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Sa, B. Achievement motivation among

secondary school tribal and non-tribal
students, Journal of Indian Education 32 (3)
108-116 2006.
Article January 2006
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JOURNAL OF
INDIAN
EDUCATION
Volume XXXII
Number 1
November 2006
CONTENTS
Editors Note
Quality Improvement in Elementary Education

through Pedagogical Innovations
VINEETA SIROHI
Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of

Eleven-year-old Convent Students
A.C. PACHAURY
18
Implementation of School Curriculum at the

Upper Primary Stage in different States
S.K. YADAV
22
Nurturing Gifted and Talented
VEER PAL SINGH
38
Y. SREEKANTH
53
A Study of Multimedia Usage by

Mathematics Teachers
S. GAYATHRI
63
Educational Attainment of Punjabi Women
AAKANKSHA AGARWAL
78
Do the Social Studies Textbooks of Pakistan,

Bangladesh and Nepal Weave the SAARC Spirit?
GOURI SRIVASTAVA
85
Nutritional Support to Primary Education in India
R.D. SAMPATH KUMAR

and E. LILLY RANI
94
Concept, Profiles and Strategies
Educational Research, Policy and Practice in

an Era of Globalisation
A Conference Report
Its Impact on their Social Status and Autonomy
A Study of Mid-day Meal Scheme
Achievement Motivation among Secondary

School Tribal and Non-tribal Students
BIDYADHAR SA
108
A Study of Existing Facilities of Science Teaching in

the High Schools of Chhimtuipui District, Mizoram
T.B. SINGH
117
Heritage Crafts and Education
125
An Interview with MS. LAILA TYABJI
Book Reviews
The Routledge Falmer Reader in Philosophy of Education edited by Wilfred Carr.
Child Labour in Informal Sector: A Sociological Study
by Suresh Chander
131
Quality Improvement in Elementary Education...
Quality Improvement in Elementary

Education through Pedagogical Innovations
VINEETA SIROHI*
Abstract
An innovative pedagogic method of cooperative learning can bring about an important
aspect of quality improvement especially at the elementary level. The present
investigation aims at studying the effectiveness of cooperative learning method as
against traditional method of teaching in terms of students attainment. It is evident
from the analysis that this practice results in higher achievement, greater
psychological health, developing oral communication skills, social competence and
helps in creating conducive learning environment in large classes. Cooperative
learning should be promoted in education to bring out effective academic,
psychological and social outcomes. Such pedagogical innovations help in planning
and implementation of quality improvement interventions, capacity building of
teacher educators, teachers and strengthening teaching-learning process.
Introduction
In India, quality of elementary education
has been one of the major concerns since
1950s. The National Policy on Education
(1986) as revised in 1992 has
emphasised the need for a substantial
improvement in quality of education to
achieve essential levels of learning. The
main indicator of the quality of
elementary education can be visualised
in terms of its products the learners
achievement both in scholastic and coscholastic areas. Ensuring quality in the
inputs and processes becomes necessary
if quality achievement is aimed at.

Improving the quality and efficiency at
the school/classroom level is a major
thrust area under Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) as it aims to provide
education of a satisfactory quality in
achieving the goal of education for all.
Mere focus on access, enrolment and
retention may not result in better school
effectiveness. The efforts toward the
achievement of quality need to go hand
in hand with efforts directed towards
increasing access, enrolment and
retention. Pedagogical improvement is
*Associate Professor, National University of Educational Planning and Administration,

Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi.
Journal of Indian Education
crucial. The ultimate goal of all quality

directed interventions is to attain positive
changes within the school classroom
settings. It is universally acknowledged
that the teacher plays the pivotal role in
teaching-learning process and is thereby
instrumental in the improvement of
quality within classrooms. In classroom
setting, teachers competence depends
greatly on their knowledge and skills in
different subject areas, mastery of the
same and pedagogical practices they
adopt. Teachers level of competency in
turn, depends largely on two aspects:
pre-service education and in-service
training. It is the classroom that provides
the setting for all teaching-learning
activities. Thus, the more effective the
classroom processes, the better learning
outcomes. For effective implementation
of programmes of teacher education, it
is crucial that teacher educators possess
professional attributes such as
competence and commitment for
teaching. District Institutes of Education
and Training (DIETs) were established
as pace setting institutions at the district
level for ensuring quality teacher
education at elementary level. They are
not only providing resource support to
the district authorities in the planning
and implementation of elementary
education, but they have also been
entrusted with the responsibility of
upgrading classroom interactions
through research and innovations. Our
current educational system, however, is
based upon competition among students
for grades, scholarships, admissions to
top schools and social recognition, etc.
In order to change this paradigm
cooperative learning structures will need
to be introduced at the earliest learning
November 2006
situations and used throughout each

students learning career starting in preschool and continuing through
kindergarten and higher education. In
order to accomplish this change in
student behavioural attitudes, teachers
will need to adopt new role. They will
need to step down from the podium and
switch from lecturing to facilitating
student interactions in class. Lecturing
is not ruled out entirely in the
cooperative philosophy. It is used
sparingly, however, to emphasise a point
or clarify a concept and is generally used
in response to student-initiated
inquiries, versus teacher -initiated
lectures. Just as cooperative approach
benefits students in so many ways, so
does it benefit teachers through the
sharing of ideas, brainstorming and
critical thinking about problems which
arise with the cooperative approach.
Cooperative learning paradigms
represent a philosophy of life as well as
a learning strategy. It says that
whenever people get together in groups,
their purposes are best served when they
work together collaboratively to reach
their goals versus using competition
among group members to address
problems.
In Cooperative learning situations
there is a positive interdependence
among students goal attainments;
students perceive that they can reach
their learning goals if and only if the
other students in the learning group also
reach their goals (Deutsch, 1962;
Johnson and Johnson, 1989) Cooperative
learning is where the classroom is
structured so that the students are
interdependent. In a cooperative learning
situation students depend on each other
to learn (Johnson and Johnson, 1989).

It is different from individualistic and
competitive approach in which students
work on their own and there is no
correlation among their leaving goal
attainment. On the other hand, a
negative correlation exists in competitive
learning situations among their goal
attainments, if one student achieves a
learning goal or succeeds another
student fails or does not achieve the goal.
(Johnson and Johnson, 1983).
Cooperative learning can be defined as
a set of procedures in which students
work in mixed ability learning groups
from the purpose of achieving some
common goals. (Slavier, 1983 as cited in
Cole and Chan, 1990).
Cooperative learning is the
instructional use of small groups so that
students work together to maximise their
own and each others learning (Johnson,
Johnson and Smith, 1991). Class
members are organised into small
groups after receiving instruction from
the teacher. They then work through the
assignment until all group members
successfully understand and complete it.
Cooperative efforts result in participants
striving for mutual benefit so that all
group members gain from each others
efforts, recognising that all group
members share a common fate, knowing
that ones performance is mutually
caused by oneself and ones colleagues
and feeling proud and jointly celebrating
when a group member is recognised for
achievement.
The essential components of
cooperation are positive interdependence, face-to-face promotive interaction,
individual and group accountability,
interpersonal and small group skills and
group processing. (Johnson, Johnson

and Holubec, 1993). Positive interdependence is successfully structured when
group members perceive that they are
linked with each other in a way that one
cannot succeed unless everyone
succeeds. When positive interdependence is solidly structured, it highlights
that each group members efforts are
required and indispensable for group
success and each group member has a
unique contribution to make to the joint
effort because of his/her resources and
role and task responsibilities. Doing so
creates a commitment to the success of
group members as well as ones own and
is the heart of cooperative learning.
According to second element, students
need to do real work together in which
they promote each others success by
sharing resources and helping,
supporting, encouraging and applauding
each others efforts to achieve. There are
important cognitive activities and
interpersonal dynamics that can only
occur when students promote each
others learning. It is through promoting
each others learning face-to-face that
members become personally committed
to each other as well as to their mutual
goals. In the third element, two levels of
accountability must be structured into
cooperative lessons. The group must be
accountable for achieving its goals and
each member must be accountable for
contributing his or her share of the work.
Fourth basic component of cooperative
learning is teaching students the
required interpersonal and small group
skills. Cooperative learning is inherently
more complex than competitive learning
because students have to engage
simultaneously in task work and
teamwork. Since cooperation and conflict

are inherently related (Johnson and
Johnson, 1995), the procedures
and skills for managing conflicts
constructively are specially important for
the long term success of learning groups.
The fifth element of group processing
exists when group members discuss how
well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working
relationships. Continuous improvement
of the processes of learning results from
the careful analysis of how members are
working together and determining how
group effectiveness can be enhanced.
Many research studies indicate that
cooperative learning has been effective
in improving academic performance in a
number of subjects. It has been found
to cause significant improvement in
Mathematics (Slavin Leavy and Madden,
1984, Madden, Slavin and Farnish, 1981)
as cited in Morgolis and Freund, 1991)
and reading and writing (Steven and
Slavin, 1995). Study by Steven and
Slavin 1995 has found that cooperative
learning enhanced meta cognitive skills.
November 2006
Hypothesis
Objectives
To study the effectiveness of

Cooperative learning method of
teaching as against traditional
method of teaching on students
attainment.
To compare the performance level
of above average pupil teacher
taught through cooperative learning
and traditional method of teaching.
of average pupil teacher taught
through cooperative learning and
traditional method of teaching.

of below average pupil teacher
taught through cooperative
learning and traditional method of
teaching.
of shy pupil teacher taught through
cooperative learning and traditional
method of teaching.
To study the social interaction of the
ETE pupil teachers taught through
cooperative learning and traditional method of teaching.
There will be no significant

difference between the performance
level of ETE pupil teachers taught
through cooperative learning and
traditional method.
level of above average ETE pupil
teachers taught through cooperative learning and traditional
method.
level of average ETE pupil teachers
learning and traditional method.
level of below average ETE pupil
teachers taught through cooperative learning and traditional
method.
level of shy ETE pupil teachers
learning and traditional method.
Method
Sampling
The study was carried out on a sample
of 107 Elementary Teacher Education
Trainees of IInd Year. Initially 120
trainees constituting II nd year were
selected for the study. Shy students were
identified on the basis of the observations
of the class teachers and subject
teachers. Further remaining sample was
categorised into 3 groups according to
their ability level, i.e. above average,
average and below average on the basis
of their total percentage of marks in the
final examination of 1st year. The sample
was further divided into 20 heterogeneous groups with six members in
each, comprising of mixed level abilities,
i.e. above average, average, below
average and shy trainees. These 20
groups were broadly classified into two
groups control group and experimental
group constituting 10 groups each.
Tools
Achievement Test
Students experiences
Procedure
The present study took about ten weeks
to be completed. The experimental group
was given a name with the consent of
the members (the name of the cricketers
were given so as to sustain the interest
and involvement of the members), i.e.
Laxman, Sehwag, Dravid, Saurav,
Tendulkar, Kapil Dev, Ravi Shastri,
Pataudi, Gavasker and Siddhu. Each of
the group members were assigned
Alphabets A, B, C, D, E and F. Volunteer
group leader was identified in each team.
One of the units from Process of

Childrens learning was taken up for
Cooperative learning.
The seating arrangement of the
experimental group is shown in Fig.1
Fig.1
The groups were given material for

study on each of the topics constituting
the unit. Each session of the cooperative
learning lasted for 1 hour, with 30
minutes for discussion in the group and
30 minutes for quiz. During the
discussion time the teacher was
available to guide and clarify the doubts
of the students. Each of the quiz
sessions comprised of ten objective
questions on the topic taken for
discussion. At a time only five groups
were taken up for cooperative learning
session. Hence, each team got two
questions to be answered and the
question could be asked from any two
members of the team randomly. The
quizzing process inculcated a feeling of
accountability, competitiveness and
involvement of each member as the score
of each member contributed to the total
score of the team. Class of the
experimental group and control group
10
was taken alternately. The unit selected

for the study was divided into sub parts
and each sub part was taken up for each
session. Each session of discussion (30
minutes) was followed by a quiz which
reflected scores of all the members of
each team separately. In the traditional
method, questions were asked after
teaching the specific content, but no quiz
was organised.
For evaluation of both the groups an
achievement test was constructed on the
whole unit for 20 marks. The test was
constructed on the basis of the following
criteria 50% weightage to objective
questions and 50% weightage to
subjective questions, 20% weightage
November 2006
to knowledge, 60% weightage to

understanding and 20% weightage to
application.
Statistical Analysis
t-test was administered to test the
significance of the difference between the
Mean of Experimental group and Control
group at large and also significance of
Mean difference between Control and
Experimental group of shy, average,
above average and below average groups.
After the completion of cooperative
learning, the experimental group was
asked to write about their learning
experiences through cooperative
learning.
TABLE 1
Mean, S.D. and Z value of control and experimental groups
Groups
No. of
Observations
Mean
S.D.
Control
53
5.56
3.47
Experimental
54
7.185
3.07
Z
2.54*
*P < .05
Fig. 2: Bar Graph showing Mean Scores of Control and Experimental Group
18
November 2006
Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of

Eleven-year-old Convent School Students
A.C. PACHAURY*
Abstract
It is believed that convent schools provide better educational experiences to students
than the general schools. The following paper investigates this popular perception
of the convent schools by measuring the arithmetic reasoning ability of the students
through five administered tasks modeled on Piaget and Collinss theory. It is
found that there is a variation in each task stages. But interestingly, percentage
difference between boys and girls on all the administered tasks were found
marginal. The analysis also suggests methods to nurture reasoning ability of
students for its educational implication.
Psychologists assert ability to do a task

in a variety of conditions and situations
is affected by the persons level of general
mental ability (g). Numerical and verbal
reasoning form an important feature of
well-known tests of intelligence (DAT;
GATB; TPMA; WAIS, etc) because they
together measure fairly well an
individuals level of g. Piagets cognitive
developmental stages also provide an
index of intellectual and socio-moral
behaving and functioning of the persons.
Collins (1972) had constructed
arithmetic reasoning tasks on the basis
of Piagets concrete and formal stages
thinking to assess Australian childrens
developmental characteristics in
Mathematics domain. Each task has
dual configuration of content/structure

and concrete/formal thinking levels (see
table). It is obvious from the tasks that
the concrete content is limited to single
digit number system, where as the formal
content deals with the abstract numbers.
Direct arithmetical operativity of the task
is designated concrete-structure, while
the formal-structure involves some kind
of mental transformation on the task
data.
According to Piagets theory, 75% of
the children around eleven years of age
should be able to solve level two and
beyond reasoning tasks constructed by
Collins. But on the Piagetian
conservation/spatial tasks, this SS
(Sample Subject) of eleven years showed
* 110-B, Sushmita, Sector-A, Sarvdharm, Bhopal 462 042.
Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of Eleven-year-old ...
16% attainment on the level three task

(Bevli, 1990). Slightly better performance
(23%) was shown by the local KV sample
subject on level two task (Pachaury,
2000). This fact is also true for the local
school SS of this age (Pachaury, 2003).
Except on the level one tasks, on the
higher level two to four tasks, none of the
sampled SS of either local schools and/
or of the Bhopal, Delhi KV reached 75%
of the Piagetian performance. Hence, like
the conservation/spatial tasks, these
schools SS displayed 2/3 years delay on
the arithmetic reasoning tasks of Collies
as well. Parents and public alike favour
sending of their children to the convent
school. They believe that the convent
school provides better educational
experiences to the students. In order to
investigate this opinion empirically
following research questions were
addressed through this study:
(a)
What percentage of the eleven-year

old students of convent school
would be responding rightly on the
level two to four arithmetic
reasoning tasks of Collies?
Task/Configuration
1.
2.
(b)
19
Does task configuration affect their

performance on them?
Sample: 104 SS (51 girls/53 boys) of the

sixth grade participated in the study. They
were studying in the district
level convent school of Madhya Pradesh. The
modal age of the SS was eleven
years. This convent school came into
existence over 50 years back. Data collection
was allowed on the condition that the name
of the school would not be disclosed.
Tasks: students were requested to
solve the five administered tasks. The
tasks were finished in about fifteen
minutes time.
Percentage of the Children Passing
Each Task
Results: 86 % of the boys and 72% of the
girls rightly responded on the level one
understanding of Collies task. On the
level two understanding task 2 their
performance had been extremely poor for
the girls (4%). Boys had performed
slightly better on it (18%). However, on
the same level understanding of task 3
boys had done slightly better (25%) but
Boys (53)
Girls (51)
Combined (104)
Level I concrete content

and concrete structure. 11-5+5=?
86.47
71.69
78.84
Level II concrete content and

formal structure.
8-5=?-8
17.64
03.75
09.97
3.
-do- (7+3)=(7+2)+(3-?)
25.49
33.96
29.80
4.
Level III formal content and

concrete structure. 297+285-285=?
72.59
75.47
74.03
Level IV formal content and formal

structure. 389+421=389+205+421-?
27.45
24.71
25.96
20
girls had performed better (34%) than

their peers. On the level three tasks 4
both the gender SS had performed quite
well, i.e. 73% and 75%, respectively.
These SS performance had drastically
gone down on the level five tasks 5 (27%
boys 25% girls).
Percentage difference between boys/
girls on all the administered tasks were
marginal (2 to 14%). None of these
percentage difference reached 5% level
of significance. It is, therefore, inferred
gender difference was silent on these
tasks. For the either gender however,
there existed significantly better
performance on level one task in
comparison to level two/four tasks. Level
three task failed to retain this effect.
Hence, level one and level three tasks
difficulty-wise similar although
percentage difference existed between
them for the either gender category.
Discussion: Past studies on Piagetian
conservation/spatial tasks had shown
large numbers of eleven year old SS had
been found deeply entrenched into inter
phase of concrete and early formal levels
of thinking. This developmental
characteristic of the sampled students
also finds support in the domain of
arithmetic reasoning. Therefore,
concrete content and concrete
structured task I was passed by 795 of
them. Task 1 and 4 both bank on the
concrete structure. Theoretically they are
quite similar. Hence reflected
performance on them had been very
similar (79% and 74%). Task 2 had
proved to be very difficult for these SS
(10%). In Piagetian Genetic Epistemological Perspective, it has to be
solved by applying logic of responsibility.
Processwise first 5 have to be subtracted
November 2006
from 8. To maintain equivalence of the

two sets, then, 3 has to be added to 8.68%
of these SS wrote 5-8 as the right response. Another 16% wrote 3-8 (total 84%).
This shows they simply responded to
solve this task on the basis of their
perception alone. Hence, all this failed
them understanding of what was needed.
Task configuration that does not fit well
into the existing/available cognitive
repertoire/experience of the individual
compells its resolution at the intuitive
level of behaving. For example, on the
spider task, VII grade JNV/IX grade KV
students and primary schools teachers
gave responses like eyes, gills, hair, legs,
mouth and tongue, etc. through which
it respires in the absence of the lungs.
(Pachaury, 2000, 2002, 2003) these two
categories of the responses conform to
creation of personal theory in handling
of a task that showed lack of past
experience and proper use of logical
thinking. Task 3 also banks on the
concrete content and formal structure,
yet its negotiability had been easier than
for the task 2. This, therefore, was
passed by 20 per cent more SS. Task 5
whose configuration banked on both the
formalcontent/structure was passed
almost like the task 3 (27%).
Data also revealed that 30%, 38%,
24%, and 8% of the SS correctly solved
one, two, three and four/five tasks,
respectively. This means, then, 68% of
them remained up to concrete level of
thinking on these tasks (30% early and
38% late concrete thinkers). 24% showed
early formal level of thinking. Only 8%
reached formal level of thinking on these
tasks. These facts show that they had
manifested 2/3 years delay in the
domain of arithmetic reasoning. This
Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of Eleven-year-old ...
observation finds support from elevenyear olds who had an opinion that neither
school science (conservation) nor
arithmetics (arithmetic reasoning)
teaching support students development/
nurture of these characteristics. On their
own students also possibly do not care
for their development due to pressure for
getting good grades in the examinations
that assess transmitted information solely.
Educational implications: Researches on
mathematics learning by the students
show that classroom transactions
emphasising reasoning facilitate
conceptual development (Boaler, 1998;
Fendel et al., 1998; Grunetti and Jaquet,
1996; Lott and Burke, 1967; Mevarech
and Kramarski, 1997; NCES, 1996;
Stingler and Hiebert, 1997 cited in
Pachaury, 2000). In case instead of
transacting school arithmetic in
21
algorithmetic manner (that probably has

silting effect on the student thinking), its
learning is interposed with how/why
way of solving a task, then, this would
help in the development/nurture of
reasoning among the students.
Conclusions: For the sampled eleven year
old convent school students (a)
arithmetic reasoning tasks whose
configuration banks on the formal
structure have proved difficult to very
difficult than tasks having concrete/
formal content and concrete structure;
(b) within the same task configuration,
8-5=?-8 had proved significantly difficult
than (7+3)=(7+2)+(3-?). This shows task
artifact has also affected their
performance; (c) 2/3 years delay exists
on arithmetic reasoning tasks of Collies
like the earlier studies on Piagetian
conservation/spatial tasks.
REFERENCES
COLLIES, K.F. 1972. cited by Bevli, U. et al. 1990. The Growth of Logical Thinking in
Children. NCERT, New Delhi.
PACHAURY, A.C. 2000. The impact of Competency-based Performance in Solving
Arithmetic Reasoning Tasks by the Fifth Grade Students; Paper Presented at the
International Research Seminar on Indicators of Quality Education at Elementary
Stage. Organised by the NCERT, New Delhi.
_________ 2002. Conservation Ability of the Primary School Teachers, The Primary
Teacher, 27, 2, 40-44.
_________ 2003. Development of Mathematical Thinking in III and V grade Children.
The Primary Teacher, 38,1,42-47.
_________ 2003. Development of Mathematical Thinking in III and V grade Children.
The Primary Teacher, Jan. 2003, 42-47.
PIAGET. J. 1952. The Childs Conception of Numbers. Routledge and Kegan Paul. Ltd.
London.
POLYA, G. 1956. Mathematics Discovery on Understanding. Wiley, New York.
22
November 2006
Implementation of School Curriculum at

the Upper Primary Stage in different States
S.K. YADAV*
Abstract
The school curriculum at the upper primary stage in our country generally consisting
of Classes VI to VIII in the age group of 12+ to 14+ years play a significant role in
the development of the personality of the children. The NCERT has developed
Curriculum Framework for School Education during 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005
at the national level. Since education is in the concurrent list, the curriculum at
upper primary stage is being implemented differently by different States and
Union Territories. The present study has attempted to explore the weightage given
to different curricular and co-curricular areas by different States and its variations
in terms of structure, working days, working hours, recess periods, teaching of
different subjects, evaluation pattern, etc.
School curriculum plays a vital role in

the development of childs personality
particularly early years at upper primary
stage. The upper primary stage covers
roughly the children of the age group 12
to 14 years. At this stage, the children
are just introduced to formal teaching
wherein the children get prepared to
understand the environment and their
surroundings in a systematic manner
through school curriculum. The basic
skills of listening, speaking, reading and
writing are inculcated among children at
this stage. Besides these, the ability for
creativity, self-expression and selflearning are also nurtured. The school
curriculum is not a one-shot affair but a
dynamic one. It has to be updated from
time to time in the light of the latest

