit that were a little bit under your spell. Within limits
were only too delighted to go on with whatever you have planned next.
There is no place for limits in the meta-theatre.
53
217. for a few moments I felt that I had won. But then his eyes were on me again,
and I knew I hadnt.
218. one didnt make such elaborate preparations for a summers entertainment,
only to call it off when it was getting interesting. We must continue; all I had
just experienced was a bout of bluffing in the early part of a poker-game. The real
betting was still to come.
219. The theatre seemed truly empty; and like all empty theatres, as the old devil no
doubt intended, it became in the end both flat and a little frightening.
220. But you must have known we would see through the parts you gave us. He
looked out to sea. The object of the meta-theatre is precisely that to allow the
participants to see through their first roles in it. But that is only the catastasis.
Im afraid I dont know what that word means. It is what precedes the final
act, or catastrophe, in classical tragedy. He added, Or comedy. As the case may
be. The case depending on? Whether we learn to see through the roles we
give ourselves in ordinary life.
221. I left a pause. You sound like a certain kind of surgeon. A lot more interested in the
operation than the patient.
222. Then your . . . meta-theatre is really a medical one? . . . You may see it so.
I prefer to think of it as a metaphysical one.
223. All through the meal, his talking, there had been something sombre and
withdrawn about him, as if more than one comedy was over; so many pretences
were being dropped and yet the one that concerned me showed no sign at all of
being jettisoned.
224. I somehow knew now that he would not keep the girls away from me by force;
but a man with such formidable powers of lying . . . I nursed a tiny terror that he
knew I had met Alison in Athens, had somehow got proof for them that I too
was a liar, and of a much more banal kind.
238
Appendix E
54
225. He was like a man who wanted to change all; and could not; so burned with his
impotence; and had only me, an infinitely small microcosm, to convert or detest.
226. You are someone who does not understand what freedom is. And above all
that the better you understand it, the less you possess of it.
227. I spoke sharply. You cant treat people like this. As if were all just villagers to be
shot so that you can prove some abstract theory of freedom.
228. He stood up and stared down at me. For as long as you cherish your present view
of freedom, it is you who holds the executioners gun.
229. I knew that the threat to walk out at once had secretly alarmed him; had
forced him to toss me another hasty carrot, a reason to stay.
230. It must all have been a test, some sort of ordeal to be passed before I entered
the inner circle . . .
231. I had, so to speak, been brought before the execution squad, but this time there was
to be a last-minute reprieve.
232. I had not expected such a finale.
233. It was as if he had planted a bandillera in my shoulder, or a succubus on my back: a
knowledge I did not want.
234. Staring out to sea, I finally forced myself to stop thinking of [Alison] as
someone still somewhere, if only in memory, still obscurely alive, breathing,
doing, moving, but as a shovelful of ashes already scattered; as a broken link, a
biological dead end, an eternal withdrawal from reality, a once complex object that now
dwindled, dwindled, left nothing behind except a smudge like a fallen speck of soot on
a blank sheet of paper.
55
235. The last act was to be played presto. A quick curtain? No real play has a curtain.
It is acted, and then it continues to act.
236. I knew he could be bluffing, but I had a strong idea that he wasnt . . .
237. Now. Two of my cast wish to say goodbye to you.
238. Julie . . . even if she was what you claim . . . would at least have the courage to
tell me all this to my face. Such scenes belong to the old drama. Not the new.
239. Good. Here is Joe. This is what we call the desintoxication.
240. I truly began to feel now that I was discarded, a mere encumbrance . . . and a fool.
56
241. It fell smoothly down to ground level, where the incrusted and projecting
stones on the upper side fitted the surrounding ones like the pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle.
242. I knew it was a put-on. Its just that dear old poker-face of his.
243. Actually we wondered if it was some last trick. But hes been so sweet to us.
Ever since our little show-down.
244. Prospero turned insane, maniacally determined never to release his Miranda.
245. I stood at the foot of the ladder and seethed, trying to comprehend the sadistic
old mans duplicities: to read his palimpsest.
246. His theatre without an audience made no sense, it couldnt be the explanation.
The one thing all actors and actresses craved was an audience. Perhaps what he
was doing did spring in part from some theory of the theatre, but he had said
it himself: The masque is only a metaphor.
247. Perhaps he saw himself as a professor in an impossible faculty of ambiguity, a sort
of Empson of the event.
248. That must be it, it was all planned from the beginning, I was never to have
her, always to be tormented, mocked like Tantalus.
Appendix E
239
57
249. I had a growing suspicion that Conchis operated on some principle like that of
the espionage cell; one never told the lower echelons more than they needed to know . . .
250. I knew I could no longer trust the girls the screw had been turned once too often
for that.
251. Put the two together, and I had to conclude that she was in some way playing
on both sides . . . deceiving me for the old mans sake, but also deceiving him
for mine.
252. I regretted not having told her about Alison when I had had the chance, since
that must, if her feeling for me had any decency at all, have brought the
absurd hide-and-seek to an abrupt close.
253. But at least my silence there killed one past fear. She could not have known
the truth and continued with the charade.
