Chapter 1: Matter and Measurement

1.1 The Study of Chemistry

The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of
Chemistry
o Chemistry is the study of the properties and
behavior of matter. Matter is the physical
material of the universe: it is anything that
has mass and occupies space.
o A property is any characteristic that allows
us to recognize a particular type of matter
and to distinguish it from other types.
o All matter is comprised of combinations of
only about 100 substances called elements.
o Each element I composed of a unique kind
of atom, the almost infinitesimally small
building blocks of matter.
o The properties of matter relate to both the
kinds of atoms the matter contains
(composition) and the arrangements of
these atoms (structure).
o In molecules, two or more atoms are joined
in specific shapes. Each apparently minor
differences in the composition or structure
of molecules can cause profound differences
in properties.
o Every change in the observable world has
its basis in the world of atoms and
molecules.
o There are two realms
Macroscopic realm of ordinary sixe
objects
Submicroscopic realm of atoms and
molecules

1.2 Classifications of Matter

Matter is classified in two fundamental ways
o Physical state (gas, liquid, solid)
o Composition (whether the element is a
compound or mixture)
States of Matter
o States of matter are three forms
Gas, has no fixed volume or shape;
rather, it uniformly dills its container
Liquid, has a distinct volume
independent of its container, and
assumes the shape of the proportion of
the container it occupies
Solid, has both a definite shape and a
definite volume.
o In a gas the molecules are far apart and
moving at high speeds, colliding repeatedly
with one another and within the walls of the
container.
o In a liquid the molecules are packed closely
together but still move rapidly, the
movement allowing the molecules to slide
over one another.
o In a solid the molecules are held tightly
together, usually in definite arrangements in
which the molecules can wiggle only slightly
in their otherwise fixed position.
o Changes in temperature and/or pressure can
lead to conversion from one state to
another.
Pure Substances
o Most forms of matter we encounter are not
chemically pure.

o A pure substance is a matter that has

distinct properties and a composition that
doesnt vary from sample to sample.
o All substances are either elements or
substances.
Elements are substances that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances
Compounds are substances composed
of two or more elements.
o Mixtures are combinations of two or more
substances in which each substance retains
its chemical identity.
Elements
o Currently only 118 elements are known
though they vary widely in abundance.
o The symbol for each element consist of one
or two letters, the first capitalized.
o All elements are listed in a table known as
the periodic table. In the periodic table the
elements are arranged in columns so that
closely related atoms are grouped together.
Compounds
o Most elements can interact with other
elements to form compounds.
o The observation that the elemental
composition of a compound is always the
same is known as the law of constant
composition or the law of definite
proportion, stated by Joseph Louis Proust in
1800.
o When two materials differ in composition or
properties, either they are composed of
different compounds or they differ in purity.

 Mixtures
o Most of the matter we encounter consist of
mixture of different substances. Each
substance in a mixture retains its chemical
identity and properties.
o Some mixtures dont have the same
composition, properties, and appearance
throughout. These are heterogeneous
mixtures.
o Mixtures that are uniform throughout are
homogeneous mixtures. They can also be
called solutions.

1.3 Properties of Matter

Every substance has unique properties
o Physical properties can be observed without
changing the identity and composition of
the substance
o Chemical properties describe the way a
substance may change, or react, to form
other substances.
o Intensive properties do not depend on the
amount of sample being examined and are
particularly useful in chemistry because
many intensive properties can be used to
identify substances.
o Extensive properties depend on the amount
of sample. Extensive properties relate to the
amount of substance present.
Physical and Chemical Changes
o During a physical change, a substance
changes its physical appearance nut not its
composition. All changes of states are
physical changes.

o During a chemical change a substance is

transformed into a chemically different
substance. Chemical changes can be
dramatic.
Separation of Mixtures
o We can separate a mixture into its
components by taking advantage of
differences in their properties.
o An important method of separating the
components of a homogeneous mixture is
distillation, a process that depends on the
different abilities of substances to form
gases.
o The differing abilities of substances to
adhere to the surfaces of solids can also be
used to separate mixtures. This is the basis
of chromatography.