changes and developments. For the first
time, the Ten Year School Curriculum
Framework including upper primary
stage was developed in 1975 by the NCERT
on the basis of recommendations made
by Education Commission (1964-66) and
National Policy on Education (NPE), 1968.
The document focused on emerging
concerns and imperatives, objectives at
upper primary stage process of
curriculum development, structure at the
upper primary stage, school hours,
working days in a week, nomenclature
of different curricular and co-curricular
areas, teaching methodology of different
subjects, evaluation and examination
reforms and also for implications for
* Professor, Department of Teacher Education & Extension, NCERT, New Delhi.
Implementation of School Curriculum at the Upper Primary Stage...
23
implementations. Likewise NCER T

revised school curriculum in 1988, 2000
and 2005 keeping in view the rapid
changes all around. Besides this, the
recommendations made in the report
Learning without Burden (1993) were
considered in formulation of NCERTs
recent the National Curriculum Framework
-2005.
Since education is in the concurrent
list, the curriculum at upper primary
stage is being implemented differently by
different States and Union Territories.
The weightage to different curricular
areas are given in different ways and
there are lots of variations within States
and at national level. The earlier studies,
conducted in a few States, (ME and SW,
1977; Arora, 1984; Lehiry and et al, 1998
and Yadav, 1984, 2005) also supported
this view. Here, an attempt has been
made to study the status of
implementation of school curriculum at
upper primary stage in all the States and
Union Territories in the country. Since
this study was conducted during
2002-04, it explores the status of
implementation of curriculum frameworks prior to NCF2005.
Sample
All the 35 States/Union Territories are
covered in the study.
Objectives of the Study
Data Collection
The data was collected from all the
States/Union Territories by mailing the
questionnaire to State Institute of
Education, State Council of Educational
Research and Training, Boards of School
Education, Directorate of School
Education. The completed questionnaires were received from the above
Institutions/ Boards. Visits were made
to some institutions and data were
collected.
To study the status in implementation of school curriculum in terms

of structure, agency, working days,
school hours, class period, recess
periods, periods per week, teaching
approaches in different subjects
etc., at upper primary stage in
different States/Union Territories.
To derive implications for action to
improve the quality of school
education at upper primary stage.
Tools Used
To obtain necessary information from the
States a questionnaire was developed for
data collection. The questionnaire had
two parts.
Part I was related to information
about the weightage given to different
areas of school curriculum and included
items on subjects taught, number of
class periods allotted to different subjects
per week, maximum marks allotted to
different subjects in examination, total
number of class periods, number of
hours the school functioned on a
working day.
Part II of the questionnaire sought
information about the agency at the
State level which formulated the school
curriculum, the mechanism followed,
nomenclature of different subjects at
upper primary stage, approaches
followed for teaching different subject,
status of examination of different
subjects, mechanism for evaluation and
suggestions for improving the curriculum
and its transaction at the State level.
24
November 2006
Analysis of Data
The data was scrutinised and put in
tabular form. The descriptive
(percentage) statistical technique was
used for analysis of the data.
Major Findings
Some of the significant findings are
discussed below:
1.
There are lot of variations in terms

of structure of education, agency for
construction of curriculum,
allotment of working days and
school hours per day at upper
primary stage. The details are
discussed in Table 1.
The structure at upper primary
stage is not common in the
TABLE 1
Information about Structure, Agency, Working days and School Hours per
Day at Upper Primary Stage
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
State/UTs
A and N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
Dadar and Nagar Haveli
Daman and Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
Structure
Agency
Working Days
School Hours
VI - VIII
VI - VII
VI - VIII
V - VII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
V - VII
V - VII
VI - VIII
V - VII
V - VII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
V - VII
V - VII
V - VII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
V - VII
V - VII
V - VIII
VI - VII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
VI - VIII
V - VII
NCERT
SCERT
NCERT
BOARD
SCERT
NCERT
SCERT
SCERT
BOARD
SCERT
SIE
SCERT
SCERT
NCERT
NCERT
NCERT
SCERT
SCERT
SCERT
SCERT
SCERT
NCERT
SCERT
BOARD
NCERT
SCERT
BOARD
BOARD
SCERT
SIE
SCERT
BOARD
SCERT
SCERT
BOARD
250
220
220
220
253
235
234
220
220
210
220
220
220
232
201
253
220
200
220
245
230
240
220
210
200
230
200
230
240
230
200
220
220
220
233
6.00
7.15
6.00
5.30
6.00
6.00
5.00
6.00
5.00
5.30
5.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.30
5.00
5.15
5.30
6.00
5.30
5.45
6.00
5.45
6.00
6.00
7.00
5.30
5.30
6.00
5.30
5.15
T.B. Board Textbook Board

NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
BOARD Board of School Education/Board of Primary/Secondary Education
SCERT/SIE State Council of Educational Research and Training/State Institute of Education.
country. In 23 States/UTs, the

upper primary Stage consists of
Classes VI to VIII as
recommended by the National
Curriculum Frameworks whereas
in the remaining twelve States
namely Assam, Dadar and Nagar
Haveli, Daman and Diu, Goa,
Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,
Lakshadweep, Meghalaya,
Mizoram and West Bengal, the
upper primary stage covers
Classes V to VII. In Nagaland it
is from V to VIII.
The curriculum prepared by the
NCERT was generally followed
with modifications by most of the
States/UTs according to their
own needs. The major agencies
for constructing curriculum
were SIEs, SCERTs, Textbook
Boards, Boards of School
Education and Boards of
Primary Education.
The total school working days in
a year were minimum 200 in
Nagaland and Kerala maximum
to 253 in Jharkhand and Bihar.
But in most of the States/ UTs,
the working days were between
200 and 220 on the lines of
recommended national norms.
The duration of a school hours
were minimum 5.00 hours in
Chhattisgarh, Daman and Diu
and Madhya Pradesh. In Andhra
Pradesh, the school hours were
maximum 7.15 hours in a day.
In majority of the States/UTs the
school hours were between 5.30
to 6.00 hours. However, the
1988 and 2000 NCERT Curri-
25
culum had recommended five

hours, with four hours for effective
instruction and one hour for
morning assembly and recess.
2.
Table 2 focuses on allotment of

periods per week to different
subjects, duration of class, number
of periods, number of recess periods
and duration of recess periods in
upper primary schools.
The total periods per week were
between 34 in Chhattisgarh,
Tripura and West Bengal to 54
in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab
for teaching different subjects.
The duration of period was
minimum 30 minutes in Dadar
and Nagar Haveli and Gujarat.
Maximum of 45 minutes class
period was observed in Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Kerala, M.P.,
Manipur, Nagaland, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu. The NCERT
Curriculum Framework (1975,
1988
and
2000)
had
recommended 30 to 40 minutes
for a class period.
In majority of the States/UTs
there was only one break for
recess period but it was found
two
recess
periods
in
Chhattisgarh, Lakshadweep,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Sikkim
and Tamil Nadu and three in
Andhra Pradesh, Dadar and
Nagar Haveli, Gujarat and
Kerala. The duration for recess
break was minimum for 15
minutes in Pondicherry and
maximum 95 minutes in Andhra
Pradesh. However, the NCERT
26
November 2006
TABLE 2
Information about Periods per Week, Duration of Class Period, Number of Recess
Periods and Duration of Recess Periods
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
State/Uts
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
W.Bengal
Periods per
Week
Class Period
(min)
Recess
Period (no.)
Recess
Duration
48
48
45
44
45
48
34
40
48
48
48
40
52
54
48
45
45
35
48
36
52
36
40
35
35
44
35
54
48
48
45
34
48
48
34
40
45
40
45
40
40
35
30
35
35
35
30
40
35
35
40
40
45
40
45
35
45
40
40
45
40
45
40
40
40
45
40
40
35
40
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
40
95
40
30
30
20
50
50
20
20
35
50
30
30
40
30
40
80
20
30
40
45
30
50
30
40
15
25
30
50
20
30
30
30
30
3.
Curriculum Framework (1975)

recommended one or two recess
period.
The variations in terms of nomenclature, teaching approaches,
27
allotment of periods per week, total

time and marks for annual
examination of Science subject
have been discussed in the
following table.
TABLE 3
Periods per Week, Time and Total Marks for Annual Examination for Science Subject
State/UTs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
Science Subject
Nomenclature
Teaching
Approach
Periods
per Week
Examination
Time
Examination
Marks
Gen Sc*
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Science
Science
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Science
Gen Sc
Science
Science
Science
Science
Science
Gen Sc
PCB*
Discip*
Integ*
Integ
Discip
Discip
Discip
Integ
Integ
Discip
Integ
Integ
Integ
Integ
Integ
Integ
Discip
Integ
Integ
Integ
Discip
Discip
Integ
Integ
Discip
Integ
Discip
Integ
Integ
Discip
Integ
Integ
Discip
Integ
Integ
Integ
8
8
8
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
8
6
6
8
6
6
6
5
7
6
5
4
4
7
5
5
6
7
6
6
7
6
7
6
4
3.0
2.30
3.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.30
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.30
2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.30
3.0
2.30
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.30
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
75
60
100
100
100
40
100
100
50
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
* Gen.Sc. General Science *Integ. Integrated Approach

* PCB Physics, Chemistry, Biology* Discip* Disciplinary Approach
28
November 2006
The nomenclature of science subject

was General Science in 21 (60.0%) States/
UTs and General Science in remaining
13 States/UTs (37.14%) according to
recommended national norms. Only in
West Bengal, separate subject of Physics,
Chemistry and Biology are covered under
Science. The integrated approach was
followed in teaching of Science in 23
(65.71%) States/UTs whereas other 12
States followed disciplinary approach.
The maximum 8 periods per week were
allotted for teaching of science in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra
Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh, Goa
and Himachal Pradesh whereas only four
periods were allotted in Manipur,
Meghalaya and West Bengal. Six periods
were allotted in 17 (48.57%) States/UTs.
Delhi, Lakshdweep, Mizoram, Punjab,
Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh allotted
7 periods for science subject. Five periods
were allotted for science teaching in only
four States i.e., Kerala, Maharashtra,
Nagaland and Orissa. The time duration

for annual examination of science
subject at upper primary stage was 2.0
hours in seven States/UTs to 3.0 hours
in 22 States/UTs. The maximum marks
for annual examination of this subject
was minimum 40 in Jammu and Kashmir
and maximum 100 marks in majority of
States/UTs. However, 50 marks in Kerala
and Lakshadweep and 75 marks in Delhi
were also observed for annual
examination of science subject. The
majority of States/UTs are following
recommended norms for teaching of
science in terms of nomenclature,
approach for teaching, periods per week,
school hours and marks for annual
examination.
4.
The Table 4 focuses on variations
in terms of nomenclature, teaching
approaches, allotment of periods
per week, total time and marks for
annual examination for Social
Sciences subject.
TABLE 4
Information regarding Nomenclature, Teaching Approaches, Periods per Week,
Time and Total Marks for Annual Examination for Social Sciences Subject
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
State/
UTs
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N. Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Nomenclature
Soc.Sc*
Soc.St*
Soc.Sc
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
Soc.St
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
Social Sciences
Teaching
Periods/
Approach
Week
Discip
Integr
Integr
Discip
Discip
Discip
Discip
Integr
Discip
Discip
8
6
8
7
6
6
6
5
6
6
Exam
Time
3
2.30
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
Exam
Marks
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
75

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J. & K.
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
Discip
Integr
Soc. Sc.
Soc. St.
Disciplinary
Integrated
Social Science
Social Studies
Soc.Sc
Soc.St*
Soc.St
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
H,G,C
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
Soc.Sc
H,G,C
Soc.Sc
H,G,C
Soc.Sc
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
Soc.St
Soc.Sc
H,G,C
Soc.St
Soc.St
H,G,C
H
G
C
Discip
Integr
Integr
Integr
Integr
Discip
Integr
Integr
Integr
Discip
Discip
Discip
Discip
Integr
Integr
Discip
Integr
Integr
Discip
Discip
Integr
Discip
Integr
Integr
Discip
4
5
5
7
6
6
6
4
5
6
6
4
8
6
5
3
5
6
6
6
5
6
5
6
4
2.30
3
3
3
2.30
2
2.30
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
2.30
2.30
3
2.30
3
2
3
3
2
2.30
29
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
50
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
History
Geography
Civics
The Social Sciences was named as

Social Science in 18 (51.43%) States/UTs
and Social Studies in 12 States. But it was
taught as History, Geography and Civics
in Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Orissa,
Tripura and West Bengal States. In 17
States/UTs (48.57%) integrated approach
recommended in NCFSE-2000 was
followed in teaching Social Sciences in
Classes VI to VIII. The periods per week for
teaching of this subject were 4 in Goa,
Kerala, Manipur and West Bengal; and
maximum 8 in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Arunachal Pradesh and

Meghalaya. Seven periods were allotted
in only two of States/UTs i.e., Assam and
Himachal Pradesh. Seventeen State/UTs
allotted six periods and 8 States allotted
only five periods for Social Science teaching.
The time duration for annual examination
was minimum 2.0 hours and maximum
3.0 hours. The maximum marks for annual
examination were 100 in 31 (88.57%) States/
UTs and minimum were 50 marks in
Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala and Lakshadweep. In Delhi, it was 75 marks only.
30
4.
November 2006
The allotment of periods per

week, duration and total marks
for annual examination for
mother tongue and status of threelanguage formula is given in

Table 5.
TABLE 5
Allotment of Periods per Week, Duration and Total Marks in Annual Examination
of Mother Tongue and Status of Three-language Formula
Sl.
State/UTs
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Mother Tongue
Periods/Week
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N Haveli
Daman and Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
8
7
5
8
5
6
6
5
6
7
9
5
7
4
6
5
7
4
4
6
13
4
4
4
4
6
6
8
6
6
7
8
6
6
6
3 Language
Exam Time
Exam Marks
Formula
3
2.30
3
3
2
3
2.30
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2.30
2
2.30
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2.30
3
2.30
3
2.30
3
3
2
2.30
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
40
100
100
50
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
The periods allotted per week for

teaching of mother tongue at
upper primary stage were
minimum 4 and maximum 13 in
Maharashtra. The time duration
for annual examination of this
subject was minimum 2.0 hours
and maximum 3.0 hours in all
the States/UTs. The maximum
marks for examination of mother
tongue were 100 in all the
States/UTs except Jammu &
Kashmir where only 40 and 50
in Kerala and Lakshadweep
marks were allotted. The majority
of States are following the
recommended national norms.
6.
31
The National Curriculum

Framework (1975, 1988 and
2000) recommended implementation of three-language formula
from upper primary stage
onwards. All State/UTs have
implemented the ThreeLanguage Formula at this stage
except Nagaland and Tamil
Nadu.
The allotment of periods per week,

duration and total marks of
Mathematics and English language
has been discussed in the following
table.
TABLE 6
Introduction of English Language, Allotment of Periods per Week, Total Time and
Marks for Annual Examination of Mathematics and English Language Subject
Mathematics
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
State/UTs
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
English Language
Periods/
Week
Exam
Time
Exam
Marks
Periods/
Week
Exam
Time
Exam
Marks
8
8
8
6
6
7
6
7
6
7
8
7
7
5
9
6
6
3
1.30
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
1.30
3
3
3
2
3
3
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
40
100
100
8
7
8
8
5
7
6
3
6
7
7
3
7
6
8
5
5
3
2.30
3
3
2
3
2.30
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2.30
2
3
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
32
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
November 2006
5
6
6
7
6
5
7
5
5
6
9
6
8
7
6
6
5
6
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
1.30
3
1.30
3
2
3
2
2
3

teaching of English subject in
Classes VI to VIII were maximum
eight in six and minimum three
in Dadar and Nagar Haveli and
Gujarat. The time duration of
annual examination was
minimum 2.0 hours in seven
States/UTs; and maximum
three hours in 22 States/UTs.
The maximum marks for
examination were 100 in all
States/UTs and the minimum
50 in remaining four States/UTs
i.e., Chhattisgarh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Kerala and Uttar
Pradesh.
teaching of Mathematics subject
at this stage were maximum 9
in Punjab and minimum 5 in
Himachal Pradesh, Kerala,
7.
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
5
7
6
7
5
8
6
5
6
6
9
6
8
6
6
6
6
6
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2.30
3
2.30
3
2.30
3
3
2
2
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa

and Uttaranchal. The time
duration for annual examination was minimum 1.30 hours
in 4 States/UTs namely, Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Pondicherry and
Rajasthan; and 2.0 in 8 States/
UTs and maximum 3.0 hours in
about 23 (65.71%) of States/
UTs. The maximum marks for
annual examination were 100 in
31 (88.57%) States/UTs and
only 50 marks in four States i.e.,
Chhattisgarh, J and K, Kerala
and Uttar Pradesh. The recommended norms are followed in
most of the States.
The status, periods per week,
duration and total marks of health
and physical education and art
education have been discussed
here
33
TABLE 7
Status, Periods per Week and Duration of Annual Examination of Health and
Physical Education and Art Education
Health and Physical Education
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
*Opt:
State/UTs
Status
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D. & N. Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
Com*
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Opt
Opt
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Opt
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Optional
Art Education
Status Periods/ Exam Status

of
Week
Time
Exam
(hours)
*Com: Compulsory
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
6
2
3
2
4
3
1
2
6
2
2
3
4
3
5
4
4
2
2
6
2
3
3
2
3
2
2
4
3
2
2
2
5
3
2
2.0
1.30
1.30
2
3
3
3
2
2
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Opt*
Opt
Opt
Com
Opt
Com
Opt
Com
Opt
Opt
Com
Com
Com
Com
Opt
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Com
Opt
Com
Com
Status Periods/
of
Week
Exam
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
4
2
3
2
4
2
6
4
5
3
2
2
4
3
2
4
3
4
4
6
2
3
1
3
3
2
1
3
3
1
4
1
3
6
2
34
November 2006
In more than ninety per cent

State/UTs, the Health and
Physical Education was
compulsory subject and in the
remaining three (Delhi, Goa and
Madhya Pradesh) States/UTs it
was an optional subject. There
was an annual examination in
about 22 (62.86%) States/UTs.
The time allotted for annual
examination was minimum 1.30
hours and maximum 3.00 hours
in all the States/UTs. The periods
per week for teaching of this
subject in Classes VI to VIII were
minimum one in Chhattisgarh
and maximum six in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Daman & Diu
and Madhya Pradesh.
8.
In majority of State/UTs, the Art

Education was compulsory
subject and the examination
was conducted annually. The
time duration for examination
was from 1.0 to 4.0 hours in all
the States/UTs. Only one period
per week was allotted for
teaching of Art Education in
Meghalaya, Pondicherry, Sikkim
and Tripura and maximum six
periods were allotted in
Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttaranchal.
The nomenclature, examination

status, periods per week of work
education in the country have been
given in table 8.
TABLE 8
Information about Nomenclature Status of Examination and
Allotment of Periods per Week for Work Education and Evaluation System
Work Education
Sl.
No.
State/UTs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
A & N Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
D & N Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Nomenclature
SUPW*
SUPW
SUPW
WE*
SUPW
WE
SUPW
SUPW
WE
SUPW
WE
SUPW
WE
SUPW
Exam
Status
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Evaluation
Periods/ Mechanism Continuous and

Week
Comprehensive
4
3
3
2
4
3
1
2
6
3
2
2
4
4
M.Gr*
M.Gr
Mar*
M.Gr
M.Gr
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
M.Gr
M.Gr
Mar
M.Gr
Mar
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshdweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Pondicherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
WE
SUPW
SUPW
WE
WE
SUPW
WE
SUPW
WE
WE
WE
WE
WE
SUPW
WE
SUPW
LOC*
WE
SUPW
SUPW
SUPW
WE
: Work Education (Maharashtra)
SUPW : Socially Useful Productive Work
LOC
: Life Oriented Education
The nomenclature of work

education was Socially Useful
Productive Work (SUPW) in
about fifty per cent (18) States/
Uts and Work Experience in
Sixteen (45.71%) States/UTs. In
Tamil Nadu, it was known as Life
Oriented Education (LOE).
Twenty-five (71.43%) States/
UTs conducted exams in the
subject whereas 10 States/UTs
did not conduct exam in work
education. The periods allotted
per week for teaching of work
education in Classes VI to VIII
were only one period in
Chhattisgarh and Meghalaya
and maximum six in Daman &
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
6
6
4
4
4
6
2
3
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
2
1
6
6
2
Gr
Gr
M.Gr
Gr
Mar
Mar
M.Gr
M.Gr
Mar
Mar
Mar
M.Gr
Mar
M.Gr
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
M.Gr
Mar
Mar
35
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Mar
: Marking
M.Gr : Marking and Grading
Diu, J & K, Jharkhand, Madhya

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttaranchal.
In the curriculum evaluation,
the marks were given for the
examination purposes in 19
(54.29%) States/UTs, in thirteen
States/UTs marks were given
for scholastic aspect and grade
were awarded to co-scholastic
papers and in the remaining 3
States/UTs only grades are the
means of evaluation. Besides,
the continuous comprehensive
evaluation was implemented in
10 (28.57%) States/UTs and
the other 25 States are not
implementing this scheme.
36
November 2006
However, introduction of grading

in evaluation system has been
recommended by National
Curriculum Frameworks at
primary stage.
At the end it can be stated that there
are lots of variations in terms of
structure, working hours, recess periods,
teaching of different subjects, evaluation
pattern in different States/UTs at
primary stage. Different States are
implementing the curriculum in a
different way according to their own
situations. However, most of the States/
UTs are following the recommendations
made in NCERT Curriculum Frameworks
(1975, 1988 and 2000) at national level.
national programmes like Sarva

Shiksha Abhiyan smoothly.
Steps need to be taken to
discuss this issue by organising
meetings with the state policy
planners, administrators and
school teachers.
Implications
The following implications have been
derived from the findings of the study.
The school structure is not

common in the country. It
hinders in implementing the
The study has revealed lot of

variations in implementing
school curriculum in terms of
agency
for
curriculum
development, number of
working days, periods in a week,
duration of periods, number of
recess periods, teaching
approaches in different subjects,
evaluation system etc., at
primary stage. These variations
shown in the study need
further in-depth qualitative
analysis and research support
to see the effectiveness in
teaching-learning process in the
schools.
REFERENCES
ARORA, G.L. 1984. Weightage Given to Different Areas of School Curriculum in Various
States. NCERT, New Delhi.
LAHIRY, D., D. SHARMA, ARJUN DEV, INDIRA ARJUN DEV, NASSIRUDDIN KHAN and RAJINDER JOSHI.
1998. Some Aspects of Upper Primary Stage of Education in India A Study. NCERT,
New Delhi.
MHRD. 1993. Learning Without Burden: Report of the National Advisory Committee
Appointed by Ministry of Human Resource Development. MHRD, Government of
India, New Delhi.
______. 1986. 1992. National Policy on Education (Revised) MHRD, Government of
India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Education and Social Welfare. 1977. Report of the Review Committee on
the Curriculum for the Ten-Year School. ME and SW, Government of India, New
Delhi.
NCERT. 1975. The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School A Framework. NCERT, New
Delhi.
_______. 1988. National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education A
Framework (Revised Version). NCERT, New Delhi.