58
59
254. She was far too persistent; it was like trying to sell a pig in a poke twice over to the
same customer.
255. I tried as I struggled under Joe to see Julie I still couldnt accept that this was
not some nightmare, like some freak misbinding in a book, a Lawrence novel become, at
the turn of a page, one by Kafka.
256. Someone met her there, an arm went round her shoulders as if she had just
escaped from an air disaster and drew her out of sight.
257. Another figure appeared in it: Conchis. He was dressed like the others, in
black. Flames, devils, hell.
258. My mind flashed back to that incident in the war: a room at the end of a
corridor, a man lying on his back, castrated.
(cf. M1: a man lying on his back on the table; symbolically castrated.)
259. I realized at last what Julies final look at me had been like. It was that of a
surgeon who has just performed a difficult operation successfully; peeling off the rubber
gloves, surveying the suture. Trial, flames . . .
260. A satyr with an arrow in his heart.
(cf. M1: A man with an arrow in his heart.)
261. Mirabelle. La Mattresse-Machine, a foul engine made fouler flesh.
60
262. I started to think of her as Lily again, perhaps because her first mask now
seemed truer, more true because more obviously false, than the others. I tried
to imagine what she really was obviously a consummate young actress, and
consummately immoral into the bargain.
263. I guessed that her sister, June, Rose, might well have been prepared to carry
out that final abominable act. Probably they would have liked me to be thus
doubly humiliated.
264. All their stories had been lies; or groundbait.
265. My mind plunged sickeningly, as if I had walked off the edge of the world.
61
266. Like actors suddenly off-stage, the row of figures in front of me began removing
their masks and cloaks.
267. And it was not Conchis who was now playing the role of Wimmel. Wimmel was
inside me, in my stiffened, backthrown arm, in all my past; above all in what I had
done to Alison.
268. I felt myself almost physically dwindling; as one dwindles before certain works of
art, certain truths, seeing ones smallness, narrow-mindedness, in sufficiency in their
dimension and value.
240
Appendix E
63
269. Above all there was the extraordinariness of the experience; its uniqueness
conferred a uniqueness on me, and I had it like a great secret, a journey to Mars, a
prize no one else had.
270. all my life I had tried to turn life into fiction, to hold reality away; always I had
acted as if a third person was watching and listening and giving me marks for
good or bad behaviour a god like novelist, to whom I turned, like a character
with the power to please, the sensitivity to feel slighted, the ability to adapt himself to
whatever he believed the novelist-god wanted. This leechlike variation of the super-ego
I had created myself, fostered myself, and because of it I had always been incapable of
acting freely. It was not my defence; but my despot. And now I saw it, I saw it a
death too late.
65
271. That was the meaning of the fable. By searching so fanatically I was making a
detective story out of the summers events, and to view life as a detective story, as
something that could be deduced, hunted, and arrested, was no more realistic (let
alone poetic) than to view the detective story as the most important literary genre,
instead of what it really was, one of the least.
67
272. I remembered something June had said on that last night how they
improvised, how the rat was granted parity with experimenter in constructing the maze.
Notes
Chapter Two
1
Stockwell (2002: 47) defines deictic fields as a set of deictic expressions relating
to the same deictic centre.
Chapter Three
1
Chapter Four
1
The Crouch tool is named after John Crouch, an early English satirist, Royalist
and newsbook publisher in the English Commonwealth (see McEnery and Piao
2003: 637). Since Crouch is based on TESAS (TExt Source Alignment System)
with only slight modifications, I refer to the text comparison tool in the book as
TESAS/Crouch.
In the project carried out at Lancaster University, an 800,000 word corpus (the
Newsbook Corpus) was built from English newsbooks from the mid-seventeenth
century. The corpus was built specifically to investigate text reuse in newsbooks
of this period. See McEnery and Piao (2003: 6401).
Note that the sentence is not necessarily the unit for text rewriting, a sentence
may be derived from several sentences, several sentences may be derived from
a single sentence, or part of a sentence maybe derived from part(s) of another
sentence(s). Nonetheless, the sentence provides a convenient unit for text
manipulation (Clough et al. 2002a; Piao 2001).
For details of Porters stemmer, see http://www.tartarus.org/martin/PorterStemmer/index.html or http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/research/
stemming/general/porter.htm (accessed 31 October 2010).
WordNet is a lexical database for the English language. It groups English words
into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides short definitions, and records the
various semantic relations between these synonym sets. WordNet was created
in 1985 and is being maintained at the Cognitive Science Laboratory of
242
Notes
Chapter Six
1
REVERE stands for REVerse Engineering of REquirements. For the detail of the
research project, see http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/research/
cseg/projects/revere/ (accessed1 November 2010).
CLAWS stands for Constituent Likelihood Automatic Word-tagging System. It was the
first form of annotation developed at Lancaster University. It has been continuously developed since the early 1980s. For details, see http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/
claws/ (accessed 1 November 2010).
USAS stands for UCREL Semantic Analysis System. The USAS semantic tagset is
composed of 21 major categories which are sub-divided into 232 sub-categories.