1.4 Units of Measurements

Many properties of matter are quantitative, that is,

associated with numbers.
o When a number represents a measure
quantity the units of measurement must be
specified. The units for scientific
measurements are those of the metric system.
SI Units
o In 1960 an international agreement was
reached specifying a particulate choice of
metric units for use in scientific
measurements.
o These preferred units are called SI Units, after
the French Systme International dUnits.
This system has seven base units in which all
other unites are derived from.

o With SI Units, prefixes are used to indicate

decimal fractions or multiples of various units.
Length and Mass
o The SI Unit of length is the meter.
o Mass is a measure of the amount of material
in an object. The SI Unit for mass is the
kilogram.
Temperature
o Temperature is a physical property that
determines the direction of the heat flow.
o The temperature scale commonly employed in
science is the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
o The Celsius scale was originally based on the
assignment of 0oC to the freezing point of
water and 100oC to its boiling point at sea
level.
o The Kelvin scale is the SI temperature scale,
and the SI Unit of measurement is Kelvin.
o Zero on the Kelvin scale id the lowest
attainable temperature, referred to as
absolute zero.
o K=OC +273.15
Derived SI Units
o A derived unit is obtained by multiplication or
division of one or more of the base units.
o We begin the defining equation for a quantity
and then substitute the appropriate base
units.
Volume
o The SI Unit of volume is m3.
Density
o Density is defined as the amount of mass in a
unit volume of a substance.

o The densities of solids and liquids are

commonly expressed in either grams per cubic
centimeter or grams per milliliter.
o Because most substances change volume
when they are heated or cooled, densities are
temperature dependent, and so temperature
should be specified when reporting densities.

1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement

Two kinds of numbers are encountered in

scientific work
o Exact numbers, those whose values are
known exactly. They can result from
counting objects.
o Inexact numbers, those whose values have
some uncertainty. Numbers obtained by
measurement are always inexact.
Precision and Accuracy
o Precision is a measure of how closely
individual measurements agree with one
another
o Accuracy refers to how closely individual
measurements agree with the correct, or
true, value.
o The precision of the measurements is often
expressed in terms of the standard
deviation, which reflects how much the
individual measurements differ from the
average.
Significant Figures
o All digits of a measure quantity, including
the uncertain one, are called significant
figures.

o The greater the number of significant

figures, the greater the precision implied for
the measurement.
o To determine the number of significant
figures in a reported measurement, read the
number from left to right, counting the digits
starting with the first digit that is not zero.
o There are 3 rules when it comes to zeros in
significant figures
Zeroes between two nonzero digits are
always significant.
Zeroes at the beginning of a number
are never significant.
Zeroes at the end of a number are
significant if a decimal point is written
in the number.
o A problem arises when a number ends with
zeros but contains no decimal point. In such
cases, it is normally assumed that the zeros
are not significant.
o Exponential notation can be used to indicate
whether end zeros are significant.
Significant Figures in Calculations
o When carrying measure quantities through
calculations, the least certain measurement
limits the certainty of the calculated
quantity and thereby determines the
number of significant figures in the final
answer.
o To keep track of significant figures, we will
make frequent use of two rules
When addition or subtraction is
performed, answers are rounded to the
least significant decimal place.

 When multiplication or division is

performed, answers are rounded to the
number of digits that corresponds to
the least number of significant figures
in any of the numbers used in the
calculation.

1.6 Dimensional Analysis

Because measure quantities have units
associated with them, its important to keep
track of units as well as numerical values when
using the quantities in calculations.
o In dimensional analysis, units are multiplied
together or divided into each other along
with the numerical values.
o The key to using dimensional analysis is the
correct use of conversion factors to change
one unit into another.
o A conversion factor is a fraction whose
numerator and denominator are the same
quantity expressed in different units.
o In general, we begin any conversion by
examining the units of the given data and
the units we desire. We then ask ourselves
what conversion factors we have available
to take us from the units of the given
quantity to those of the desired one.
Using Two or More Conversion Factors
o It is often necessary to use to use several
conversion factors in solving a problem.
o As long as you keep track of your given
units and cancel them properly to obtain the
desired units, you are likely to be successful
in your calculations.

 Conversions Involving Volume

o Conversion factors that convert from one
measure to a different one. The density of a
substance can be treated as a conversion
factor between M and V.

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