NCERT. 2000. National Curriculum Framework for School Education. NCERT, New
Delhi.
______. 2005. National Curriculum Framework. NCERT, New Delhi.
YADAV, S.K. 1984. Curriculum for Weaker Section: Reflections on Curriculum. NCER T,
New Delhi.
______. 2005. Implementation of Ten-Year School Curriculum in States - A Study Report.
NCERT, New Delhi.
37
38
November 2006
Nurturing Gifted and Talented

Concept, Profiles and Strategies
VEER PAL SINGH*
Abstract
In this article the author deals with the concept of talent, profiles of talented and
gifted children, empirical evidences of talent nurturance with special reference to
India, initiatives taken by NCERT for identification of talent and its nurturance
and other strategies for nurturing the talent. He states that more effective strategies
of talent nurturance can further be identified in Indian context if an empirical
study is undertaken. He stresses the need to take up studies related to talent
nurturance because mere identification of talent is not enough. What is more
important is the nurturance of talent.
Concept of Talent
Every child has hidden treasure of
abilities which need to be identified, and
nourished for the well-being of humanity.
Different thinkers have viewed these
abilities in different forms like giftedness,
talent, creativity, intelligence and so on.
Some pertinent questions relating to this
are, whether these terms have the same
meaning? Is there any relationship
among them? Webster (1962) defines
gifted or talented as having natural
ability or aptitude and used the word
gifted synonym of talented, whereas Burt
(1962) distinguishes gifted as having an
IQ of 125 and above from talented as
average academic ability, and makes a
distinction between gifted as having
primarily superior conceptualisation

capacity for superior social contribution,
and talented as promise not so based but
in the province of superior skill. Gowan
(1979) defines gifted as being verbally
creative and talented as being nonverbally creative. The United States
Office of Education (USOE) Conference
at Washington (1970) provided a broad
definition of gifted and talented. It
includes the capacity for high
performance and demonstrated
achievement relative to the categories of
general intellectual ability, creative and
productive thinking, specific academic
aptitude, leadership ability, visual and
performing art ability and psychomotor
ability.
* Reader, Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, NCERT, New Delhi.
Nurturing Gifted and Talented...
On the other hand, Renzulli (1979)

does not consider the USOE definition
adequate. According to him, giftedness
should be viewed as an interactive
cluster of abilities, creativity and task
commitment, based on the assumption
that giftedness is both topical and
temporal, manifesting itself in motivated
behaviours rather than in a predetermined set of intellectual or
personality traits. Stanley, Keating and
Fox (1974) considered giftedness as
talent in specific academic areas, not
necessarily reflecting an overall general
intellectual capacity.
Khatena (1982) noted that the
general lack of consensus in the
meaning of the term gifted lies in the
fact that it serves as a generic term for
many kinds of human superiority. There
appears some merit in Treffingers
observation (1982) that we might do well
to eliminate from our vocabulary the
term gifted if we fail to recognise it as
an umbrella term for the many kinds of
characteristics, strengths, talents,
aspirations and needs.
According to McCelland (1958) the
term talent is ambiguous. It is elusive,
fragile, manifold, fast-moving, luminous,
tantalising and incredibly beautiful, like
Aurora Berealis on a cool September
night. The problem of definition is, in
part, a semantic one. Over the years,
workers in the field have used such
terms as gifted, able, superior and
talented interchangeably. Sometimes it
refers to an aptitude or ability in the
person, and sometimes it refers to
performance by the person, i.e. behaviour
which goes beyond ordinary in
meeting some criteria of desirability.
McCelland has used the term ability
39
or talent potential for the first meaning

and talented performance for the
second.
Robert Havinghurst (1962) considered talent as superior performance in
an area of complex human activity. He
does not limit himself to the intellectual
talent, but includes talent in arts and
other complex forms of activity. He
includes a considerable range of high
ability in his definition rather than the
extremely rare case of genius. Not the one
person in a thousand, but the five or
even ten in one hundred will be meant
when we speak of the supply of talented
people. DeHann and Havinghurst (1961)
consider any child gifted who is superior
in some ability that can made him an
outstanding contributor to the welfare of,
and quality of living in society. Children
in the upper one-tenth of one per cent
have been called first order or extremely
gifted children. The remaining children
in the upper 10 per cent in a given ability
are considered the second order gifted
children. As a working definition for a
practical programme of selecting a group
of gifted children in a community of
medium size, those children may be
considered gifted, who are in the top 10
per cent of their age group in one or more
areas of talent.
The definition of gifted child given
in preceding paragraph is a broad one.
It is broad in a sense that it includes
many talents that encompasses a
relatively generous proportion of children
in each area of talent. The broader the
definition, of course, the greater is the
opportunities for helping many gifted
children. A narrow definition of talent
may include only one area of giftedness,
e.g. intellectual ability, and only the top
40
one per cent or less of the children of a

given age group.
Hildreth (1966) after surveying
various definitions of talent proposes her
own definition. According to her, talent
refers to specific performance rather
than to potential. Taylor (1978)
mentioned that our strongest single
observation in all our work is that there
are multiple kinds of talents and
therefore, multiple kinds of highly gifted
people, not just a single the gifted type
of person or student.
Further, the researches indicate that
intelligence tests only cover one small
part of total intellectual powers that all
people possess. Guilford (1967) in his
analytical research in intellectual
talents has yielded a structure of
intellect and estimates that man has at
least 120 specific and separated highlevel intellectual talents, with each one
being of importance in at least some
human activity.
In fact, the term gifted or talented is
an adjective that can be used to cover
eight or ten other broad or general high
level talents that may be equally
important such as creative talents,
planning talents, wisdom in decisionmaking talents, forecasting talents,
communication talents of several type,
etc. Consequently, there are eight or ten
types of giftedness that can be identified
through testing. Each of this general
type is, in turn, composed of a particular
sub-set of specific highlevel talents. For
example, Guilford has summarised and
greatly augmented the work of Thurston
and his students who discovered about
20 specific talents, initially called
primary mental abilities. As already
pointed out earlier, in Guilfords current
November 2006
version of his periodic table of mind

(called the structure of intellect) there
are 120 possible specific high-level
talents, with over 100 discovered. On the
basis of his research, Calvin Taylor
(1978) suggested nearly all can be above
average in at least one of the many
important intellectual talents we now
can measure....... Therefore, the
talent or gift search programmes need
to consider these basic research
findings.
Gifted and Talented Children
According to Delaware State code, Article
14, Section 3162, 1953 gifted and
talented children may be explained as
under:
Gifted Children means children between
the chronological ages of four and
twenty-one who are endowed by nature
with high intellectual capacity and who
have a native capacity for high potential
intellectual attainment and scholastic
achievement.
Talented Children means children
between the chronological ages of four
and twenty-one who have demonstrated
superior talents, aptitudes or abilities,
outstanding leadership qualities and
abilities or consistently remarkable
performance in the Mechanics,
manipulative skills, the art of expression
of ideas, oral or written, art, human
relations or any other worthwhile line of
human achievement (Zettel, 1979).
Characteristics of the Talented and
Gifted Child
Taylor and Barron (1963) have tried to
abstract traits on the basis of various
studies done in the field. According to
them, following traits are visible in the

talented and gifted children:
A high degree of autonomy, selfsufficiency, self-direction.
A
preference
for
mental
manipulation involving things
rather than people, a somewhat
distant or detached attitude in
interpersonal relations, and a
preference for intellectually
challenging situations rather than
socially challenging ones.
High ego-strength and emotional

stability.
A liking for method, precision,

exactness.
A preference for such defence

mechanism as repression and
isolation in dealing with affects and
instinctual energies.
A high degree of control of impulse,

amounting almost to over-control,
relatively little talkativeness,
gregariousness and impulsiveness.
A liking for abstract thinking, with

considerable tolerance of cognitive
ambiguity.
A high degree of personal

dominance but a dislike of
personally toned controversy.
Marked independence of judgement,

rejection of group pressures toward
conformity in thinking.
Superior general intelligence.
An early, very broad interest in

intellectual activities.
A drive towards comprehensiveness

and elegance in explanation.
A special interest in the kind of

Wagering; which involves putting
oneself against certain circumstances in which ones own effort can
be a deciding factor.
41
Monson and Fukui (1991) have

identified characteristics of the gifted
easily observable by the teachers in the
regular classroom. These are cognitive
characteristics
and
affective
characteristics. Some of these are
curiosity, preference for independent
work, multiple interests, sense of justice
and altruism, humour, emotional
stability, perfectionism, high energy
levels and aesthetic sensitivity.
But gifted children also possess
certain negative characteristics like
bored with routine tasks, impatient with
failure, non-conformist, critical of self and
others, emotionally over sensitive and
the tendency to dominate others. These
should be taken into consideration while
dealing with them. Based on the findings
of Terman, Bloom, Renzulli, Karnes
et.al., Luca and Allen and Szekley,
several check-lists have been developed
that list the characteristics of
intellectually, academically, socially
gifted and gifted in the visual and
performing arts (Monson and Fukui
1991).
Profiles of the Gifted and Talented
The profiles of gifted and talented have
been worked out by the field researchers
categorising them into different
groups such as gifted (autonomous),
academi-cally talented, science
talented, maths talented, language arts
talented, etc. Gifted Children
(Autonomous) (Bett and Neithert: 1988)
are generally self-confident, selfaccepting, enthusiastic, accept failure
and others, intrinsic, have appropriate
social skills, creative, take risks and work
independently.
42
Profiles of Academically Talented

Children
(Bett and Neithert: 1988)
Academically talented school children
show specific academic skills from early
childhood, well-developed and diversified
interests that interweave with school
subject preferences and future study and
career aspirations. Generally, they also
have a very high aspiration level in
respect to both education and career
choice, high interest in taking additional
course work that is challenging and in
line with their interest and perceived
future directions. They also generally
have high academic self-concept; long
attention for activities related to specific
academic area and advanced
understanding of concepts, methods and
terminology of the specific field. They are
able to apply concept from specified field
to activation in other subject and show
willingness to devote large amount of
time and effort to achieve high standards,
are competitive in specific academic area
and motivated to do their best.
Profile of Talented in Science
(Pant and Maitra: 2002)
Children talented in Science reflect the
following characteristics: sincere,
dominant, assertive, cooperative, helpful,
compassionate, self-confident, independent, obedient having high aspirations,
having high regard for science, positive
towards science, able to set their own
standard of success and prone to underachievement in teacher-made tests.
Profile of Talented in Mathematics
(Sharma and Maitra: 2000)
The talented children in Mathematics
view the mathematical context of a
November 2006
problem both analytically and

synthetically and exhibit curtailment
when solving problems of similar type,
i.e. use abstracted abbreviated forms of
reasoning, omitting intermediary steps.
They are also flexible in their thinking
and not tied to techniques of solution
prescribed by teachers/books. Thus they
can easily reverse their train of thought.
These children also prefer visual of
spatial modes of thought or logical or
analytical mode of thought and have good
memory, learn and work faster than
their contemporaries. They think about
mathematics in qualitatively different
ways with simple, elegant problem
solving skills of adult mathematician.
Profile of Talents in Language Arts
(Sharma and Maitra: 2000)
Talented children in Language Arts
exhibit the following characteristics.
They are advanced in use of words,
concepts and grammar, are also
voracious readers and read at an
advanced level compared to their age
mates. They have a passion for playing
with language particularly poems and
short stories and enter early to drama/
debate clubs/hobby clubs. Precocious at
using language from early childhood (like
telling a story, making a story with all
modulation of voice), they are extremely
gifted so far as memory and attention are
concerned. By adolescence, they are in
a position to produce books, articles in
reputed journals, newspapers, etc.
Besides the above-mentioned
characteristics, the gifted and talented
are also emotionally over sensitive may
overreact, get angry easily or ready to cry
if things go wrong and refuse to accept
authority, non-conforming and stubborn
with a tendency to dominate other.
However, they are unmindful to

handwriting or spellings details, selfcritical, impatient with small mistakes
and are easily bored with routine tasks.
They often disagree vocally with others,
even with the teachers.
Identification of Talent
For optimum development and
nurturance of human talent, it is
essential to identify it at an early stage.
Though there are many complexities in
identifying gifted and talented children
but their identification can be done on
basis of intelligence, grades, aptitude and
non-intellective measures like interests,
attitudes, drives, etc.
Nurturance of Talent: Some
Empirical Evidences
There are very few researches which are
concer ned with talent, however,
researches conducted with reference to
other variables like giftedness, creativity,
divergent thinking, etc. and their
correlates are ample. There are two types
of researches in the field, one, the
research and theory dealing with the
environmental conditionsparticularly
the home and school climate which can
work as aids or obstacles to creativity or
talent and others dealing with the
educational techniques and procedures
which can enhance or retard the
development of creativity or talent. It is
pertinent to mention here that most of
the researches speak about development
of creativity while researches concerned
with talent development are jejune.
However, some pioneer works done in the
field are given in proceeding paragraphs.
43
Pillay (1978), Nair (1978), Shah

(1988), Vora (1984), Talegaonkar (1984),
Gupta (1985), Singh (1985), Pawar
(1986), Patel (1987), Amin (1988) have
tried out various creativity and divergent
thinking programmes and teaching
strategies to develop fluency, flexibility,
originality, language proficiency and
mathematical creativity at primary level
students and observed the positive
impact upon them. Method like brain
storming and morphological analysis
found to be effective to enhance creativity
and divergent thinking in secondary
school students (Pillay: 1978, Miyan:
1982, Yawalkar: 1985, Patel: 1988 and
Jawahar Lal: 1990). Malhotra and
Sucheta (1989) found that metaphorical
activities enhanced creative thinking of
high school students. While Venkataraman (1993) and Passi and Martis
(1993) observed that synectics model of
teaching significantly improved fluency,
flexibility and originality of experimental
group. Tomer (2002) found that synectics
model of teaching significantly enhanced
scores for general creativity, scientific
creativity and academic achievement of
class VII students.
Nirpharake (1977), Miyan (1982), Rai
(1982), Reddy (1989) and Kumari (1993)
tested various methods of problemsolving with guided discovery and
observed that students produced large
number of creative solutions for the
given problems. In the same way the
utility of particular type of instructional
material was judged by Jarial (1981),
Bhaskar (1982), Gakhar (1991) and
Sharma (1994). Ponnuswamy (1980) and
Sharma (1986) also used audio-visual
methods and media technique in their
44
study and found that these enhance

creative thinking of the students.
Gulati
(1995)
studied
the
effectiveness of materials fostering
creativity in Class V students and found
that training effect was significant on the
measures of originality. In an in-depth
study, Bansal and Agarwal (1997) found
that exposure to computer enhances
creative ability among Grade IV and V
students.
Raskin (1956), Roe (1951, 1952,
1953), Stein (1956), Knapp (1960), Taylor
(1957), Chambers (1964), Dauw (1966),
Raina (1968), Schaefer (1970), Ogletree
and Ujlaki (1963), McDavid (1974), Gupta
(1977), and Singh (1980) found that
creativity is related with the factors of
home environment. Further the cultural
atmosphere of home has impact on
creativity of the children (Mackinno:
1962 and Schaefer: 1970). Kanpp (1960),
Mackinno (1962), Drevdahl (1964),
Yamamoto (1970), Abraham (1971),
Gupta (1978), Ahmed and Joshi (1978),
Ahmed (1985) and Majumdar (1985) also
observed relatedness of creativity with
the factors of school environment. They
found that school environment has
significant impact on the creativity of the
children. Haddon and L ytton (1968)
worked on teaching approach and
divergent abilities in primary schools
and they found that children in formal
schools scored higher than informal
schools on tests of divergent thinking.
Mandal (1992) found that high achievers
in mathematics were more creative than
low achievers.
The relationship between creativity
and socio-economic status of the
students was studied by workers like
Knapp (1956), Stein (1956), Taylor (1957)
November 2006
and Raina (1968). They found that High

creativity is generally associated with
middle class socio-economic status of
the students. But the study conducted
by Oyletree and Ujlaki (1973) and
McDaniel (1974) revealed that upper
class SES students scored high for
creativity than their counterparts.
Majumdar (1985) reported that with
adequate natural facilities, students
from backward, rural, tribal and slum
population can contribute the same
proportion of talents to the scientific
manpower as those from more
economically secure sections. Shetay
(1991) found that SES of respondents
from agricultural faculty was significant
and positively related with creativity
while caste, age and area of
belongingness could not established
significant relationship with creativity.
Chaurasia (1993) found family
functioning as a correlate of creativity.
The observation of Pandey and Kharkwal
(1993) reveal that both elaboration and
originality were significantly related to
SES. Sansanwal and Sharma (1993)
found that scientific creativity scores of
the students belonging to high and low
levels of intelligence did not differ
significantly while flexibility had
significant correlation with verbal and
non-verbal intelligence (Raj and
Sunanda; 1994). Kaile and Punia (1994)
had an observation that there was no
significant correlation between creativity
and SES. Gupta (1995) observed that
advantaged group students were more
creative than disadvantaged group
students. He also found that creative
high achievers and creative low
achievers were significantly differing in
the SES. Singh (1996) observed that
family size, socio-cultural and

educational background of the family,
level of aspiration of biographical factors
suppress the pupils creativity. Finding
further reveals that biographical factors
significantly contribute more than
personality factors in the development of
creativity among students.
The studies reported above shows
that most of the work done in the field is
related with creativity and its
nurturance. Studies related to talent
and its development and nurturance are
in jejune. However, on the basis of over
view and practices in the field various
strategies for its nurturance has been
suggested in the proceeding captions.
NCERTs Initiative in Talent
Identification and Nurturance
The National Council of Educational
Research and T raining (NCER T)
administers the National Talent Search
(NTS) Scheme for the identification of
talented students and providing them
with financial assistance to nurture their
talent. The scheme has been running
since 1963. The scheme underwent
several changes over a period of time. At
present the scheme is operated at Class
X level and 1000 scholarship are
awarded each year with the provision of
reservation of 15% for SCs and 7.5% for
STs. Further a provision of 3%
reservation for children of special needs
group (1% for visually challenged, 1% for
hearing challenged and 1% for physically
challenged) is also made which will be
implemented from year 2008. The
selection of the awardees is done on the
basis of performances in the Talent
Search Examination, which is conducted
at two levels State Level and National
45
Level. At the state level each State/UT

conducts its own examination and
recommends the number of candidates
as per its quota for the second level
examination test which is conducted by
the NCERT at the national level on
second Sunday of May each year. The
important objectives of the scheme are:
(i) The identification of talent, and (ii)
Nurturance of the talent, which is right
now only confined to providing financial
assistance to the awardees in the form
of scholarship.
Now, from year 2007, the NTS scheme
will operate at Class VIII level. However,
for two years (2007 and 2008) the scheme
will also continue at Class X level so as
to give an opportunity to the students
who are presently studying in
Classes IX and X. The students of Indian
nationality studying abroad can also
compete for it. However, they are
exempted from the first level exam.
The National Talent Search
Examination comprises Mental Ability
Test (MAT), Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) and face to face interview. The tests
both MAT and SAT have multiple-choice
questions only. The tests are prepared
in English and translated into as many
as twelve Indian languages. For class
VIII, both MAT and SAT carry 90 marks
each. Each test is of 90 minutes
durations. A stipulated number of
candidates who qualify the written test
are invited for interview. The interview
carries 25 marks.
The scholarship is awarded from
Class IX onwards till Ph.D. level in basic
sciences and social sciences. However,
in professional courses like engineering,
medicine, law, and management, etc. the
scholarship is given up to post graduate
46
level. The amount of scholarship is

uniformly Rs 500/- per month
(irrespective of parental income) for all
the students except in Ph.Ds wherein it
is paid as per UGC norms. The book
grant, which was given earlier, has now
been discontinued.
Nurturance of Talent
In the past the department used to
conduct summer camps and attachment
programmes for its awardees. The
programme had to be winded up because
of the non-participation of the awardees
owing to their compulsion regarding
studies. The scenario continued to be the
same up to 2005. But in view of the
nurturance of talents, it is again felt that
a feasible form of nurturance activities
need to be conducted wherein the
awardees are given an opportunity to
interact with persons of eminence or
faculty of an institution of higher
learning. In pursuance of this, the
department has conducted several
programme of one and five day duration.
The guidelines for the conduct of these
programmes have also been prepared
and tried out in three nurturance
programmes that have been conducted
in Eastern, southern and North- Eastern
Region. Now these programmes are conducted each year as a continuous activity.
Chacha Nehru Scholarship for
Artistic and Innovative Excellence
The importance of arts in the education
system has been repeatedly discussed
and recommended over the decades. For
encouraging the pursuit of arts, the
education system in the country tend to
relegate arts to be useful hobbies and
leisure activities. The National
November 2006
Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005

reiterates the importance of Arts
Education at all stages of school
education so that we retain our unique
cultural identity in all its diversity. It
recommends four major areas of Arts
Education at the secondary stages,
which include Music, Dance, Visual Arts
and Theatre. Education in these areas
not only fosters self-expression and selfawareness but also creates aesthetic
awareness and develop imagination,
confidence, tolerance and sensitivity
among the children. The NCF-2005
further recognising the importance of
National Bal Bhavan categorically
mentioned that National Bal Bhawans
have played an important role in the
urban scope, should be established at
district headquarters, eventually at all
block centres as well. These would
facilitate the additional teaching of arts
and crafts activities and provide
opportunities for children to learn these
at first hand.
For promoting the arts throughout
the length and breadth of the country,
the National Bal Bhawan has instituted
a system of honouring the talented
children in this area through the Bal
Shree Scheme. The Bal Shree Scheme
recognises talent in the following areas
of creating performance, creative arts,
creative scientific Innovations and
creative writing.
The selection of creative children is
done through activities conducted at
three levels, viz. local level by organising
2-day camps in which 8 children (2 in
each stream) are identified, zonal level
by organising 3-day camps in which local
experts, specialists from the six zones
namely North, East, West, Central,
South-I and South-II participate for the

selection of children and national level
by organising 4-day camps from the six
zones in the country. A panel of experts
and resource persons representing the
four streams are identified to observe
and assess the creativity of children. On
an average 150 children participate in
the National level Camp and
approximately 50 children are chosen for
the Bal Shree Honour. The criteria of
selection of children for the Bal Shree
Award includes: (a) originality, (b)
innovative approach, (c) fluency, (d)
flexibility, (e) divergent thinking, (f)
elaboration of ideas, (g) creative
processes culminating into meaningful
products, (h) effective function in the
group, (i) analytical and critical
approach.
To encourage and nurture the talent,
the NCER T has plan to support the
children who participate in the National
Camps of the National Bal Bhawan
and pursuing their studies in Classes
IX to XII. The scholarship of Rs 500 per
month will be paid for a period of four
years till they complete Class XII.
National Talent Promotion Scheme
(For School Dropouts)
Scenario
A large number of children in India
remain out of school. Many of them are
those who do not get enrolled at all.
Some of them are those who dropout at
one stage or the other. The reasons for
dropping out may be many like failure in
academics, non-availability of schools,
inaccessibility of schools, pushing out
due to teachers behaviour/school
environment, financial problems, etc.
47
As per Selected Educational

Statistics, 2000-2001, MHRD, the
dropout rate for Classes I to VIII is 54%
and for Classes I to X it is 69%. In this way
only 31% children appear for Class X
public examination. Of these children,
only 40% pass this examination. It is
visualised that some of the students who
dropout from their studies at different
stages may be talented and their talent
needs to be explored.
Efforts
In order to provide educational facilities
to the children who dropout from the
formal system, a number of measures
have been taken up by the government.
Non-formal education centres meant for
school dropouts, for children from
habitations without schools, working
children and girls who cannot attend
regular/day schools have been
established. Apart from these, incentive
schemes like Mid-day Meal, free uniform
and free textbooks to keep the children
in school have been in vogue for a long
time. In a number of states there is
provision of free education for girls up to
different stages of schooling. There is also
a scheme for girls called attendance
scholarship for bringing them to school
regularly. A provision has also been
made to provide education to the dropouts
through distance education mode. The
State Boards of School Education also
have a provision to allow children to
appear as private (external) candidates
who cannot attend regular school.
In spite of these efforts a large
number of children are unable to
continue their studies. In order to
motivate and enable these children to
pursue further studies, a scheme of
48
talent search for dropouts is proposed.