Experiments with contemporary texts show that the system achieves a precision
rate of about 92% (see Archer et al. 2002; Piao et al. 2004; Rayson 2003). The
USAS category system with examples of prototypical words and multi-word
units in each semantic field can be found online: http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/
usas/ (accessed 1 November 2010).
The difference between semantic prosody and discourse prosody is not always
clear-cut. There is some inconsistency between the exact meanings of the terms.
For the discussion of the terminological issue, see Baker et al. (2006: 1445),
Baker (2006: 868) and Stubbs (2007b: 1789). Stubbs suggests that semantic
prosody denotes aspects of meaning that are independent of speakers, whereas
discourse prosody focuses more on pragmatic function, that is, it is concerned
with speakers hidden attitudes. Hence, I adopt the term discourse prosody
in this book, to refer to the communicative purpose of Fowless consistently
opting for certain semantically-related lexical items in The Magus revision.
Chapter Seven
1
Given the novel concentrates on Nicholass life experiences, I use life as target
domain in a broad sense. The mapping of journey onto his life experiences
is mostly based on his learning process, that is, from self-ignorance to selfknowledge; see the discussion in section 3.1.2.
See Mike Scotts website: http://www.lexically.net/downloads/version5/
HTML/index.html (accessed 5 November 2010); see also Scott (2003).
Notes
3
4
5
243
Chapter Eight
1
John Fowles is known for a propensity to play language games with his readers.
A well-known example is The French Lieutenants Woman (1969). The novel
begins in realistic way so that the readers participate in the fictional world.
Then authorial intrusions into the fictional world create a violation of ontologically differentiated boundaries, commenting on the construction of the story
and making obvious the fact that Charles and Sarah are merely characters in a
novel (see Waugh 1984: 112). The novel also has three alternative endings.
OED definition: (a) Paper, parchment, or other writing material designed to
be reusable after any writing on it has been erased; (b) In extended use: a thing
likened to such a writing surface, esp. in having been reused or altered while
still retaining traces of its earlier form; a multi-layered record.
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References
251
Index
actuality 17
affect 19, 267, 1245, 136, 208
affective 27, 126, 1324, 138, 141, 153
alternative possible worlds
(APWs) 15, 1819, 21, 245, 30,
33, 124, 142, 192
artifact emotions (A-emotions) 34,
113, 189, 195
artistic totality of style 10
authentication 1718, 1924
authorial intrusion 19, 62, 64, 191
authorial style 6, 8
balance 9, 11, 205
binding 234
characterization 14, 16, 18, 37, 64
CLAWS 118
cognate approach 734, 85
communicative intention 2, 13, 34,
64, 149, 188, 190, 196, 202
contextual frame theory 17, 22, 24
co-operative principle 29
corpus-based approach 8, 11
corpus semantics 33, 123, 140
Crouch 1, 312, 6871, 7589, 117,
199, 201, 2034
Deictic shift theory 17, 223, 30
deixis 22, 25, 289, 62, 115, 126, 204
discourse presentation 8
evidentiality 26, 1245
factuality 142, 170, 192
fiction
emotions (F-emotions) 113, 195
theory 14
254
plagiarism detection 79
point of view
cognitive model of 22, 30
conceptual 28, 98, 113
corpus approach to 25
linguistic indicators of 2930
modal grammar of 1920, 30
possible viewpoints 1314, 257,
30, 124
possible worlds theory 14, 1618, 22,
245, 30
postmodern language game 18, 142,
189, 1924
priming 234
probabilistic generalization 7
prominence 245, 30, 334, 11011,
1234
reader involvement 9, 16, 34, 66, 189
reality 1415, 1719, 523, 62, 645,
142, 175, 178, 1867, 18991
re-characterization 18
revisionary tendency 1, 312, 92, 113,
150, 199, 203
self-conscious personal narrator 190
self-disclosing narrative 19, 193
self-reflexivity 178, 18990
self-voiding narrative 1819
semantic prosody 8, 123
shift in narrative focus 14, 98, 114,
117, 124, 130, 190
simile signals 33, 1602
stance markers 267, 1246, 132
Stanislavski 178, 185
stemmer 74, 85, 87, 89
Index
style markers 6, 122
stylistic variation 86, 89, 91
subtext 57, 178, 1845, 188
surface text 184
TESAS 1, 312, 6871, 7389, 117,
136, 199, 201, 2034
text
alignment 70
comparison 68, 70, 7981, 117
reuse 68, 70, 73, 77, 79, 87, 201
similarity computational
measurement 32, 73, 89
similarity score 769, 81, 83, 859,
91, 1201, 203
style 86, 902, 98, 113, 11617, 188,
196, 199200, 203
textual
actual world (TAW) 1517, 98, 114,
127, 12930, 142, 190, 192
alteration 13, 31, 37, 53, 68, 104,
199, 204
difference 1, 30, 145, 1612, 188,
1956
revision 1, 13, 30, 65, 1623, 199
textuality 1011
USAS 118, 127, 131
WCopyfind 68, 7984
Wmatrix 1, 313, 90, 11720, 1224,
126, 130, 140, 2001, 203
WordNet 74
WordSmith Tools 1, 312, 90, 1434,
2002
world shifts 24