The children, who at present are
studying through distance mode, will also
have an opportunity to get scholarship
under the proposed scheme.
Proposed Scheme for
School Dropouts
The Council proposed 100 scholarships
in the year 2005-2006 to those children
who have dropped from the regular
schooling after completion of elementary/
upper primary stage (Class VII/VIII). The
provision of 15% reservation for SCs and
7% for STs has also been made. The
selection procedure and all other rules
and regulations of disbursement of
scholarship will be almost similar to that
of National Talent Search Scheme.
Eligibility
The following conditions for appearing at
the state level examination may be
adhered to only those children would be
eligible for this examination, who would
have passed class VII/VIII at least 3/2
years prior to appearing in the NTPS
examination in their respective State/
UT. The candidates, who have obtained
at least 40 percent marks in Class VII/
VIII, will be permitted to appear at State
Level Talent Promotion Scheme
examination. The age of the candidate
should be between 15 to 20 years for
appearing at national level Talent
Promotion Scheme examination.The
candidate will be eligible to appear at the
State level examination from the state in
which the candidate is registered or
intend to register as a private candidate
with a Board of School Education or
State/ National Institute of Open
November 2006
Schooling in the country for Class X

examination. No domicile restriction
shall be imposed. The children, who are
registered or intend to register as a
private candidate with a Board of School
Education or State/ National Institute of
Open Schooling in the country for
Class X examination, will be eligible to
apply for the National Talent Promotion
Scheme examination.
Suggested Strategies for Nurturing
the Talent
The nurturance of talent is, in fact, more
important then identification of talent.
This can be amply justified. Once the
talent is identified, it should be
encouraged or developed. There may be
various methods to nurture the talent as
per the specificity of a particular type of
talent. Generally, scholarship is
provided to encourage it, but it does not
mean that only financial assistance is
enough. That financial assistance is the
skeleton support. Just as a mere skeleton
does not make human body one needs
flesh, blood and above all, life. The
scholarship should provide schemes to
cater the various needs of the individual
talent. It may be in the form of buying
good books, visit and spend time in good
regional laboratories, participation in
seminars and conferences of interest,
conduct of an experiment etc. Apart from
this, talent should be so engaged that
they go on developing their minds and
caliber.
The different facets of the talents
should be identified at early stage say
the junior high school or high school
stage. Some should be cut out for
technical jobs, some for sports, some for
Fine arts, some for science, some for

medicine, etc. They should get the
opportunity to develop their own
accordingly. Later on, for higher
education at university stage, quality
institutions with talented faculty are
required. Anyhow, whichever be the
stage, there may be some other methods
which can help in nurturance of the
talents. Some of them are given as under:
Organisation of Special Short-term
Courses/Classes
There may be some suggestive courses
for identified talents as per their tastes
and interests. Such type of courses
should be interest or need-based and has
flexibility to organise for a particular
group of students. The duration of these
courses may vary from 3 days to a week.
These courses help the talents to
motivate and to go a head in the
particular stream. For example, five-day
course on creative writing or three-day
programme on communication skills.
Provision of Sharing Platform for
Talents to Share their Experiences
A platform may be provided to talents to
share their views or ideas. The platform
can be managed either specialisation
wise or region wise or both. It will help
them to come with some innovative ideas
for a particular problem or issue. For
this, activities like Science club,
seminars/symposium, discussion, etc.
may be organised.
Interaction with Eminent Personality
An interaction programme with
eminent personalities like Scientists,
Mathematicians, Artists, Educationists,
49
Sociologists, Philosophers, etc. may be

organised to satisfy the quarries of
talents and to motivate them in different
areas. This will not only pacify their
quarries but also broaden their mental
horizon and line of thinking. It will be
beneficial for talents career, working
organisation, and ultimately the society
and the nation. The duration of
interaction programmes may vary from
one day to a week.
Annual Meeting
An annual meeting of talent awardees
may be called keeping in view of their
disciplines in which they are studying.
This will provide them a platform to share
their view on recent advancements.
Annual meeting may include newly
identified talents also. It will help them
in acquainting with new advancements
in the field. Further, it may be beneficial
for stimulating and sustaining interest
in the area of their concerned.
Project Work
Project work may be immense helpful in
nurturance of the talents. The nature of
the project will differ as per the individual
requirement of the talent. Project may
be either long-term duration or shortterm duration. Long duration projects
should be related to their areas of study.
They may be of six months or year
duration and complete during their
studies while short duration projects
may range from a week to month and
complete during their holidays. The
nature of the project will depend upon
the area of specialization. For example:
A student of Mechanical Engineering
may have project on preparation of
50
different models of silencers used in

particular type of vehicle.
Mentorship Programme
Mentorship Programme includes those
activities in which talents actively
participate in research in Laboratories,
in the field, in Museums, Corporations,
and Universities. The identified talents
can be paired with scientists and
scholars who welcome them into the
scientific and scholarly community,
bring them into their own research, guide
the students to make them able to
conduct independent and sophisticated
research of their own. The success of
mentorship will depend upon student,
mentor commitment and nature of
research project.
Guidance Corners
It is well-known fact that guidance plays
a crucial role in the career development
of an individual. Though talents are
sharper than normal but require some
sort of guidance on a particular
occasion. For example, selection of
stream of study. There might be some
doubts or some problems to select their
stream of study for the talents. In
situation like this, guidance corners may
prove helpful to resolve their problems,
quarries and doubts. The guidance
Centre may be established itself in
NCERT or at State/Regional level.
Apart from this, there may be other
ways/modes of nurturance of talents like
November 2006
distance learning, e-learning, site seeing,

visit of a factory, visit of slum areas and
their problems, and a broad exposure to
various development and problems
therein. Further, the selection of any
strategy of talent nurturance will depend
upon the level of the students, their area
of specialisations and interests and
facility available with talent nurturing
bodies.
Conclusion
The whole discourse of the paper
concentrates around the concept of
talent, profiles of the gifted and talented,
efforts
made
towards
talent
identification and its nurturance,
initiatives taken by the NCERT and the
possible strategies to nurture it further.
Various strategies of nurturance have
been put forward but none of them is tried
out in true spirit especially in Indian
context except the financial assistance
by the identifying agencies or State/
Central government. Hence, it enables
to conclude that suggested strategies
may be tried out empirically in Indian
conditions and the results may be
disseminated to motivate agencies
engaged in the identification and
nurturance of the talents. This would
contribute substantially towards the
identification of effective strategies of
talent nurturance. After all, nurturance
of talent is more important them its mere
identification.
51
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Educational Research, Policy and Practice in an Era of Globalisation
53
Educational Research, Policy and Practice

in an Era of Globalisation
A Conference Report
Y. SREEKANTH*
Abstract
The APERA International Conference held at Hong Kong with the central theme of
Educational Research, Policy and Practice in an Era of Globalisation: The Asia
Pacific Perspectives and beyond, involved wide-ranging discussions on the current
and emerging concerns. The Keynote addresses and followed discussions on
multiplying roles of International Education in facilitating systemic educational
reforms, skills requirements for life, challenges of globalisation, IT, economic
transformation and international competitions, etc. provided a delighting experience.
Also the discussions on various themes such as education becoming a profiteering
business, Strategies for Active and Independent Learning (SAIL), Learning Beyond
the Curriculum: The Role of Reflective Inquiry in Lifelong Learning, Talk Less,
Lead More Using the Socratic Dialogue to Teach Social Studies, importance of
social emotional learning in school, importance of oral communication in learning
of a language, Behavioural Problems of Students and Teacher Stress, etc. gave a
new insight into the unexplored areas.
The first International Conference of Asia

Pacific Educational Research Association
(APERA) was held from 28-30th November
2006 at Hong Kong Institute of
Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New
Territories, Hong Kong. The Central
theme of the Conference was
Educational Research, Policy and
Practice in an Era of Globalisation: The
Asia Pacific Perspectives and beyond.

The author had an opportunity to attend
this Conference from NCERT. Nearly 800
participants, with 560 presentations
from 40 countries were participated. A
brief of the important issues and
concerns raised as part of the
deliberations in the Conference is given
as follows:
* Lecturer, Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, NCERT, New Delhi.
54
Keynote Addresses
Several distinguished personalities
delivered keynote addresses highlighting
important areas of educational research,
collaboration, partnership and concern.
Prof. Paul Morris, President of Hong Kong
Institute of Education, in his keynote
address highlighted that through the
conference there will be opportunities for
creating networks and collaborations
across varied disciplines and areas,
countries and culture in the region and
other parts of the world. Prof. Nanzhao
Zhous address examined multiplying
roles of International Education in
facilitating systemic educational reforms
and to explore renewed strategies in
promoting international education for
systemic educational change. This needs
serious consideration by NCERT in
particular and the Educational
Institutions in the country in general, as
there seems to be no systematic attempt
to bring into the fold the International
aspect which involves in future, not only
the Indian students studying abroad and
foreign students studying in India but
also the globalisation of curriculum
transaction process at school level.
This argument is further enunciated
by the president of APERA, Prof. Yin
Cheong Cheng when he rightly observed
that in facing up with the challenges of
globalisation, IT, economic transformation and international competitions
in the new century, numerous education
reforms are required in many countries
in Asia-Pacific region. This will have to
take into consideration the problems that
are being faced at global and local level.
This was aptly pointed out by Prof. Oon
Seng Tan of Nanyang Technological
November 2006
University, Singapore that Education in

this 21 st Century is concerned with
developing intelligences. Problem-solving
in real-world contexts involves multiple
ways of knowing and learning.
Educators,
Policy-makers
and
Researchers need to be aware of new
approaches of dealing with knowledge
and information where problems can be
used innovatively in pedagogies. For this
reason countries should develop in the
children through curriculum the abilities
to face the challenges by acquainting
with problem solving and critical
thinking approach rather than focusing
on attainment and transmission of
information.
This would facilitate them in being
productive to themselves and for the
Country in the light of challenges posed
by globalisation as viewed by Dr Rupert
Maclean, Director, UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre, that the changes
currently occurring in many societies
regarding skills requirements for life and
work are so profound that there is a need
to develop new education paradigms
concerning learning and teaching to
accommodate the needs of rapidly
changed societies.
Other Important Issues and
Discussions
May Judy Jackson of Bowling Green
State University held the view that in
USA the recent national policies and
local practices have been promoting the
market competition ideology and it
represents a shift in thinking from the
manner in which they have previously
viewed public schools. In this process she
said, school leaders who seek to nurture
the poor and provide opportunities to the
under served may lose the competitive

edge necessary to be successful. This
concern about education becoming a
profiteering business rather than being
an instrument of development and
change is also echoed in her country.
The students in her country have by
and large a very clear goal-orientation
and for them success in education means
getting admission in professional
colleges of engineering and medicine.
This becomes very clear in the
presentation on a comparative study
made by Marsh David of University of
Southern California. In high school case
studies of two large metropolitan areas
(New Delhi and Los Angeles) it was found
that curriculum policy in India links
high school learner outcomes,
curriculum and assessment in a much
more coherent manner. Students and
teachers were found working toward the
same student outcomes. Students in
India see their futures in science and
engineering careers and are willing to
choose those subjects despite very
intense competition for entrance to the
best university programmes in those
areas. A less intense student engagement
and focus on careers in science and
engineering was found in the USA. This
however may not be a welcome trend
because other areas fail to receive due
recognition and appreciation, leading to
negligible development of those areas.
Vasilenko Irina of Victoria
Universitys paper on Private Schooling in
China and Russia: Challenges to the Local
Demands or Echoing the Global Market?
dealt with how although both China and
Russia have experienced similar stages
of educational transformation, they
55
regard private schooling differently. In

China the State guides, the development
of different categories of private
schooling, which operates in the shadow
of the state schooling system. In Russia
the withdrawal of the State assists in the
separation of private schooling as a
system for the elite. The paper goes
beyond the comparative social,
economic and cultural measurements of
selected private schools and analyses the
role of globalisation in the development
of the system of private schooling in
particular.
Schostak John of Manchester
Metropolitan University has observed
that the applications to education of
information technologies in the context
of the emergent or next generation
information technologies through the
European Unions FP6 and upcoming FP7
programmes are developing ambient,
intelligent,
anywhere,
anytime
technologies. Traditional approaches to
schooling, training, education are
inadequate to meet the challenges. The
concepts of person, place, community
and time are rendered out of joint by
these technologies.
In a Comparative Study of the
Perceptions of Teachers and Students in
Secondary Reforms in China and
Canada conducted by Joong Peter of
Nipissing University, it was observed that
teachers in both countries had difficulty
discarding a percentage of current
teaching practices in order to recreate
new resources and attempt to put into
practice new modes of teaching while
using these new resources. This tension
was further heightened when in-service
professional development and resources
56
were lacking. Although somewhat

unclear it appears that teachers were
using more activity-based teaching and
learning modes than they did before the
reforms. A Chinese researcher, Tao
(2003) suggests that reforms involve not
only the entire education system but also
society. Therefore, the reform needs to
have widespread input, acceptance, and
implementation if it is to have the desired
affect.
Lumley Tom of Australian Council for
Educational Research mentioned that
his country Australia is undergoing
significant reform to its frameworks for
curriculum, assessment and reporting at
both primary and secondary level.
Prominent amongst new developments in
some Australian States is a focus on
cross-disciplinary domains of learning,
such as thinking processes, personal
learning and interpersonal learning.
These domains are described separately
from the traditional disciplinary domains.
Lee Yim Ping of Ministry of
Education, Singapore spoke about
Strategies for Active and Independent
Learning (SAIL), which was introduced
into Singapore schools in 2004 to create
a classroom culture that supports
dynamic interaction among learners.
The pedagogy uses an integrated
approach of tasks, rubrics, explicit
statements of expectation and exemplary
students work to nurture open
expression of learning expectations,
learner-centred processes and emphasis
on formative assessment.
In the talk on Learning Beyond the
Curriculum: The Role of Reflective
Inquiry in Lifelong Learning by
Endrawes Gihane of Australian Catholic
University, it was said that in todays
November 2006
education the focus is on epistemological

approach or ways of knowing on helping
learners how to learn. There has been
an increasing interest in exploring ways
in which learners learn beyond the
curriculum, in particular, examining the
potential of reflection and experience as
a learning tool, which fosters deep and
lifelong learning. One dimension of the
competent practitioner/professional is
the ability to critically reflect on ones own
practice in a way that will improve
practice,
increase
customers
satisfaction with the service they are
receiving and facilitate professional
growth.
In a paper titled Approaches to
Evaluate Critical Thinking Dispositions by
Ng Siew Ling Connie of Nanyang
Technological University, it was said that
Critical thinking has always been a
central goal of education, but having
critical thinking skills does not mean
necessarily that the person will use
these skills even when the situation
requires the application of such skills.
Good critical thinkers need to have both
thinking skills and the dispositions to use
these skills. Education institutions
should, in addition to teaching critical
thinking skills, cultivate learners critical
thinking dispositions. Educators need to
measure critical thinking dispositions so
that they have a means to determine
whether a learners poor performance on
a thinking skill test is due to a lack of
ability or a lack of disposition. This will
help educators to decide on the
appropriate intervention to implement.
Some approaches that have been used
to measure critical thinking skills
include surveys, scoring rubrics and
essay tests.
This paper examined the importance

of reflection in bridging the gap between
theory and practice. It is through
reflection, reflective inquiry and selfawareness that professionals will be able
to face this discrepancy and bridge the
gap between the ideal and the real to
improve practice. Because we are living
in a world where the only constant is
change, we need to develop reflective
inquiry skills, which will enable us to
challenge the status quo, the taken for
granted, the habitual unquestioned
values, beliefs and practices, identify
areas that need improvement or change
in practice and help in finding ways to
address professional problems. This has
implications for educators in creating
learning opportunities for others that will
facilitate deep, meaningful and lifelong
learning and foster critical thinking and
reflective inquiry rather than the mere
acquisition of knowledge. In other words,
helping people to learn how to learn.
Ess Frances in her presentation Talk
Less, Lead More - Using the Socratic
Dialogue to Teach Social Studies focused
on the quality of thinking that students
can develop in class. Socratic Dialogue
is used to develop thinking skills.
Students are trained to think clearly by
questioning assumptions, asking
insightful questions and exploring
alternatives. In the Socratic Dialogue,
entire lessons are devoted to fielding
questions from the students instead of
teaching from the textbook. A safe and
inclusive environment is created which
encouraged students to query and
debate. The target audience is for any
educator who wishes to develop a
community of Inquiry in their classes.
This session requires that you Bring
57
Your Own Brain (BYOB) active

participation is essential for the success
of this workshop.
Goh Stanley of Republic Polytechnic
in his presentation on Elenchus in
Problem-based Learning also talked
about the Socratic elenchus as a
pedagogical tool that entailed examining
a persons knowledge or beliefs through
questioning in the hope that they would
be able to determine the meaning of their
initial positions. The examination of
such a method in relation to ProblemBased Learning (PBL) is especially apt
in the areas of assessment of learning
and triggering reflection about learning.
In typical PBL environments, problems
are used as the starting point for
students to acquire knowledge. Students
learn through the engagement with
problems and the process of problemsolving.
The Socratic elenchus involves
questioning the bases of a students
reasons for accepting a particular piece
of information or point of view and getting
him or her to restate and re-examine
their stance to the problem. This often
entails a line of questioning that may
lead to epistemological instability in the
student causing them to question their
prior knowledge about the subject and
in turn search for possible ways of
bolstering this knowledge with new
discoveries. Those being questioned
would be led towards. This activity
(workshop) was aimed at introducing the
method of elenchus to the participants
through a series of problems commonly
used in various courses in Republic
Polytechnic. Participants were to be
questioned and have a chance to
question each other using Socrates
58
elentic mode of inquiry as a means of

furthering their understanding of the
learning issues embedded within the
problems. Exploring the use of elenchus
as a method of assessment and how
instructors in a PBL environment can
make use of this method of examination
through questioning and dialogue was
also included in the workshop.
Ong Ai Choo of Nanyang
Technological University, said in his
presentation that there is increasing
understanding among educators that
childrens social emotional learning
should be promoted in school, if not given
equal
emphasis
to
academic
achievement. Research evidence
indicates that enhancing social and
emotional skills of children provides a
firm foundation for their successful
cognitive and behavioural development,
and that social and emotional skills are
in fact essential for the successful
development of thinking and learning
activities.
Yu Lai Wah of the Hong Kong
Institute of Education said since 1997,
the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region (HKSAR) has launched a series
of education reform measures. In
Learning to Learn, Consultation
Document (Curriculum Development
Council, 2000), the policy of school-based
curriculum is advocated. The aim is to
allow schools to have more autonomy in
choosing some contents more relevant to
their students so long as they are in line
with the curriculum aims, strands,
principles of learning/teaching, with
justifiable modifications that suit their
students most.
Ruth Williams of the University of
Auckland in her talk on Creating a
November 2006
Community of Practice Outside the

Immediate School Context, said
traditionally, in New Zealand, as in other
countries, models of professional
development have involved one-off
workshop type activities with a top-down
approach to disseminating knowledge
which teachers are then expected to
translate into action. In contrast,
collaborative models of professional
development have emphasised the
importance of developing learning
communities within which teachers are
supported to co-construct knowledge
about teaching and learning within the
context of their practice. Currently, there
is a strong argument that if teachers
professional development is to be
meaningful and effective not only must
it be collaborative but it must also be
school-based, with the entire school staff,
or numbers of staff, involved in that
collaboration. Professional development
initiatives that have developed temporary
learning communities away from the
immediate school context have become
much less favourable in recent years.
Lin Yu-Hao of Ming-Dao University,
Taiwan spoke on how constructionists
assert that knowledge is not only
constructed by an individuals
interaction with his/her own world (or
experiences) but also co-created by his/
her interaction with other individuals
within a specific social community. This
implied that both cognitive and social
processes are involved in teachers
knowledge development through the
process of sharing and reflecting their
own experiences and others experiences
or ideas.
In a talk on The Learning
Organisation: A Schools Journey Towards
Critical and Creative Thinking by S. Retna

Kala of Victoria University of Wellington,
it was said that the Learning Organisation
(LO) concept was introduced in many
Singaporean schools to promote a
learning culture. The implementation of
the LO concept in organisations was in
response to Singapores call for all
schools to be thinking schools and the
Singapore Ministry of Educations
pronouncement that the foremost prerequisite of a thinking school is that it
must be a learning organisation. In her
study the findings suggest that LO
concept has helped to increase the level
of awareness and the importance of
critical and creative thinking in the
school. However, strategies and activities
used to promote critical and creative
thinking were used sparingly so as not
to undermine the academic excellence
that is important to the schools
reputation as a good school. Also, the
curriculum structure and compulsory
coverage of syllabus for examination and
general cultural inhibitions were some
of the factors that limited the growth of
critical and creative thinking in the
school.
Tang Sok Mei Christabelle of Kong
Hwa School, Singapore has highlighted
the importance of oral communication in
learning of a language. He said the
classroom practices in Singapore
seemed to be geared towards the
teaching of reading and writing and there
is hardly much emphasis in the teaching
of oral communication.
Rai Nootan Samsudin Sunarti and
Das Jaya, CHIJ of Ministry of Education,
Singapore spoke about Multilple
Intelligences and its Application in the
Classroom. The method of instruction of
59
most teachers in Singapore, they said is

largely Didactic teaching or Chalk and
Talk method, which benefits students
with aptitude in the academic subjects
such as mathematics, science and
languages. This leads to the development
of students who possess the LogicalMathematical Intelligence (LMI) or the
Linguistic Intelligence (LI). The nonacademic talents and abilities, such as
in the areas of music, art and sports are
not given the same importance as what
is given to the mainstream academic
subjects. With the introduction of the
Ability Driven Education (ADE) policy,
launched as part of the Thinking
Schools, Learning Nation vision in 1997,
there is an explicit aim to equip and
prepare students to meet the challenges
of a knowledge economy by taking into
consideration their individual abilities
and talents and helping every
Singaporean excel according to the
combination of talents and abilities he
possesses. It recognises that students
may possess Multiple Intelligences (MI)
and hence this results in teachers
needing to vary their teaching methods.
Garcia Yolanda, Baba Sandy of
California, USA presented on WestEd E3
Institute Power of Pre-school: A Model for
School Readiness in the planning and
implementation of Power of Pre-school
(PoP), a demonstration project dedicated
to providing early educational
opportunities to children and families to
whom it would otherwise not be available.
They said Research shows that children
0-5 years of age are at a critical stage in
their development and that pre-school
can make a positive contribution to their
readiness to learn. The PoP model uses
the latest research as its foundation.
60
PoP is a high-quality, free, voluntary,

part-day pre-school programme for
4-year-old children. It also provides
resources for families and early
educators. The overarching goal of PoP
is to assist children in becoming
personally, socially, and physically
competent, effective learners, and ready
to transition into kindergarten. Power of
Pre-school is a multi-year project that
builds on and integrates with existing
public and private early care and
education programmes and partnerships. The target population is children
and families in high-priority/under served communities living with multiple
risk factors. Risk factors include exposure
to drugs or toxins before birth, extreme
family poverty, living in a high-crime
neighbourhood, poor nutrition, parental
depression or substance abuse, domestic
violence, and family unemployment.
Under-served areas are further defined
as those with a low supply of licensed
early childhood programmes relative to
the density of children 0-5 years of age.
The PoP service model addresses all
domains of a childs life. Children do not
develop in isolation, but rather within
social systems that are interconnected
and dynamic. These systems are family,
neighborhood, and community. Through
a high level of collaboration, early
educators will work with community
partners to provide a three-part model
including: (a) High-quality early learning
environments, (b) Home visitation with
families when needed and appropriate,
and (c) Therapeutic interventions and
family support. Beyond the obvious
immediate return for the children and
families, it is also believed that this
targeted investment works to gain a
November 2006
return on public investment that

benefits all of society.
Robertson Christine and Terrill
Sarah-Jane of Mountford Georgina RMIT
University, Australia spoke about
Recognition as a form of assessment
and methodology that is gaining
importance in the VET (Vocational
Education and Training) sector. Put
simply, recognition can be described as
an assessment practice that involves a
detailed analysis of a learners existing
knowledge and skills that is then mapped
against the learning and assessment
requirements of a vocational qualification. Recognition processes can
formally acknowledge competency
already achieved, tailor programmes to
suite individual learner requirements,
deliver in flexible and dynamic ways
outside the formal classroom paradigm,
identify gaps and provide training in
these areas. Pathways can also be
created for entry into high-level
qualifications.
Nakazawa Wataru of the University
of Tokyo delivered a talk on the Impact of
Recent Educational Reform on the
Japanese High School Tracking System.
This presentation focused on the
transition of high schools to universities,
vocational schools or labour markets in
contemporary Japan. In other words, the
secondary schools will be stratified from
academic schools to vocational ones.
Some researchers indicated that while
this phenomenon may enable many
people to pursue higher education, it
often results in the stratification being
fixed and the limited opportunities for
higher education from less prestigious or
vocational schools being concealed. It has
become more difficult for secondary
school graduates to find a job, and the

number of part-time and non-regular
employees has been increasing. Further,
this increases the inequality among the
youth. However, vocational high schools
may act as a safety net against
unemployment
or
non-regular
employment since they help young
people acquire occupational skills. In this
presentation, he analysed a longitudinal
survey on high school graduation in the
recent three years. The results showed
that while social and economic
backgrounds continue to have significant
effects on students, those who graduate
from vocational courses might tend to
find regular jobs or enter higher
vocational schools. However, those who
graduate from less prestigious academic
schools may face the risk of being
unemployment, non-regular employees
or not in education.
Pang I Wah, Tao Sau Wai of the Hong
Kong Institute of Education presented
paper on Behavioural Problems of
Students and Teacher Stress. He said
the issue of teacher stress has received
increased attention worldwide and in
local schools and by the Government.
The perceived stress of teachers has been
coupled with the implementation of the
education reforms, one of which is the
promotion of inclusive education in the
region. The causes and coping of stress
of individual teachers in their daily work
in working with students with
challenging behaviour have not been
well-informed. This research aims to fill
that gap and explore the impact of
students behavioural and emotional
problems on teacher stress. It will
determine which emotional or
behavioural aspects of students create
61
stress in teachers. Eventually it is

expected to develop an instrument that
will enhance teachers awareness of
their attitudes and needs when they are
handling challenging students. This
study is part of a cross-national
comparison of teacher stress and
burnout related to emotional and
behavioural problems of students. The
current paper will report: (1) the
incidence of challenging student
behaviour in classroom; (2) the level of
perceived stress of teachers associated
with various challenging behaviours;
(3) how do other variables, such as
teacher efficacy and negative attitudes
towards students, explain the level of
perceived stress associated with
students with behavioral/emotional
problems? (4) If possible, the concerned
teacher stress among different school/
national settings.
My Participation
The author concludes that the three-day
Conference threw light on several
unfamiliar areas related to education
research and development in other
countries
and
enhanced
his
understanding related to what are issues
of concern and is going on in other Countries. The participation in the discussions
and debates that followed the
presentations of speakers from different
countries was also an enriching
experience. During one such presentation on the topic Educational Quality
and Sustainable Development, by
Walker Elaine and her colleagues, the
presenters were highly receptive to the
positive interventions made during their
presentation. They finished their lecture
10 minutes before so that the author
62
could share his experience for the

remaining time. They agreed with the
authors views that countries are not
comparable in terms of educational goals
due to their historical, cultural and socioeconomic reasons. The author was of the
view that there is nothing wrong in
making generalisations in terms of
quantitative goals but they cannot go
beyond a point. Further giving an
example he said that one per cent
increase in school enrolment may not
mean the same in a large Country like
India on the one hand and a small
Country of Latin America or Caribbean
Islands on the other hand.
What is important is to have quality
education, which can bring about quality
of life of individuals, rather than merely
setting goals of reaching Education for
All. This really impressed the listeners
and they have proposed then and there
that they will take up a programme on
these lines. The author also had an
November 2006
opportunity to meet and discuss at

personal level with other participants
from Australia, New Zealand, USA,
Norway,
Pakistan,
Singapore,
Philippines, etc.,
A part of school visit the participants
were taken for the visit of SKH Yantang
Kei Hin Primary School. During this the
Vice-Principal of the school explained in
detail the activities of the school and later
a visit to the classrooms showed
students involved in different activities
such as dancing, singing, watching
television programmes and pursuing
academic activities which were largely
activity-based. The conference was
academically enriching and the author
had an opportunity to listen and interact
with people from different backgrounds,
pursuing the same goal of bringing about
improvement in education. The author
further hopes that learning from the
experiences of other country will
definitely help us to go ahead.
A Study of Multimedia Usage by Mathematics Teachers
63
A Study of Multimedia Usage by

Mathematics Teachers
S. GAYATHRI*
Abstract
Mathematics has been an important subject in school education. Following the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) mandate to introduce mathematics
laboratories in all its affiliated schools from the year 2004-05, there has been an
increased usage of multi-media and information technology as teaching aids. The
present paper based on a research study conducted in Bangalore city in 2005-06
highlights the existing trend and tries to suggests measures and areas for further
research towards achieving an effective teaching and learning of mathematics
through the use of new technologies.
Introduction
Providing quality education has been a
national concern. One of the ways in
which the educational institutions
accomplish this goal is by continuously
collecting information on key aspects
that ensure quality education. The
present study is useful for policy-makers,
heads of the institution as inputs to
understand, improve and reorient the
approach to curriculum transaction.
This article will provide a brief summary
of the research carried out in the
academic year 2005-06.
Need for the Study
Mathematics is a universal subject
discipline. Mathematics should be
visualised as a vehicle to train a child to
think, reason, analyse and to articulate

logically. Apart from being a specific
subject, it should be treated as
concomitant to any subject involving
logic and reasoning (National Education
Policy, 1986). Mathematical reasoning
can grow gradually and naturally,
through practical work with real objects.
This holds both for elementary and
higher mathematics (Swayer, 1956).
Dismal picture of lack of awareness of
teaching aids among teachers in
mathematics is reported in a study
confined to Greater Bombay (Vincent,
1982). Prohibitive costs, limited
accessibility, non-availability, dearth of
time in locating and preparing a
teaching aid, absence of specialised
training, lack of expertise in handling
* Teacher, Military School, Bangalore, Karnataka
64
November 2006
costly equipment, absence of proper

maintenance and storing facilities,
absence of incentives are quoted as the
factors contributing to the limited use of
teaching aids in mathematics
(Golani.,T.P., 1982). The apex body of
secondary education in India, The
Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE) issued a mandate for establishing
mathematics laboratory in all its
affiliated schools from the year 2004-05.
Hence this study on multimedia usage
among the teachers in CBSE schools is
an attempt to illuminate the efforts in
that direction. And it is a road map to
chart out the future supportive measures
for institutions as well as for teachers.
The worthiness of the investigation is
further recognised by the fact that the
technology is emerging as a pragmatic
multimedia teaching aid in CBSE
schools. This study in the Information
Technology, capital of India evaluates the
degree of dissemination of technology in
curriculum transaction in mathematics.
The investigator, herself a teacher in
mathematics at a CBSE school, carried
out this study with the consent of
Assistant Commissioner, Kendria
Vidyalaya Sanghatan. The study was
undertaken with the following objectives:
1.
To estimate the extent of utilisation
of the available multimedia
resources in teaching mathematics.
2.
To analyse the factors affecting the
utilisation of available resources.
3.
To suggest the relevant strategies
for utilisation of multimedia for
effective teaching of mathematics.
thinking stimulations in the form of

enrichment activities. All these are in
addition to the experiences that are listed
in the Edgar Dales cone of experiences.
Multimedia teaching aid includes the

learning tools and teaching tools/
strategies made available by technology,
Sample under the Survey
Instrumentation
Development of instrument for
mathematics teachers multimedia
usage survey was based on several
concepts, which include Edgar Dales
cone of experience and previous research
findings.
A check-list was formulated, in the
conceptual framework of Edgar Dales
cone of experiences. The measure the
Multimedia usage is estimated, based on
the teachers own admissions in response
to an exhaustive check-list of
categorised multimedia items. The
factors analysed for non-utilisation of
multimedia resources were based on the
conclusions from previous studies.
Personal factors, situational factors and
administrative factors affect the extent
of multimedia usage in the classroom.
Knowledge of teaching aids, availability
of material resources, administrative
support and follow up evaluation are
determinants of multimedia usage
(Ramachandra. K. T., 1982).
The draft survey was reviewed and
approved by two subject experts. In the
pre-test it was administered to a small
group of five teachers who examined it
for wording, clarity, ease of use and
appropriateness. Next a pilot test was
administered to ten per cent of the
sample, that is 20 teachers from 5
schools, in June 2005.
Names of the CBSE schools in Bangalore

as listed from various source that
includes Internet, and Telephone

Directory, etc, are consulted in an
attempt to make it exhaustive. The
teachers working in secondary level in
those schools form the population under
the study. A total of two hundred six
teachers form the population,
participated in the survey.
Data Collection
Mathematics teachers in CBSE schools
of Bangalore are the respondents in this
survey when they are well-tuned into the
academic programme of the current year.
The survey is timed at about hundred
days into the academic year so that
implementation for the current year has
taken a concrete shape. The surveys
were administered to teachers
by head of the faculty/teacher
incharge mathematics laboratory in the
school.
Extent of Usage of Multimedia:
Overall Situation
With reference to objective number 1,
instrument measures the extent of
utilisation directly in teachers
perspective. Utilisation of multimedia is
explored in different levels and layers
namely, percentage usageoverall
situation, percentage usageacross
categories and percentage usage
across items within a category.
Check-list
65
TABLE 1
Overall view of percentage usage of
multimedia by teachers in Mathematics
on the basis of check-list. (N=206)
Deviation
Percentage
28.2
Max.
Observation
95
Min.
Observation
Lowest number of items under

multimedia experiences used by any
teacher is 6. The data describes on an
average 33 items of multimedia
experiences listed in the checklist are
used by mathematics teachers in schools
affiliated to CBSE, in imparting
mathematics education in Bangalore
city.
TABLE 2
Overall view of percentage usage of
multimedia by teachers in Mathematics
on the basis of check-list when
technology tools and enrichment
activities are excluded from the list.
(N=206)
Check-list
Items
Up to direct
experiences
81
Average
26.6
Standard Deviation
14.7
Percentage
35.4
Overall
Data
Max. Observation
71
Items
118
Min. Observation
Average
33.3
Standard
17.8
The usage data with traditional teaching

aids, excluding technology tools and
enrichment activities is calculated. On
66
November 2006
record is, an average of 26 items out of

81 items in the list, with a standard
deviation of 14.7. Data brings out a wide
range of disparity at 65(= 71 6 ) in the
usage of multimedia items. Processing of
the data reveal that every teacher on an
average use more than 35 per cent of
items under multimedia experiences
listed in the check-list when technology
tools and enrichment activities are
excluded from the list. Percentage of
average usage drops to 28.2 per cent
with a wider standard deviation of 17.8
when technology activities and
enrichment activities are included.
Confined to modal items, that is
popular items like verbal symbols,
visual symbols, exhibits, demonstrations, improvised activities and
direct experiences the average
percentage show up as 40 items of

checklist with standard deviation of 13.5.
Extent of Usage: Across Multimedia
Categories
Here the number of teachers using at
least one item in a multimedia category
is computed. This number is converted
to percentage. The following bar graph
depict in percentage, the number of
teachers who impart learning experience
through these media.
Usage of items in the check-list
under various categories is tabulated.
Further description follows in terms of
average usage, percentage usage, range
and standard deviation.
Central tendencies and the spread
of the data are around 5 and 2
respectively in case of verbal symbols,
Enrichment Activity
71
Technology
72
Direct Experience
81
Improvised Instrument
83
Demonstration
95
Fieldtrip
51
Exhibits
92
Motion Picture
45
Visual Symbol
1 00
Verbal Symbol
1 00
20
40
60
Fig. 1: Bar graph depicting the percentage usage of

multimedia categories by teachers
80
1 00
67
TABLE 3
Descriptive data: CategorywiseThe extent of multimedia usage in
Mathematics on the basis of check-list. (N=206)
N = 206
Verbal Visual Motion

Field
Improvised Direct
EnrichSym- Sym- Picture Exhibit Trip DemonSituExpe- Techno- ment
bol
bol
stration
ation
rience logy Activity
Total Number
of Items
10
14
12
10
15
19
18
Average Usage
0.6
1.3
5.1
2.3
2.7
50
34
12
35
14
51
39
32
10
14
Standard
Deviation
2.4
0.9
3.4
1.8
2.7
2.4
2.4
3.2
Maximum
Score
12
12
10
15
13
13
Minimum
Score
Percentage
Usage
Percentage Usage
Enrichment Activity
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
14
Technology
TECHNOLOGY
Direct10
Experience
DIRECT EXPERIENCE
Improvised Instrument
IMPROVISED INSTRUMENT
32
39
Demonstration
DEMONSTRATION
51
Field Trip
14
FIEL D TRIP
Exhibits
EXHIBIT
Motion Picture
35
12
MOTION PICTURE
Visual Symbol
VISUA L SY MBOL
Verbal Symbol
34
50
VERBA L SY MBOL
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 2: Bar graph depicting the extent of usage of multimedia
items in various categories in percentages
68
visual symbols and demonstrations. The

data obtained reveal that 50 per cent of
the mathematics teachers under the
survey use more than 5 items out of 10
items listed in the check-list under verbal
symbol as well as demons-tration. A
standard deviation of more than 3 is
observed in the usage of Exhibit, Direct
Experiences and Enrichment Activities.
Maximum number of responses is
obtained for items listed under
demonstration. This trend is closely
followed by verbal symbols.
Extent of Usage Across Items Within
A Category
Items within the categories describe
the extent of usage of multimedia in
its finer details. Following results emerge
on the analysis of the individual
categories. Items, which recorded usage
of fifty per cent or more, are tabulated
below.
Three trends in multimedia usage in
mathematics emerge from the study.
November 2006
They are, firstly, Extensively used

multimedia, which include verbal
symbols and demonstration. Secondly,
moderately used multimedia, which
include exhibits, improvised situations,
visual symbols and direct experiences.
Thirdly sparingly used multimedia,
which include motion pictures, field trips,
technology and enrichment activities.
Extensively used items under multimedia
are books, work-sheets, numerical
patterns, quizzes, number games, tables,
charts, graphs, figures, display boards,
models of geometrical solids, fold paper
and cut paper experiments, geometrical
instruments, geometry Kit, geo board
grid, circular and rectangular nail
boards.
Analysis of Network of Factors
Affecting the Multimedia Usage
With reference to objective number 2,
researcher devise tools to analyse the
interrelated factors, which have a
bearing on the multimedia usage. The
TABLE 4
Descriptive data of item wise more than fifty per cent weightage usage of
multimedia in mathematics on the basis of check-list
Sl No
Multimedia Category
1.
Verbal Symbols
2.
Visual Symbols
3.
Demonstration
4.
5.
Improvised Instruments
Exhibits
6.
Direct Experiences
Multimedia Item
Books, Work-sheets, Numerical patterns,
Quizzes, Number games
Tables, Charts, Graphs, Figures, Display
Boards, Flowcharts
Use of Geometrical instruments, Reading
tables, Cut paper, Fold paper activities,
Formula/Theorem verification
Geometry Kits
Geometrical Solids, Geo Boards, Graphs,
Coins
Finding Heights of Trees, etc, Finding area
Counting Squares, Measuring with real
life instruments
69
study of related literature revealed that

infrastructure support, teacher
preparedness, personal factors affect the
usage of multimedia. Detailed discussion
is narrated with respect to the results
pertaining to each factor with reference
to the evidence collected. Items within
the factors exhibit non-negative value of
correlation coefficient confirming
internal validity of the tool.
managerial assistance is not

satisfactory. On the basis of the linear
associations that emerge in the
correlation table, the following inferences
can be drawn. Administrative assistance
in managing material, student and time,
boost the multimedia usage. Making
exhibition space and traditional material
available manifest in more beneficial
effects in terms of infrastructure.
Analysis of Factors - Infrastructure

Support
Analysis of Factors Teacher

Preparedness
Tool attempts to estimates infrastructure

support in terms of material availability
and managerial support. Teachers rated
support categories listed in table 5 as
Excellent or Good or Average or Poor.
Excellent and Good qualify as positive
feeling of support. Percentage of positive
response is given as under.
Half the population in the community
of mathematics teachers feels that the
support they get for mathematics
exhibition and support in timetabling are
favourable and satisfactory. And
administrative support to ensure the
availability of material, space and
Well-prepared or well-trained teachers

are the key to creating dynamic
multimedia incorporated learning
environments. Students with more
highly skilled and talented teachers,
score higher, every time. Teachers who
received more than seven days of inservice professional training are
examined for any association between
training and multimedia usage. Data on
the factor teacher preparedness is
elicited from the sample in two ways.
Firstly, teachers status in receiving
professional development course is
recorded. The main agencies imparting
TABLE 5
Percentage of positive responses by teachers on the listed support categories
Support Category
Percentage - Positive Rating
Availability of Materials
Hardware
Software
Traditional
43
47
44
Availability of Space
Exhibition
Storage
53
44
Assistant to manage
Material
Student
45
44
Time management
Timetable
52
70
November 2006
the in service courses to the teachers in

Bangalore, include Kendriya Vidyalaya
SanghatanIn-service Courses, Intel
Corporation - Intel Teach to the future
and Wipro Corporate HouseApplying
Thoughts. The duration of training shows
a range of 7 days to 21 days.
TABLE 6
Frequency count and percentage of
teachers undergone in-service
professional training
Status of
Training
No. of Training
Training spanning
more than 7 days
Missing Data
Total No. of Teachers
Frequency
Percentage
74
35.9
122
59.2
10
4.9
206
TABLE 7
Percentage of positive responses by
teachers on the listed categories of
teaching endeavours
Categories of teaching
endeavours
Percentage
Positive
Responses
Implement methods of
teaching that emphasise
independent work by pupils
52
Integrate appropriate
multimedia teaching into
the class and topic I teach
37
Support students in using

appropriate media available
for learning
53
Evaluate multimedia based/

technology based work my
students produce
42
Secondly the teacher preparedness is

measured by self-rating of ability towards
teaching endeavours listed in table 7, as
Not at all, Some what, Moderately,
Very well. The responses under
Moderately and Very well are treated
as positive disposition of abilities.
Correlation table reveal that ability
of teachers to integrate multimedia
varies in the same pattern as their ability
of evaluating multimedia based work of
students. Also the ability of teachers to
provide scaffolding to students efforts
varies in the same pattern as their ability
of evaluating multimedia based work of
students. This result demonstrates that
if teachers are well-prepared to evaluate
multimedia work by students then there
will be a beneficial effect on scaffolding
and integrating multimedia works.
Network of interrelated factors suggest
that teachers skill in evaluating
multimedia work, integrating concrete
learning experiences to students results
in multidimensional benefits. Based on
the results, focus should be to
strengthen, teachers abilities to
formulate task specific the evaluation
rubrics.
Analysis of Factors Personal
Factor: Vision
Personal factors affecting the usage of
multimedia are analysed. Firstly,
teachers vision on the degree of
significance of the multimedia
component in curriculum transaction is
recorded and secondly, the multimedia
attitude score is analysed. Teacher was
asked to rate each multimedia category
as Essential, Important, Useful and
Not necessary. Responses under
Essential and Important are tabulated

as positive vision statements.
TABLE 8
Percentage of positive responses by
teachers on the listed categories
Teachers Vision
Multimedia category
Verbal Symbols
Visual Symbols
Motion Pictures
Exhibits
Study Trips
Role Play
Demonstration
Improvised Activity
Direct Experience
Technology in Education
Enrichment Activities
Positive
Responses
62
63
29
60
38
36
68
55
61
54
62
TABLE 9
High positive correlation among the
items is displayed in the table
Variables
Verbal Symbols vs
Visual Symbols
Visual Symbols vs
Demonstration
Exhibits vs Direct
Experience
Field Trips vs
Role Play
Direct Experience vs
Demonstration
Direct Experience vs
Improvised Situation
Technology Aided Activity vs
Enrichment Activities vs
Technology Aided Activity
Enrichment Activities vs
Correlation
0.75
0.59
0.57
0.62
0.55
0.53
0.58
0.6
0.63
71
Correlation coefficient is an index of

linear association between two variables.
Outcomes of the results here point to
direct experience and improvised
situation as prominent categories, which
carry maximum number of other
categories with them. Professional
curriculum may focus on this area for
maximum beneficial effects in teachers
vision towards multimedia. It is noted
that experiences at the base of the cone,
in other words, the most concrete
experiences show higher degree of
correlation among themselves.
Analysis of Factors Personal
Factor: Preferences
Statements are framed to elicit responses
of teachers on contemporary issues of
multimedia and mathematics laboratory.
With reference to objective number four,
researcher builds a statistical database,
which leads to valid conclusions.
Analysis of Factors Multimedia
Attitude Score
The instrument collects data to record
Multimedia Attitude Score as a
summated score based on twenty
statements analysed in the above grid.
The statistics on Multimedia Attitude
Score, in terms of mean and standard
deviation is given below in table 11.
According to the scoring scheme a score
60 is a neutral score and a scores above
60 is the criterion for favourable attitude
towards multimedia usage. The
mathematics teachers in schools
affiliated to CBSE in Bangalore city show
a remarkable evidence of highly
favourable attitude towards multimedia
usage.
72
November 2006
TABLE 10
Processed data on 20 statements rated as Strongly Disagree (S D), Disagree (D)
Undecided (U), Agree (A) and Strongly Agree (S A) are depicted
1.
For Mathematics, a laboratory does

not help.
More than 75.5 % Disagree/Strongly
Disagree
2.
Mathematical laboratory is in fact not

very costly.
66.7 % Agree/Strong Agree
3.
Mathematics lab makes me

uncomfortable, because I dont
believe in it.
2% Agree
4.
Mathematical laboratory activities

are foundations to mathematical
imagination.
83.3 % Agree/Strong Agree
5.
Drill work in the classroom is

more important than lab experiments.
52.9% Agree/Strongly Agree
6.
Mathematics laboratory helps under

achievers.
75,5% Agree/Strongly Agree
7.
Multimedia teaching aids are a

distraction to mathematics class.
68.6%Disagree/Strongly Disagree
7.
Multimedia can add colour, action

and life to mathematics.
75.5% Agree/Strongly Agree
9.
A systematic Mathematic lab

approach and material resources are
not yet available.
52 % Agree/Strongly Agree
10.
The use of teaching aids is to

enhance the standard of learning in
Mathematics
87.2 % Agree/Strongly Agree
11. The overuse of teaching aids may be

harmful and damaging to
Math learning.
30% each for Agree/Undecided/
Disagree
12.
Activities in Math, even though time

consuming is worth doing.
13. Mathematical concepts are either

obvious or abstract and do not
lend to expression media.
50% Disagree/Strongly Disagree
14.
Computers technology provides

many hands-on activities in
mathematics.
15. Mathematics laboratory put students

and teachers to unnecessary
hardships.
78.4% Disagree/Strongly Disagree
16.
Mathematics laboratory introduce

natural development of the
subject.
17. Irrelevant experiments are taken up

in the name of Mathematics
Laboratory.
66.6 % Disagree/Strongly Disagree
18.
Math lab helps to explain abstract

ideas by relating them to concrete
things.
19. Soon our students will stop

memorising mathematical tables.
30% each for Agree/Undecided/
Disagree
20.
Basic idea of a concept will

become very clear to students
working in a laboratory
Content Analysis of the Open-ended

Question
TABLE 11
Measures of Central tendency and
dispersion of Multimedia Attitude
Score(N=206)
Multimedia Attitude Score (N=206)
Average
73.3
Standard Deviation
73
7.4
To throw more light on the extent of

multimedia usage researcher compares
Multimedia Attitude scores across age
interval. Clear trend of As age advances
In response to an open-ended question

calling for their views, opinion of any
kind, the teachers are found to align with
the board objectives to a great extent. To
some extent the views are loaded with
confusions and reservations. Teachers
need to overcome difficulties involving
planning, time-management by
integrating laboratory activities
effectively into the everyday curriculum
TABLE 12
Mean of multimedia attitude score compared across training status of a teacher.
Training Status
Number of
No. of Training Received

Training Received (More than 7 days)
MAS
Teachers
Average
Standard Deviation
84
71.35
7.79
122
74.38
7.15
TABLE 13
Mean of multimedia attitude score compared across the gender of the teacher
Gender
Number of
Teachers
Female teachers
Male teachers
in the sample score decreases emerge.

Gender verses Multimedia Attitude Score
(Table 13) and Professional Training
verses Multimedia Attitude Score (Table
12) brings out subtle variations.
Male trained graduate teachers;
without post-graduation but with
professional training emerge as high
scoring group in terms of multimedia
attitude score within the community of
mathematics teachers.
MAS
Average
Standard Deviation
148
73.02
7.31
58
74.13
8.08
transaction. Other difficulties include

relevance of multimedia to the topic in
the hand, equitable accessibility to
students and method of evaluation. Each
difficulty deserves to be addressed
thoroughly to the satisfaction of all
stakeholders of mathematics education.
The data implicitly carries a massage for
curriculum developers too. The need is
to reorient the curriculum incorporating
the teachers comfort levels. The main
74
November 2006
plea however is systematising the

assessment of practical work for all class.
The Gap Analysis
Researcher wanted to compare the
usage as described by the check-list
with the rating of the significance of the
multimedia as essential, important by
the teachers. For this purpose, the
number of teachers with usage score
greater than or equal to mean are
calculated and percentage is calculated.
Table 8 shows the percentage of teachers
who rated multimedia category at the
high end as essential and important.
The gap in percentage, of teachers
usage and rating is considered.
Teachers who rated the multimedia
categories high are more in number than
those who use it extensively. Range of the
gap across the categories is 2 per cent
to 45 per cent. Gap in particular is very
wide at 45 per cent in case of enrichment
activities; for Technology aided learning
it is at 18 per cent. The gap indicate
positive disposition of the teacher.
Teacher place the teaching aid at high

esteem. Teacher for some reason is not
using it as much as he/she rates it.
On the basis of the gap analysis
researcher infer that a professional
development curriculum to strengthen
the knowledge and skills of teacher is a
need of the hour. This curriculum should
focus on various strategies in imparting
learning experiences through exhibits,
demonstrations; technology aided
learning in mathematics and enrichment
activities in mathematics. This is the
curriculum in all probabilities taken
enthusiastically by the teachers.
Analysis of Factors: The Preferred
Initiatives
Next under the personal factors is a
rating scale of preferred initiative to
support their teaching endeavour. This
is devised with respect to objective
number 3. An initiative will transform
into action if and only if it is delivered
through a proper channel in a preferred
media. The respondents rated their
TABLE 14
Comparision of Multimedia usage with Multimedia significance
Multimedia
Category
Percentage of Teachers
Above Average
Usage
High Positive
Rating
Gap
Verbal Symbols
53
62
Visual Symbols
Exhibits
56
45
63
60
7
15
Demonstration
55
68
13
53
55
Direct Experience
57
61
TAL
36
54
18
Enrichment Activities
17
62
45
preferred mode to receive initiatives as

listed in table 15, as Not at all, Small
extent, Moderate extent and Great
extent. Great extent and Moderate
extent are termed as positive preference.
On the basis of the data researcher
infer that teachers of the city are not
unanimous in their choice of initiative.
51 per cent of teachers preferred books
and 52 per cent preferred workshop
thereby recording the most acceptable
rating. The 30 to 44 per cent of the
teachers recorded their agreement to
digital media.
Analysing the frequency counts in its
finer details researcher attempts to
design a popular media package for
teachers. One may hit on books and CDs
as handouts at workshops and forum
discussions at local level and in print
media. The initiative that comes with
authority stamp and incentives (in some
form of competition) jell well.
75
The focus of these discussions has

been the usage of multimedia by
mathematics teachers. The analyses of
interrelated factors affecting the usage
and evolving some pragmatic
suggestions for the future course to
maximise the use of multimedia are the
offshoot of this study.
Suggestions
Nations education system requires
systematic and regular observation,
attention, and diagnosis just as health
does. Conscious and continuous
monitoring system should function.
Researcher suggests that teacher
training institutions may assume the
role of nodal points for this task. A
research cell may evaluate materials,
methods and innovations to translate it
to classroom practices. This kind of
leadership is but natural to these
institutions as they are involved in both
TABLE 15
Percentage of positive responses by teachers on the listed mode of initiatives
Mode of initiatives
Percentage Positive
Responses
Circulars
CBSE initiatives
A dialogue
Teachers Forum
Incentives
40
Periodicals
39
Books
51
CDs
44
Workshops
52
Website
30
Newspaper
38
Local
43
National
32
Showcasing
26
Competitions
35
76
November 2006
pre-service and in-service training of

teachers. Non-governmental organisations too should play a role to support
mathematics education in its right spirit.
Museums should emerge as premier
institutions for community educational
needs. Museums should catalyse
interactions between teacher-teacher
and teacher-expert.
Abundance of multimedia availability, multimedia accessibility,
demands of the knowledge society and
availability of human resource calls for
a paradigm shift. Liaison other than the
school/teacher are welcome to link
learners need and aspiration. Parents
and experts should involve themselves
in mathematics education through
Math Clinic, Family Math activities.
It is important to recognise that in
the field of educational inquiry there is
a necessary unity between the processes
of creation, diffusion and utilisation of
knowledge. Define a set of critical
educational objectives to consolidate the
academic needs, to meet the nations
stake on knowledge-based society. Align
student assessment with educational
objectives by aligning curriculum,
multimedia use and resource allocation
likewise. Adopt continuous improvement
strategies to measure progress and
provide inputs to bring greater academic
vibrancy.
Suggestions for further Research

Areas of further research include
survey of other localities and

comparative studies. Investigations
of disparities within and across
localities and regions.
case studies of best practice

classrooms in mathematics.
multimedia and various levels of

education like primary, secondary
and senior secondary.
role of teaching colleges and

universities in enhancing the usage
of multimedia in mathematics
education.
impact of multimedia usage on

cognitive variables like.
Impact of multimedia on memory.
Impact of multimedia on skill.
Impact of multimedia on
understanding.
Impact of multimedia on
achievement/scoring.
Impact of multimedia on transfer

of skills.
d evelopment of professional
development curriculum for inservice professional development
training as well as evolving an
interactive forum for refining the
curriculum
transaction
in
mathematics.
REFERENCES
EDGAR DALE. 1964. Audio Visual Methods in Teaching. New York.
SWAYER W. W. 1956. Mathematicians Delight. Penguin Books Ltd. Great Britain.
BUCH, M.B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Centre of Advanced Study in
Education. Faculty of Education and Psychology. M.S. University. Baroda.

BUCH, M.B. 1979. Second Survey of Research in Education. Society for Educational
Research and Development. M.S. University. Baroda.
_________ 1987. Third Survey of Research in Education 1978 - 1983, National Council
of Educational Research and Training. New Delhi.
_________ 1991. Fourth Survey of Research in Education, National Council of
Educational Research and Training. New Delhi.
Board of Directors. Fifth Survey of Educational Research, Trend Reports, Volume I,
1988-92. 1997. National Council of Research and Training. New Delhi.
National Policy on Education. 1986. Government of India, MHRD. New Delhi.
CITE. 2002. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [Online]
Available: http:// www.citejournal.org
RAMACHANDRA, K .T. 1982. A study on the use of visual aids by teachers of university of
agricultural sciences, Bangalore, Ph. D. Education (Agriculture).
UNESCO. 2002. Information and Communication Technology in Education, A Curriculum
for Schools and Programme for Teacher Development, Marana Patru, Division of
Higher Education. France.
77
78
November 2006

Its Impact on their Social Status and Autonomy
AAKANKSHA AGARWAL*
Abstract
Education has been a significant agency for social change. Especially in a patriarchal
social set-up where male dominance is accepted as given, education especially for
the women could be a curative apparatus to change the societal attitudes, family
views and also instill a sense of the self among the women and thus empower
them. The present study was conducted among the college going women in
Amritsar, Punjab to understand the attitudes of the family and elders towards
womens education and also the role of the civil society and the state towards
achieving the desired end of women empowerment. Its understood that the societal
attitude has changed in consonance with the changing reality, though the issues
of feminine autonomy are still ridden with hard contradictions across generations
at this time.
Womens education, social status, and

autonomy are critical factors which play
a major role in the evolution of any
human society. Education is perceived
to spawn a quantum change in peoples
attitudes and behaviour, intra- and
inter-gender relationships, social values
and orientations, and also, individual
perceptions of self-worth. This
remarkable social shift can excite
widespread macro changes in womens
lives in terms of their social, economic,
political and cultural well-being both
within the family and human society.
Thus empowered, the status and
autonomy of women in the community

could stand greatly alleviated.
Western social scientists have time
and again underscored a direct linkage
between education and modernisation.
It is usually assumed that educated
individuals will move from traditional to
modern attitudes and behaviour.
The experience of developing
countries has, however, provided
sufficient ground for rethinking the
supposed
straightforward
and
unidirectional relationship between
education and modernisation. Further,
the specific complex of socio-political,
*Student III-year, Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi.
79
economic, and cultural factors in a given

society are powerful intervening
variables. In spite of this critique in the
sociological discourse, education is still
viewed as the sine qua non for promoting
changes in attitudes and behaviour.
The significance of education also lies
in the fact that it is the single most
important institutional variable
amenable to policy manipulation. Social
demographers emphasise the linkage
between education and change in
perceptions, attitudes, and behaviour
and ultimately, womens autonomy and
fertility. Womens literacy is a factor
which empowers women to think
independently, act rationally, and
perhaps, in turn, limit the family size.
The enriched status and autonomy
of women in a society can also be
measured by their participation in
household decision-making, freedom of
movement, economic independence, and
their ability to plan and spend the family
budget. Empowered women tend to be
better equipped to verbalise their feelings
and emotions, acquire better negotiation
skills, and not endure being roughshod
by anybody including their spouses.
Educational attainment and
improved status of women can also
generate significant and widespread
changes in social customs such as dowry
and property distribution (particularly in
a patriarchal society), and possibly, pave
the ground for gender equality, female
autonomy, independence and better selfworth.
family elders with the objective of

evaluating the social attitude, family
views, and self-perception of the subjects
(College going women) towards
attainment of higher education, and its
perceived impact on their social status
and autonomy within the society.
The Present Study

This study was conducted among urban
collegiate women of Amritsar and their
The Field Setting

Amritsar is a large city. It is located in
the State of Punjab in the north-western
part of India. The population is
dominated by the Sikhs. Hindus
constitute the second largest group.
Muslims, Christians and other
communities are in a minority. Both
Sikhs and Hindus have a patriarchal
society and although their social
customs are largely similar, Sikh
religious teachings favour equal rights
and freedom for women.
However, the State of Punjab has
been exposed to repeated invasions by
foreign aggressors from the north and
north-west. These invaders were
barbaric in their conduct. They not only
plundered the riches of the land, but also
dealt with the native women in an
inhuman fashion. This historic factor
could be the basis of several of the
prevalent social customs, including
marriage of girls at an early age; and the
less favourable attitude among families
towards higher education of girls, since
it needed them to travel beyond the
security of their homes.
The recent population census shows
a strong gender bias in favour of males.
The male:female sex ratio is highly
skewed against women and female
infanticide is common in many parts of
Punjab.
80
November 2006
The Subjects
The present study was conducted among
women collegiate, who were students at
the Khalsa College, DAV College and the
Government Medical College, all located
within Amritsar.
A total of twenty-four women
students participated in the study. Their
break up is as follows:
Khalsa College for Women:
DAV College for Women:
Government Medical College:
11
7
6
While all 18 participant women from

the Khalsa College and DAV College were
arts and humanities students, five of the
six women students from Government
Medical College were medical students
and the other was a nursing student.
All 11 women students from the
Khalsa College were Sikhs. Two women
students each from the DAV College and
Government Medical College were
Hindus, while the rest were all Sikhs.
Hence, in total, out of the 24 students,
20 were Sikhs and four Hindus.
All women students belonged to the
age group of 17-22 years.
The vast majority of students came
from middle socio-economic group; some
were from the upper class, whereas two
belonged to the lower socio-economic group.
The Study Design
The study employed the heuristic devices
of semi-structured and informal
interviews with the women student
participants, and their family elders
whenever the opportunity so existed. The
selection of participant students was a
random process, and was principally
based on their consent to participate in

the study, and their ability to convey their
perceptions to this researcher.
The interviews were conducted in
the free and easy environment of Girls
Common Room in the respective college
or the neighbourhood Caf Coffee day (a
coffee and eatery joint).
A suitable questionnaire was
prepared, which explored diverse facets
relating to higher education among
women. Questions were asked to
understand the background of the family
to which each participant belonged, the
societal and family pressures she was
under while pursuing college education,
whether a gender discrimination was
perceived by her from her family towards
the education of her brother(s) and her,
whether her family permitted equal
rights to girls vis--vis boys, the social
changes she perceived in this respect
with regard to the past, the social and
governmental support available to her to
follow higher education, and whether
higher education would carry any benefit
to her in terms of social status, economic
independence and autonomy. Views of
the elders of the participants were also
obtained on these issues as and when
the researcher could interview them.
Note was also made of the clothing
the participants wore to the college, and
whether the selection of outfit were in
any way dictated by the type of college
(co-educational or girls college) they
attended.
The acquired data was put together
and analysed qualitatively to
contextualise the relationship between
gender, education and autonomy within
the family. The study explored such
81
concerns as familial considerations of

feminine propriety, protection of female
sexuality, feminine domain and social
roles and their influence on the familial
decision-making whether the daughter(s)
in the family could be sent for higher
education. The researcher also tried to
find out the perceived benefits of higher
education, and the reasons why the
families chose to send their daughters
to college.
pursuing the dream of higher college

education. While this was not the
stumbling block in the case of
participants from middle and upper
socio-economic class, a large majority
reported that their families were keen that
they study only in neighbourhood
colleges and not take admission at far
away campuses since they did not think
it to be safe.
Participants also reported being
placed under several restrictions both by
their families and the college authorities.
They had to follow a strict dress code,
and wear the traditional dress of salwarkameez or sleeved tops and trousers to
college. They could not sport sleeveless
blouses, low-line tops or low-waist jeans.
The college authorities did not allow
free entry and exit from the college
campus. Strict regulations were in force
for leaving the college before time. These
restrictions varied between the three
colleges, and were most strict in the case
of Khalsa College, which did not permit
its students to leave the premises before
2.30 p.m. on any day.
Some girls also aired the fear that
they might not be able to complete college
since their families wanted them to get
married at a young age. However, this
concern was expressed only by three
girls. The families thought that by
delaying marriage till the girl obtained a
college degree would take her pass the
marriageable age and then she may not
be find a suitable marriage partner.
Some elders also felt that unless the girls
were married early, they were liable to
lose malleability, and would not fit into
the family of the in-laws!
Almost all participants reported that
they had a family directive to return
Observations
Family Background
Of the 24 participants, 18 (75%) reported
that both their parents were educated.
However, for most mothers, being
educated did not imply receiving higher
college education. Seven out of the 18
mothers however had done higher
education and were employed (29%). All
others were homemakers.
Six of the families (25%) were having
their own business, while in the case of
the rest their fathers were employed in
either government or private jobs.
Six participants (25%) belonged to
the higher socio-economic class, 16 (66.6
%) represented the middle class, while
two (8.4%) were from the lower socioeconomic class.
Eight participants (33.3%) lived in a
joint family, while the other 16 (66.6 %)
lived in nuclear families.
Twenty-two participants (91.6%) had
one or more brothers or siblings.
Societal and Family Pressures while
Pursuing College Education
Participants from the lower socioeconomic class perceived that scarcity
of resources is a major obstacle in their
82
home before dusk each day. They

therefore, could not sit late in the college
even if they wished to use the library.
The medical students were also told to
return home immediately once the clinical
classes and ward rounds were over.
Familial Attitude towards Higher
Education of Girls vis--vis the Boys
in the Family
Most participants felt that their families
accorded precedence to education of boys
in comparison to the girls in the family.
They perceived that the major reason for
this gender bias was related to this social
fact that men were taken as breadearners of the family, while women were
expected to take up the role of home
makers and stay at home.
The steadfast view that girls be
married at a young age also worked as a
deterrent for their obtaining the higher
education. Some family elders were also
of the view that college education would
spoil the girls making them less
adaptable towards the responsibilities
and rigours of married life. However,
some elders also were of the view that
education of girls is an investment for
their future security, and should any
misfortune befall them, it could be the
instrument for them to stand on their
own feet.
Familial Attitude towards Rights of
Girls vis--vis those of Boys
All participants reported that their
families followed patriarchal family
system. Girls were given dowry at the
time of marriage as a part of their family
inheritance, while boys acquired all
rights to family property and business.
November 2006
Almost all participants stated

unequivocally that crucial decisions in
the family were taken by their fathers and
by significant male elders. Arguments
between their parents were not
uncommon but the will of the father
mostly prevailed when it came to key
decisions.
Dynamic Changes in the Society in
Relation to the Past as Regards
Gender Bias
Almost all participants felt that their lot
was far improved than that of their
mothers. They had better opportunities
to pursue higher education and career,
and the opposition to college education
was far less than in the times of their
parents and grand parents.
They felt that they had a much more
widened social space available to them
in comparison to their mothers. They had
far less pressure to marry at a young age,
and had the freedom to pursue active
careers
and
be
economically
independent.
Social and Governmental Support
Available to Girl Students for
Pursuing Higher Education
The participant students felt that little
or no support was available to them for
pursuing higher education. Neither
the government nor any social group
helped their cause. If any state scheme
did exist, the participants did not know
about it.
However, some women colleges offered
scholarships to the needy students on
the basis of merit, but this was no
different than at mens colleges.
Perceived Benefits of Higher

Education among Girls with respect
to Economic Independence and
Autonomy
Almost all participants perceived that
higher education would allow them a
better status in the society and they
would be empowered by the knowledge
they obtain. It would allow them a say in
the running of the house when they
marry. They would not like to be treated
as doormats as their mothers and
grandmothers have been. The knowledge
obtained through higher education would
prepare them to be better wives, better
mothers, and better citizens. It would
provide them the necessary skills to
maintain their homes better.
Most participants felt that
acquisition of higher education would
enhance their marriage prospects, and
help them find a more educated and
better paid professional for a marriage
partner.
Interestingly, even though each of the
subjects was pursuing college education,
only ten (41%) of them were keen to
pursue independent careers on
completion of higher education. Those
who were in favour of carving their own
careers wanted to do so because they felt
this would give them economic
independence and the right to spend the
money they earn. They would no longer
have to rely on the men for money and
not be dictated by their will to make
expenses.
Conclusions
Urban Punjab is increasingly coming to
terms with the modern social reality and
need for women education. However, a
83
strong gender bias still prevails. This is

evident in the form of strict restrictions
and regulations on college-going women
in comparison to their male
counterparts. The colleges, the families
and the society favour that women must
return home early and be watchful of
their conduct and modesty. They should
preferably study at all Girls Colleges, and
follow several dos and donts.
Education among women is viewed
as an investment for future security and
for status production, not so much to
develop their self-worth or for gaining
independence, although these effects are
generally acknowledged and thought of
as desirable. A looked-for attribute in
girls for marriage, higher education is
simply considered as means for finding
a more educated and better -placed
marriage partner.
Most family elders and a large
majority of collegiate women still do not
consider higher education as a means
of employment. The constraints of
societal and familial ideology still permit
women to work only within the laid-down
norms. Most collegiate women do not
nurture an ambition of pursuing an
independent career.
However, attainment of education
does make women conscious of the need
for autonomy. In socio-cultural terms,
this essentially means the extent to
which women can set themselves free of
mens control. The major indices of this
autonomy being: having power over
material and non-material resources;
self-confidence to control and manipulate
their own lives and those of significant
others; changed social- and self-prestige;
assertiveness; and better participation
in decision-making at the familial level.
84
November 2006
Yet, the issues of feminine autonomy

are still ridden with hard contradictions
across generations at this time. Most of
the mothers and aunts are reluctant to
vie for gender equality and female
assertiveness, while the daughters do
not approve of the overbearing gender
bias and the lack of female autonomy
existing in the society. Even though they

have been able to step out, the young
Punjabi women are still unable to
disentangle themselves from the
shadows of traditional feminine role
models. The process of social change is
ever so gradual, and the path seems to
be long and winding!
REFERENCES
ROGER JEFFERY and M. ALAKA BASU. (eds.). 1996. Girls Schooling, Womens Autonomy
and Fertility Change in South Asia. Sage Publications. New Delhi.
CHANANA, KARUNA. 1990. The Dialectics of Tradition and Modernity and Womens
Education in India. Sociological Bulletin. 39: 75-91
KASARDA, JOHN D., JOHN OG BILLY and KIRSTEN WEST, (eds.), 1986. Status Enhancement
and Fertility: Representative Responses to Social Mobility and Educational Opportunity.
Academic Press. Orlando.
DUBE LEELA, ELEANOR LEACOCK and SHIRLEY ARDNER. (eds.). 1986. Visibility and Power:
Essays on Women in Society and Development. Oxford University Press. Delhi.
SHARMA, S.L. 1980. Modernising Effects of University Education. Allied Publishers.
New Delhi.
Do the Social Studies Textbooks of Pakistan, Bangladesh...
85
Do the Social Studies Textbooks of

Pakistan, Bangladesh and
Nepal Weave the SAARC Spirit
GOURI SRIVASTAVA*
Abstract
In the present paper an attempt has been made to analyse social studies textbooks
of Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal of Classes VI to VIII. Effort has been made to
see whether they reflect the SAARC spirit. These countries are not only important
partners of SAARC but prior to their attaining independence, shared a common
cultural and historical past. Being important members of SAARC it becomes equally
significant to see how they reflect this alliance in their textual materials. Do they
mechanically stress on SAARC or do they reflect its spirit, i.e. fostering collective
self-reliance, strengthening co-operation among South Asian Countries for peaceful
co-existence. From the analysis of social textbook it was found that SAARC does
find space in the content of textual material of these three countries but the stress
on its spirits lacks the needed emphasis.
Introduction
The 21st century is marked by growing
globalisation, liberalisation and explosion
in the domain of information technology.
These changes have brought people and
societies together as never before. In fact
no country in the world can remain
isolated any more. The need of the hour
is to strengthen co-operation and
collaboration in different fields for
ensuring sustainable developed and for
promoting peaceful co-existence. In this
context most of the development and
developing countries of the world have

entered into alliances such as European
Economic Cooperation (EEC), Organisation of African Unity (OAU), Association
of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),
South Asian Association of Region Cooperation (SAARC) which is one such
alliance. In fact, it is the only regional
organisation for co-operation in South
Asia. It aims to promote peace, trade and
development in the region through
dialogue and co-operation. An interesting
part of this alliance is that it consists of
*Reader, Department of Womens Studies, NCERT, New Delhi.
86
countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan,

India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka that once shared a common
cultural and historical past prior to their
independence. Having shaken their
colonial yoke in mid 20th century and
later, these countries on their onward
march to development have formulated
policies and programmes accordingly for
accelerating socio-economic and political
development of their country. However,
they continue to face some crucial
challenges such as grinding poverty,
low status of women, drug peddling,
ethnic violence, cross border terrorism,
trafficking of girls and women, growing
violence of girls and women in family,
community and at the work place. As
Mahbub-ul-Huq in Hayward (2000), very
aptly stated that the region (South Asia)
is the most gender insensitive in the
world. It is the only region with a sex
ratio of less than 100 women for every
hundred men, a region with 22% of the
worlds population, but 45% of the
worlds maternal mortality, highest rate
of female illiteracy and greater proportion
of girls out of school.
For addressing challenges that
hinder development in this region, these
countries have jointly entered into a
crucial alliance amongst themselves
called SAARC. In fact, this alliance
marked the beginning of new era of
regional co-operation for the promotion
of peace and progress, mutual trust and
good will in South Asia. The initial idea
of forming SAARC was conceived by Ziaur-Rehman, the former President of
Bangladesh. For giving final shape to
SAARC, he visited Nepal, India, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka between 1977 and 1980
for consultation with leaders of these
November 2006
countries. This alliance finally came into

being in 1985.
Aims and Objectives of SAARC
The SAARC Charter was signed in Dhaka
on 8 December, 1985. Eight objectives
were agreed upon in the SAARC Charter.
They are as follows:
To improve the standard of living of

the member countries of SAARC.
To accelerate the process of

economic, social and cultural
development of this region.
To take necessary steps for

achieving national self-reliance of
the South Asian countries.
To increase sympathy and cooperation in the common interest of

the States of this region.
To establish relation of cooperativeness

with
the
International Organisations.
To implement the objectives of

SAARC by fostering relationship
with other regional organisations.
To create a spirit of mutual

understanding by removing existing
conflicts, problems and misunderstanding among the member
countries of SAARC.
To respect each ones sovereignty,

territorial integrity and not to
interfere into internal affairs of seven
member States by any of them.
Areas of Co-operation
SAARC promotes co-operation in the
areas of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Health, Population
Activities and Poverty, Women, Youth and
Children, Environment and Forestry,
Science and Technology and Meteorology, Human Resource Development,
Transport, Disaster Management and

Removal of Terrorism. For strengthening
mutual areas of co-operation several
SAARC summit and meeting have been
held from time to time wherein
representatives of these countries have
reiterated their desire of promoting peace,
stability, amity and progress in the
region through strict adherence to the
principles of sovereignty, equality,
territorial integrity, national independence non-use of force and noninterference in the internal affairs of
other States and peaceful settlement of
disputes. Each summit meeting has wellset out agendas. The first summit
meeting was held in Dhaka in 1985.
Also, since 1989, it has been the practice
to designate each year as SAARC year to
focus on specific themes of common
concern. In 1989 it was SAARC year
for combating Drug Abuse and Drug
Trafficking, 1990 was declared as
SAARC Year of Girl-Child, 1991 SAARC
year of shelter and lately 2005 as SAARC
South Asia Tourism Year.
The fundamental goal of SAARC is to
promote the welfare of the people of
South Asia and to provide them with the
opportunity to live in dignity and realise
their full potential.
Present Paper
Since SAARC is a very important alliance
for South Asian countries, an effort is
made to see how the social studies
textbooks of some of the SAARC
countries, viz. Pakistan, Bangladesh and
Nepal portray it. The main purpose of
selecting textbooks of these countries is
because they are an important agent of
socialisation and also an important
instrument for transmitting knowledge
87
and values to the younger generations.

In all societies textbooks are designed to
teach pupils what educators believe
ought to exist. In other words, the
function of textbooks is to tell children
what their elders want them to know.
The content and form of school textbooks
as cultural objects is determined by
social factors, such as the socio-political
order, the level of modernisation, the
value system, dominant ideology beliefs,
etc. Since textbooks are a repository of
such crucial elements, an attempt has
been made in the present paper to see
how one crucial aspect important to
South Asian countries, i.e. SAARC is
given space in textbooks.
This study is basically qualitative in
nature. With the help of an evaluation
tool effort has been made to see how
SAARC has been projected in textbooks.
The following aspects have been looked
into Objectives of SAARC, areas of
collaboration, how each SAARC countries
have been reflected in terms of
geography, history, economy, population,
contributions of women and the SAARC
spirit. For the purpose of analysis social
studies textbook of Classes VI to VIII
developed by government agencies in
these countries have been examined. A
total number of nine textbooks have been
analysed. The reason for selecting
textbooks of this stage of education has
been mainly done to see how children of
this impressionable and critical age
would imbibe knowledge about SAARC
from the Social Studies textbooks. This
would go a long way in making children
internalise the importance of SAARC and
the need for an alliance like this for
strengthening physical and emotional
bonding for collective self-reliance.
88
Review of Literature
Textbook analysis on different thematic
areas such as gender, national identity,
peace and other parameters have been
done from time to time. In this
connection Srivastava Gouri (2005) has
analysed Social Studies textbook of
Pakistan and Bangladesh wherein she
depicted how gender has been grossely
unrepresented in textual material. Yvette
Claire Rosser (2000) in her material has
portrayed that for strengthening national
identities and patriotic feeling among
students, social studies textbooks are
biased. Events and facts are selected in
such a manner that they try and project
a golden age of their country, e.g. Sonar
Bangla. Krishna Kumars (2001) book
also throws light on how textbooks of
Pakistan handle the common history of
India and Pakistan especially modern
India in a prejudicial and subjective
manner.
The paper is divided into two
sections. Section I is based on the
analysis of social studies textbooks of
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal to see
how SAARC has been depicted, Section
II throws light on a comparative analysis
of textbooks of the three countries to see
whether they strengthen the SAARC
spirit.
SECTION I
(a) Textbooks of Pakistan
The Social Studies textbooks examined
in the present paper are those of Classes
VI to VIII and has been prepared by the
Punjab Textbook Board, Lahore. In the
context of SAARC it is the Class VI
textbook that makes a special and only
November 2006
reference to it. In chapter entitled,

South Asia at a Glance there is a subsection that briefly discusses SAARC. In
this section there is a brief mention of
the year in which SAARC was founded,
its objectives and broad areas of
co-operation, viz. agriculture and
forestry, health and population,
meteorology, rural development,
telecommunication, transport, Science
and Technology, postal services, sports,
arts and culture, women in development
and drug trafficking. Besides, this in the
same textbook there is small para
discussing SAARC partners. The para
mainly focuses on the geographical
location, total population, year of
independence, major occupation of the
people of each SAARC country and the
major economic activities. SAARC also
finds limited space in subsequent
chapters of the same social studies
textbook in chapter titled, Resources of
South Asia, Population of South Asia,
Society in South Asia before Islam,
Advent of Islam and the Advent of the
British in South Asia.
The discussion in these chapters
mainly centre around geographical,
economical demographic and historical
issues. In the context of geography,
besides mentioning the location of each
member countries there is a reference
to irrigation patterns followed in each
country, chief export and imports, etc.
Further, in connection with demography
there is a mention of total population, its
rate of increase (based on the latest
census: 2001 data) and the community
composition, e.g. in the context of India
there is a mention that the population
mainly consists of the Hindus, the
Muslims, the Aryans, Sikhs, Parsis and
the Buddhists. This is also true for

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan
and Maldives. However, in connection
with Pakistan, the community
composition of the population is not
stated.
It is important to note that the
textbook authors in their scheme of
highlighting national identities and
citizenship have very consciously
stressed on the differences that exists
among SAARC member countries. This
is clearly reflected in sections that throw
light on children belonging to these
countries, their food habits, dress and
popular sports, etc. which are different
and diverse. In this connection there is
also reference to different flags of these
countries.
It is ironical to note that there is only
one paragraph in the whole textbook of
Class VI that makes a mention on the
need to mutually co-operate among
neighbouring countries, especially in the
economic domain for prosperity and
progress. There is also a brief mention
of how SAARC countries should stand
together in times of trial and during
peacetime.
An important issue discussed in the
textbook that especially goes against the
spirit of SAARC is a mention of the
Kashmir dispute in a biased manner and
Indias design for maintaining
supremacy in the region.
There are two major challenges
ahead of SAARC, Kashmir dispute is one
of them. If India fulfils her promise by
giving the right of self-determination to
the people of Kashmir the maintenance
of peace and friendly relations will help
to achieve the targets.
(Social Studies: Class VI, p.78)
89
Thus, from the analysis of textbooks

of Pakistan it appears that even though
SAARC find a space in the textual
material, the manner in which it is
depicted does not reflect the SAARC
spirit. The need of SAARC countries to
come together for promoting collecting
self-reliance is not stressed upon. Also,
the section on history, portray facts and
events in a highly prejudicial and in a
biased manner. In trying to legitimise the
creation of Modern Pakistan, textbook
authors have tried to selectively choose
only those events which made the
creation of modern Pakistan a historical
necessity. In this connection few
personalities are carefully choosen and
discussed at great length, especially
those who wanted to form a new nation,
i.e. Pakistan. The Congress Party and
Mahatma Gandhi are projected as
Champions of Hindus. In fact Mahatma
Gandhi has been depicted as
Mr. Gandhi being a staunch Hindu
insisted on getting things decided in his
own way. The dialogue known as GandhiJinnah talks, failed as it was destined to.
(Social Studies: Class VIII, p.84)
In the context of congress party there
is a mention that:
The Congress didnt care for the
interest of the Muslims but it only served
the political cause of Hindus.
(Social Studies: Class VI, p. 126)
A biased interpretation of the
common historical past shared between
Pakistan and India would go a long way
in creating an emotional divide between
the children of the two countries.
Another crucial area that is missing
in the Social Studies textbooks is a total
negation and invisibilisation of the
90
contributions of women to the society. An

absence of portray of the contributions
of half of the humanity marks an
absence of discussion on one crucial
area of co-operation, i.e. girls and
women. It is important to note that
SAARC has declared 1990 as the year
of the girl-child and1991-2000 as the
decade of girl-child. During this decade
several steps have been initiated by
member countries, this is missing in the
textual material. An absence of a
mention of this decade will not enable
the children to appreciate steps taken
by different countries even in their own
country in tackling problem such as low
literacy and enrolment, phenomena of
dropout, poverty and trafficking of girls
and women, etc. which are some major
challenges that plaque the SAARC
region.
The next section is based on the
analysis of textbooks of Bangladesh.
(b) Textbooks of Bangladesh
The textbooks analysed in the present
paper are published by the National
Curriculum and Textbook Board, Dhaka
Textbooks of Classes VI and VIII make a
mention of SAARC. Like Pakistan Social
Studies textbooks, the textbook of
Bangladesh make a very mechanical
and factual reference to SAARC. The
Class VI Social Studies textbooks mention
very briefly the geographical location of
each SAARC countries, year of
independence, population etc. In the
context of population there is an
interesting reference to the community
composition. The book mentions that
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Maldives have
a large percentage of population
dominated by the Muslims, Nepal and
November 2006
India by the Hindus and Bhutan and Sri

Lanka by the Buddhist. Such a
classification would strengthen an
apparent divide between two major
communities of South Asia, i.e. Hindus
and Muslims. Besides, this, there is a
generalised reference to the quality of life
of the people inhabiting this region that
is marked by low standard of living and
literacy.
In connection with co-operation and
collaboration like the Pakistan Social
Studies textbooks, the textbooks of
Bangladesh also make a mention of it in
Class VIII. However, there is a difference
in interpretation. In context of Pakistan
some areas of collaboration are stated,
where as in the context of Bangladesh
such a kind of reference is missing.
SAARC is mentioned along with other
international co-operation among
countries such as ASEAN, European
Union and OTC.
Besides, this the fundamental
principles of SAARC is referred. These
are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Any decision of the organisation

shall have to be unanimous.
Bilateral issues of conflict cannot
be raised in the meeting of this
organisation.
Maintenance of regional solidarity,
preservation of sovereignty, noninterference into political and
mutual welfare policy will be
accepted as the foundation of cooperation.
SAARC will play its role keeping in
view the hopes and aspirations of
the countries of this region.
(Social Studies: Class VIII, p. 170-171)
Other than this, the objectives and

different fields of co-operation are also
stated in the textbooks.
It is ironical to note that in the
context of SAARC even through the
Social Studies textbook mention that the
idea of this alliance was mooted by the
then President Zia-ur-Rehman but they
fail to mention the reasons that
motivated him to form an alliance of the
South Asian Countries.
Thus, once again SAARC finds a very
factual reference in the textual material
of Bangladesh. Also, the mention of the
common cultural heritage once shared
among member countries is missing. In
the context of women, though there is
partial reference, but then such a brief
mention about them does not capture the
entire social reality. Half of the humanity,
i.e. women are not depicted as an
important contributor to the economy
and society in the SAARC region. This is
also true for Pakistan textbooks. Such a
kind of neglect of half of the humanity
would not truly reflect SAARC spirit and
also one of the crucial areas of concern
of member countries of the region.
Another important area that does
not reflect the spirit is the section on
history. The narration of events
pertaining to Ancient, Medieval and
Modern period has been done very
mechanically. Further, the focus is
mainly on political development during
the above mentioned period and on
dynastic history. Such a kind of onesided interpretation often fails to reflect
the close bonding these SAARC partners
had in the historical period.
The next section throws light on
analysis of textbooks of Nepal.
91
(c) Textbooks of Nepal

The textbooks of Nepal analysed in the
present paper have been prepared by the
Ministry of Education and Sports,
Curriculum Development Centre and
Janak Material Centre Limited.
Like the textbooks of Pakistan and
Bangladesh, the textbooks of Nepal, also
make a mention of SAARC. The Unit IX
of Class VI textbook of social studies have
five very brief lessons on SAARC.
Similarly, the Class VIII textbook
mentioned this alliance in its last section,
i.e. on International Understanding,
Peace and Co-operation.
It is significant to note that like the
textbooks of Pakistan and Bangladesh,
the textbooks of Nepal also very
mechanically mention SAARC. Very
briefly there is a reference to co-operation
and collaboration, which according to the
textbook authors is pre-requisite for
economic development. In the context of
expediting progress in this region there
is a mention for bilateral and multilateral
co-operation for accelerating the pace of
socio-economic development. The
textbook also mentions the objectives
and aims of SAARC which is similar to
Bangladesh textbooks. An important
aspect that is discussed in Nepal
textbooks that is missing in Pakistan and
Bangladesh textbooks is a mention of how
important this alliance is to Nepal. The
textbook of Class VI especially refers to
how SAARC has helped Nepal in
gradually eliminating poverty and has
helped in economic development, etc.
Further, there is a reference to some
exchange programmes such as AudioVisual Programme and Youth Volunteer
Programme, etc.
92
In Class VIII textbook there is a stress

on how Nepal has benefitted from
International co-operation even though
it is stated in the textbook in a very
generalised manner. Besides, this
reference to SAARC, like Pakistan and
Bangladesh textbooks, there is a
mention of the year of its foundation, its
composition, major objectives and aims.
In addition to it there is a mechanical
reference to the different summits that
were held.
Thus, the manner in which SAARC
is mentioned in Nepal social studies
textbooks once again does not reflect the
SAARC Spirit. This is also true for
Pakistan and Bangladesh textbooks.
SECTION II
Comparative Analysis
From the analysis of social studies
textbooks of Classes VI to VIII of Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Nepal it appears that
they follow a pattern in discussing
international relations. In the context of
Pakistan the stress is initially on South
Asia with a focus on SAARC, followed by
Pakistans closer alliance with the
Islamic world and at the later level the
International scenario is mentioned. In
the context of Bangladesh a somewhat
similar pattern is followed, i.e. initially
South Asia is discussed along with
SAARC. However, there is a variation in
Class VII, because the textbook throws
light on mentioning developed and
developing countries of the world, i.e.
Australia and Africa. Regarding Nepal,
SAARC is mentioned in both Class VI and
VIII textbooks. In Class VIII textbook there
is also mention of Nepal relation with
developed countries such as Japan and
the USA.
November 2006
It is significant to note that even

though SAARC has been prioritised and
portrayed in the social studies textbooks
of the three SAARC countries, the
manner in which it is discussed gives
children only a very factual narrative of
this alliance that is of immense
significance to all South Asian partners.
In fact, it is like mentioning the skeleton
of the alliance without its life and blood.
Further, the need for its formation and
its continued existence has not been
mentioned in any of the social studies
textbooks. This will not make the children
conceptualise the concept of SAARC.
Another crucial area that is not
stated is how SAARC has enabled
countries to face challenges in this
region and how this alliance can be
strengthened. The Nepal textbook
partially refers to the importance of this
alliance for Nepal but not its significance
to the entire SAARC region. The need to
co-operate and collaborate with each
other though is mentioned in the
textbooks, but once again the manner in
which it is mentioned does not convey
the SAARC spirit.
An important area that is missing in
textbooks is the manner in which SAARC
objectives and aims are translated into
practice by member countries for helping
them in enhancing quality of life of the
people. Also, from the analysis of the
textual materials of the three countries
it has been found that in the scheme of
promoting national identities, the
difference existing amongst them is
prioritised and discussed without
focussing on the commonalities,
especially the lives and conditions of the
common people.
Therefore, to make textual material
depict the SAARC spirits, textbook
authors not only of the three countries

but other SAARC partners should focus
on the following:
The reason for founding SAARC.
Emphasis on initiatives taken by

member countries in taking
challenges faced by the region.
Highlighting the contributions of

half of the humanity, i.e. women.
Unbiased narration of historical

events.
Stressing on the common cultural

heritage of the past.
An emphasis on the above would help
in strengthening respect for otherness
93
of the other and pave way for

promoting cultural connectivity, a
SAARC spirit.
Recently, the SAARC countries have
faced certain natural and human made
disaster which has hard hit their
economy and people immensely, such as,
Tsunami, Earthquake and Ethnic
Violence. To combat these problems
along with challenges already faced by
SAARC countries there is a great need
to revisit the section on SAARC as stated
in social studies textbooks of the three
neighbou-ring countries. This would help
in promoting the SAARC spirit and also
learning to live together.
REFERENCES
HAYWARD, RUTH, FENNEY. 2000. Breaking the Earthenware Jar: Lessons from South Asia
to End Violence against Women, UNICEF.
KUMAR, KRISHNA. 2001. Prejudice and Pride: School Histories of the Freedom Struggle in
India and Pakistan. Viking. New Delhi.
ROSSER, CLAIRE,YVETTE. 2000. Hegemony and Historiography : The Politics of Pedagogy,
Asian Review. Spring. Dhaka.
SRIVASTAVA, GOURI. 2005. Gender Concerns in the Social Studies Textbooks of Pakistan
and Bangladesh, International Textbook Research, Vol, 27, July.
ASLAM, MIAN MUHAMMED, MUHAMMED FAROOQ MALIK and SAYJAD OAZI AHMAD. 2003. Social
Studies, Class VI. Punjab Textbook Board. Lahore.
BOKHART, M.H. and HASSAN SYED TAHIR. 2003. Social Studies, Class VII. Punjab Textbook
Board. Lahore.
BEGUM, FEROZA and HUQ. MODH SAYEEDUL (eds.). 1997. Social Studies Textbooks of
Bangladesh. 1997. Social Science, Class VI. National Curriculum and Textbook
Board. Dhaka.
JOARDER, ISLAMUDDIN (Ed). 1998. Social Science Class VII. National Curriculum and
Textbook Board. Dhaka.
CHOWDHURY, ABDUR RASHID, (ed). 1998. Social Science Class VIII. National Curriculum
and Textbook Board. Dhaka.
NEHRUE, DIMUMAYA, BABITA SINGH, RAJESH PANDEY and PUNNYA DHAKAL. 2004. Social Science
Textbooks of Nepal. Our Social Studies, Grade VI, Ministry of Education and
Sports Curriculum Development Centre and Janak Education Materials Centre
Ltd., Bhaktapur.
GHIMIRE, BIHSWAMBHAR, SUBEDI, RAJARAM and SHRESTHA, HARI SHARAM. 2004. Our Social Studies,
Grade VIII, Ministry of Education and Sports, Curriculum Development Centre
and Janak Education Material Centre Ltd., Bhaktapur.
Learning: The Treasure Within. 1996. Report to UNESCO of the International
Commission on Education for the 21st Century, UNESCO Publishing.
94 Journal of Indian Education
November 2006
Nutritional Support to Primary Education

in India
A Study of Mid-day Meal Scheme
R.D. SAMPATH KUMAR*
E. LILLY RANI**
Abstract
Educational planning and developmental process in India during the last few
decades indicate that all commissions and development plans related to education
emphasised the critical role of basic education and favoured for universalisation of
basic education and eradication of illiteracy. Providing Mid-day Meals facilitates
greater school participation in the enhancement of enrolment of under-privileged
children. This is likely to reduce future class inequalities, since lack of education is
a major source of economic disadvantage and social marginalisation. School Meal
Programme has made a promising start around the country but the quality issues
needed urgent attention. Organisation of such a scheme on a mission scale certainly
involves careful planning and execution. Identification of implementing agencies is
crucial for the success of the scheme.
Millions of children in the worlds poorest

countries are invisible and remain
excluded from the framework of care that
they need for their survival, growth and
protection. The State of the Worlds
Children Report 2006, released by the
United Nations Childrens Emergency
Fund (UNICEF) says that poverty, weak
governance, armed conflict and HIV/
AIDS have been found to be the main
reasons for the exclusion. Disparities
and discrimination in access to social
services on the basis of income, disability
and gender also conspire to keep them

out. Child trafficking, forced labour in
hazardous conditions, child marriage
and exploitative conditions that
endanger their lives and future increases
their vulnerability.
The Millennium Development Goals
endorsed by the member countries of the
United Nations specify qualitative
targets that have to be met by 2015 and
the focus of this initiative is tied to the
well-being of children. Eradication of
extreme hunger, achieving universal
* Associate Professor, Department of Social Work, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

** Research Scholar, Department of Social Work, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.
education, reducing child mortality and

improving maternal health care are some
of the objectives that will directly impact
on childrens lives and make them visible
within their communities.
The world conference on Education
for all held in Jomtien, Thailand in
March, 1990 reached a consensus from
155 governments to achieve Education
for All by 2000 AD. India being a
signatory to the Jomtein Declaration,
had committed itself to provide basic
education for all by 2000 AD.
Educational planning and developmental
process in India during the last few
decades indicate that all commissions
and development plans related to
education emphasised the critical role of
education, especially basic education
and favoured for the universalisation of
basic education and eradication of
illiteracy. As a sequel, quantitative
expansion of educational facilities at all
levels in order to provide access to schools
to a large proportion of the population,
received primary thrust. The improvement in the quality of education was not
accorded the same importance.
Moreover, various programmes implemented for the universalisation of
education yielded expected results in
some States, whereas in a large number
of States, the schemes could not realise
its objectives.
Basic Education in India
The spectacular increase in basic
education system of India has expanded
to be one of the largest in the world. The
number of primary schools increased
from 2.09 lakhs in 1950-1951 to 5.65
lakhs in 1991-1992, the corresponding
increase in upper primary schools was
95
from 13,596 to 1,52,077. These 7.17

lakhs schools enrolled 136.03 million
children in 1991 as compared to
22.28 million in 1951. (Fahimuddin,
2003:2). The number of primary schools
in 2001-2002 further increased to
10.50 lakhs in the country and the
enrolment of children in 2001-02
was 118.0 millions (Government of
India, 2002).
In the field of basic education, India
lags behind even countries like Ghana,
Indonesia, Kenya, Burma, Philippines,
Zimbabwe and Zambia which have not
done better than India in many other
developmental fronts. The World
Conference on Education (1990) adopted
a resolution making basic education to
all children a fundamental right. In view
of the proceedings of the conference, the
goal of universalisation of elementary
education in India faces three main
challenges: expanding access, raising
achievement levels and reducing gaps in
educational outcomes (Govinda, 2005: 10).
For this, three actions were proposed:
increasing the financing for elementary
education, improving motivation and
competency of teachers and building
managerial capacity.
As regards the universalisation of
elementary education in India, the main
issue has been the education of children
from the economically backward sections
of the society. Therefore, in order to fulfil
the needs of the society a variety of
programmes by different names, viz: preschool education, formal and non-formal
education, distance education, adult
education, functional literacy, etc. were
started under various policies.
(Charulatha, 2005:45). National Policy on
Education (1986) has resolved to provide
free and compulsory education of

satisfactory quality to all children up to
14 years of age before the commencement of the 21st century.
The strong linkage that the primary
education has with improvement in levels
of human well-being, specially with
regard to life expectancy, infant mortality,
nutritional status of children adds to the
case of universal basic education (Laxmi
Ratan 2003:18). The District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP) has not
only augmented available resources for
primary education, but has also given
primary education the needed impetus.
The Government has provided all the
backward and forward linkages that
would make meaningful elementary
education a reality for those who are
left out of the system. (Vimala
Ramachandran, 2003: 959).
Several research studies on the
causes of low literacy rate in India have
identified factors such as poverty and
economic backwardness of the society as
a whole and lack of trained teachers,
absence of ancillary services like midday meal, uniforms, books, science and
games equipment, etc. (Madhusudan,
2003: 31).
The State of Himachal Pradesh has
been successful on the quantum
increase of literacy level from 32 per cent
in 1971 to 77 per cent in 2002. Its
progress in education has been
recognised by Amartya Sen and the
PROBE (The Public Report on Basic
Education) report on Schooling
Revolution in 1999 (Akshay Sood,
2003:2469). The report was prepared by
Jean Dreze et al. and the Centre for
Development Economics. Its success is
supposed to be even more remarkable
November 2006
than that of Kerala and is attributed to:

State initiatives and investment in
primary education, greater sense of
village community and its participation,
greater gender equity and employment
of larger number of teachers, particularly
women.
Initiative taken towards primary
education by Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) is very limited.
There are pockets where citizen groups,
concerned individuals and NGOs have
tried to harness the support of corporate
bodies, local business and the
community to ensure availability of basic
social sector services education,
training, health care, rural development,
water and so on. The experiences of NGO
projects and government programmes
reveal that good quality bridge schools
and condensed courses have been
effective in encouraging children to enter
the formal stream. Similarly, remedial
courses and special learning camps/
programmes have made a tremendous
difference, not just in preventing
dropouts but also in improving the
learning outcomes of children in school.
(Vimala Ramachandran 2003:960).
Mid-day Meal Scheme
The National Programme of Nutritional
Support to Primary Education, commonly
known as Mid-day Meal Scheme, was
launched by the Ministry of Human
Resource
Development
(HRD),
Government of India from August 1995.
The objective of the programme was to
give a boost to universalisation of
primary education by increasing
enrolment, retention and attendance. It
was also visualised that it will help in
taking care of nutritional levels of
students in primary schools (Jayapaul,

1996:85). The other objectives are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
To foster sound social behaviour

among children by dispelling
differences between castes and
communities,
To bring about a gradual socioeconomic transformation among the
poor sections, and
To provide employment oppor tunities especially to women below
poverty line.
Provision of Mid-day meal facilitates

greater school participation in the
enhancement of enrolment of underprivileged children. This is likely to
reduce future class inequalities, since
lack of education is a major source of
economic disadvantage and social
marginalisation. (Jean and Aparajita,
2003:4673).
The Mid-day meal scheme for
children had made a promising start
throughout the country. Twelve crore
children are being covered under this
programme throughout the country
(Mid-day Meal, 2006). The Central
Government is now providing the cost of
food grains as well as the conversion cost
at the rate of Rs. 1.00 to Rs. 2.00 per
child. The overall allocation in 2004-05
was Rs. 1,675 crores (Mid-day meal,
2005:7)
The Mid-day meal scheme was
launched initially for the benefit of
students enrolled in primary schools in
2,368 Revamped Public Distribution
System (RPDS)/Employment Assurance
Scheme (EAS) blocks and 40 Low Female
Literacy (LFL) blocks during 1996-97 and
to all primary schools in the country (828
blocks and 3,000 nagar palikas) during
97
1997-98. The food grains for the scheme

are being supplied free of cost to States/
Union Territories (UTs). In addition,
handling/transport charges are
reimbursed to States by the Ministry of
HRD (Department of Education) subject
to a ceiling of Rs.25 per quintal. The Food
Corporation of India (FCI), however,
charges economic cost of the food grains
(rice and wheat) supplied by it to States
/UTs under this scheme from the
Ministry of HRD. It has placed a
revolving fund of Rs.150 crores at the
disposal of FCI for implementation of the
scheme.
Implementation
The programme is being implemented
through Panchayats and Nagarpalikas.
The scheme envisages to serve cooked
meals having a calorific value equivalent
of 100 gms of wheat/rice per student per
school-day.
Current position of State/UT-wise
implementation of the programme is as
follows: Fourteen States (Andhra
Pradesh, Chandigarh, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura
and Uttaranchal) and all 7 UTs are
providing cooked meal to all primary
school children. Nine States, (Bihar, Goa,
Haryana,
Himachal
Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orrissa,
Punjab and West Bengal) are
implementing cooked meal programme
partially. Four States, (Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and Uttar
Pradesh) are distributing food grains. In
the State of Jammu and Kashmir,
Mid-day meal scheme was introduced in
Jammu region only.
Research Studies
The Indian Planning Commission has
organised two studies one, a
comparative study of Orissa and Tamil
Nadu where a cooked meal programme
is in operation and the other, a
comparative study of Himachal Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh on the implementation of programme, where there is
arrangement for distribution of food
grains only. The reports conclude that a
cooked meal programme is more
preferable not only from the health point
of view but also in attracting children to
school. This is more evident in Tamil
Nadu where the programme has virtually
been institutionalised (Planning
Commission, 2000).
A study conducted by the National
Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) on States policies on
Incentive Schemes in Primary Schools
and their contribution to girls
participation, completed in April, 2000,
also covers the Mid-day meal scheme in
Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The
report says that the noon meal scheme
of Tamil Nadu and supply of food-grains
in Uttar Pradesh have helped to improve
the enrolment and retention of girls in
schools ( NCERT, 2000).
An evaluation of the Scheme was
done by UNICEF in consultation with the
Ministry
of
Human
Resource
Development, Government of India in
2002. The evaluation was conducted by
an independent agency, Operations
Research Group, New Delhi in 10 States,
viz. Assam, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir (only Jammu Region),
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West
November 2006
Bengal. The study using variational

analysis concludes that in the three key
educational indicators between pre and
post-programme viz., enrolment,
attendance and retention, in none of the
States the programme has made impact
on all the three indicators. While in
Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
and West Bengal the programme has
given a boost to the enrolment, in other
States, it has made positive impact on
attendance and retention (Operation,
2003).
A survey was conducted in three
States, namely, Chhatisgarh, Rajasthan
and Karnataka by Centre for Equity
Studies, New Delhi covering 81 randomly
selected schools. The survey report,
released by Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen,
suggests that school meal programme
has made a promising start around the
country but the quality issues needed
urgent attention. The report inferred that
improved Mid-day meals could transform
school education, child nutrition and
social equity (Centre, 2003)
Mid-day Meal Scheme in the State of
Andhra Pradesh
The Mid-day meal scheme in the State
of Andhra Pradesh, aimed at providing
one square nutrious meal to school
children, is being implemented in all the
22 districts of the State of Andhra
Pradesh. The programme was launched
on 2 January, 2002 as a new year gift to
school going children. Andhra Pradesh
is the last entrant into the programme
during this decade despite an over 38 per
cent school drop-out rate. The Mid-day
meal scheme is yet another strategy to
attract children once again to schools.
While, there are about 90 lakh children

registered in the schools, only about 60
per cent attended the school previously
(Naidu Set, 2003:8).
The scheme is being implemented in
all Government elementary schools
except for private aided schools and
students from secondary schools. Out of
94,711 eligible students 94,141 students
have been covered under cooked meal
scheme in the State (State, 2001). In
rural areas the Government began a
Mid-day meal scheme with the help of
local NGOs, the DWCRA groups and
other self-help groups.
Despite its effective implementation
in the State, there were some hick-ups.
More than 200 children in different parts
of Andhra Pradesh fell ill after
consuming the Mid-day meal, though the
Government termed it as the case of
minor gastro-intestinal problems ( Midday Meal Food Poisoning, 2003:11).
Similar cases were also reported in an
elementary school in Visakhapatnam
and the students were immediately
rushed to the King George Government
Hospital for treatment. Some other cases
were reported from Khammam town and
Bhongir in Nalgonda district. Seventy
students belonging to three different
schools in Tirupati town too fell ill. There
were also reports of over 150 children
complaining of contaminated foodrelated problems in some of the remote
villages of the State. As a result, parents
were unwilling to send their wards to
schools. A dead lizard was found in dal
curry at an elementary school in
Anandapuram Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District and around 60 pupils were
rushed to the nearby hospital for
99
treatment (Lizard in Mid-day meal,

2006:11).
With this backdrop, a study was
taken up with the following objectives:
(i)
to examine the impact of scheme on

increasing enrolment, retention
and attendance in the primary
schools,
(ii) to investigate the impact of scheme
on the education and health status
of students in primary classes,
(iii) to elicit the opinions of students,
parents, teachers and implementing agencies about various aspects
of the scheme, and
(iv) to make suggestions for policy and
practice.
Method and Sample
The study is conducted in Pendurthy
Mandal of Visakhapatnam District,
Andhra Pradesh State in India. The
Pendurthy Mandal has 61 government
elementary schools, where Mid-day meal
programme is being implemented. Out of
61 elementary schools in the Mandal, a
50 per cent sample was taken. All the 61
schools in the Mandal were serially
numbered and the sample was taken by
using random numbers. As such, out of
61 elementary schools in the mandal 31
elementary schools were selected for the
purpose of study. Accordingly, with the
aid of structured schedule the data were
collected from 31 Heads of the schools
and 31 implementing agencies which
supply cooked food to these schools.
Besides this, focus group discussions
were conducted with parent groups and
school children.
(a) Findings of the Heads of the Schools

A majority of the heads of the schools
(68.6%) opined that there was
considerable increase in the enrolment
of the children in schools after the
introduction of Mid-day meal scheme.
Further data reveal that there is regular
attendance of pupils. As the food is served
in the school itself, the students are
attending post lunch session on time.
A majority of the heads of the schools
(91.4%) opined that the quantity of food
served to the children was sufficient. As
regards the quality of food more than
half of the respondents opined that it was
good and the rest stated that the quality
of food needs to be improved. Further,
almost all the respondents stated that
there was no wastage of food. The data
also reveal that all the heads of the
schools taste the food before it was
served to the pupils.
Series of questions relating to the
food items, quality of food and
preparation of food were asked to the
heads of the schools. Almost all except
one stated that they do give suggestions
to the implementing agencies, who
prepare food, about the availability of
seasonal vegetables which are cost
effective in the market and its nutritive
value. Suggestions were also given about
the quality and tasty preparation of food
items. It was further inferred that the
teachers and the heads of the schools
also supervise the serving process of the
Mid-day meals.
As regards the eating places in the
schools, the data revealed that a majority
i.e., 68.6 per cent eat in the varandah
and 17.1% stated that pupil take meal
in their classrooms itself. The rest take
November 2006
meal in the open ground. As regards the

cleaning of place after eating food, it was
revealed that in most places the members
of the SHGs took the responsibility of
cleaning the place. In some cases, the
pupil themselves cleaned the places. The
opinions of the heads of the schools about
the standard of education and health
reveal that nearly three-fourths of the
heads of the schools opined that there
was improvement in the standards of
education of children after introduction
of the Mid-day meal scheme. A majority
of the respondents also stated that the
health of the children was improved after
introduction of the Mid-day meal
scheme.
Monitoring of the Programme
The heads of the school monitor the
programme for its effective implementation. The Table 1 details the type of
monitoring the respondents exercise.
TABLE 1
Type of Monitoring of the Programme
Type of Monitoring
Per cent
Verification of cash and

stock register
Verification of measurement
of food
100.0
91.4
Supervision of cooking process
45.7
Maintenance of cleanliness
54.3
(n=31)
The heads of schools were entrusted

with the tasks of verifying the cash, stock
registers and food items. Further they also
supervise the cooking process to ensure
non-contamination of food and
cleanliness of the surroundings.
Suggestions given by the Heads of

the Schools
TABLE 2
Suggestions
Suggestions
Per cent
101
Cooperation
A majority (88.6%) of the implementing
agencies stated that the school staff
cooperates with the agencies in
supervision, selection of place of eating
and in cleaning the utensils, etc. Some
teachers also had advanced loans to the
agencies when the funds from the
Government were delayed.
Change of menu
68.6
Enhancement of budget per child
85.7
Construction of cooking shelter
45.7
Ensuring nutritious diet
40.0
Budget
Provisions of plates and glasses
25.7
Most of the implementing agencies

(68.57%) stated that the amount
earmarked per child is highly inadequate
as they were not able to purchase
provisions with the allotted money of
Rs.1.60 per child.. The rest (31.43%)
stated that they are able to manage,
however.
(n=31)
Most heads of the schools suggested

that budget per child should be increased
to ensure adequate nutritious meal to
the school children. Further, they
expressed that the menu should be
changed from time to time so that
repeated food items can be avoided. Some
also suggested that construction of
cooking shelters be undertaken so that
cooking takes place in the premises of
school itself. A few suggested that
nutritious food with required calories be
provided to ensure better health of school
going children. Provision of plates and
glasses to the schools help the children
to save time and concentrate on studies.
(b) Findings of the Implementing Agencies
Almost all agencies supply cooked rice
with sambar and weekly once an egg.
Very few agencies were found supplying
a fruit or a sweet on rare occasions. The
implementing agencies secured to have
used different types of fuel for cooking.
It was found that about 45.7% use
Liquified Petroleum Gas, 40.0% use
firewood and the rest use both Gas and
fire wood for cooking the Mid-day meal.
Quality and Type of Food

All the respondents of the implementing
agencies stated that they tried to
maintain quality within the stipulated
amount. A majority of the agencies serve
different types of food items everyday
depending on the locally available
vegetables. Some of the agencies were
found to have served the same food on
all the days. The following table explains
the changes made in the menu served
to the pupils.
TABLE 3
Changes in the Menu Served
Item
Number of
times in
a week
Per cent
Egg
Once
100.0
Vegetable curries
Twice
62.9
Tamarind rice
Once
31.4
(n=31)
November 2006
In order to make the food tasty and

eatable, the implementing agencies
change the menu items so that children
find it interesting to eat. In addition to
the sambar 1 with rice they provide
curries two times a week, egg and
tamarind rice once in a week.
Those who find it difficult to provide
cooked food within the allocated budget,
and also sometimes due to delay in
sanction of allocated money, resort to
different ways to sustain the programme.
The following table explains the
alternatives they resorted to.
TABLE 4
Alternative arrangements made to
sustain the Programme
Variable
Per cent
Take loan
Take advance from SHG funds
Pledge gold ornaments of the
members
37.1
14.3
11.4
(n=31)
Most of the agencies took petty loans

from friends and outsiders to sustain the
programme. Instances of pledging gold

ornaments of the members of the
implementing agencies and drawing
some advances from the SHG funds were
also found in extreme cases. About 10
agencies expressed helplessness either
to borrow loan or to make alternative
arrangements but somehow manage the
programme despite several odds.
Monitoring by Officials
The following table furnishes the
frequency of visits by the concerned
officials to oversee the programme.
As can be seen from the Table, the
heads of the schools and teachers
regularly monitor and supervise the
programme. Mandal level Officers such
as Mandal Revenue Officer, Mandal
Development Officer and Mandal
Resource Persons make visits now and
then.
The problems expressed by the
implementing agencies in the
implementation of the Mid-day meal
scheme are presented in Table 6.
TABLE 5
Visits by the Officials
Visits by the Officials
Mandal Education Officers
Heads of the School
Teachers of the School
Mandal Revenue Officer
Sometimes
(percentage)
100.0
96.7
100.0
9.7
3.3
90.3
Mandal Development Officer
100.0
Mandal Resource Person
100.0
(n = 31)
1
Often
(percentage
Sambar is curry made with pulses

TABLE 6
Problems of Implementing Agencies
Problems
Irregular payment of funds
No shelter for cooking
No remuneration/salary for cooks
Insufficient cooking vessels
Per cent
65.7
20.0
45.7
14.3
(n=31)
A majority of the respondents stated

that there was undue delay of release of
funds by the Government. This caused
hardship to the agencies to buy
provisions. They also expressed that
there was no provision for payment of
honorarium or salary or incentive to the
cooks engaged by the implementing
agencies. Some implementing agencies
also had space problems for cooking
arrangements in addition to the
inadequacy of cooking vessels. As such
these agencies were finding it difficult to
cook with the limited available vessels
and space.
Suggestions given by Implementing
Agencies
The implementing agencies made the
suggestions shown in Table 7, for the
affective implementation of the Mid-day
meal programme.
TABLE 7
Suggestions by Implementing Agencies
Problems
Enhancement of budget
Supply of Liquefied Petroleum
Gas free of charge
Provision of cooking shelter
Provision of remuneration
Increase quantity of rice per child
Provision of utensils
(n = 31)
Per cent
94.3
22.9
40.0
57.1
31.4
22.9
103
Most of the respondents suggested

that there is an urgent need to enhance
budget from the current rate of Rs. 1.60
to Rs. 2.00 per child in view of the high
prices of provisions and vegetables. With
low budget, these agencies were not able
to provide required calories of nutritious
food as per the specifications of the
Government. As provision of budget is
limited and the margin of profit is zero,
these implementing agencies suggest
that the Government may make provision
for payment of honorarium or salary or
incentive to the cooks engaged by the
agencies. Some others also suggested
that the construction of cooking shelters
in the school premises could save time.
They also suggested that the supply of
cooking vessels and LPG gas on free of
charge could solve many of their
problems as the price of the LPG gas is
exorbitantly high. These agencies also
made another suggestion that the
Government should increase quantity of
rice per child, so that sumptuous meal
can be provided to the school children.
Parents Opinion on Mid-Day Meal
programme
Series of focus group discussions held
with parent groups revealed positive as
well as negative feed back about Mid-day
meal programme. The parents opined
that provision of Mid-day meal served as
lunch to the pupils was considered as a
welcome feature as the hunger of the
children from poverty groups was
mitigated partially. Due to this provision
children stay in their respective schools
in the afternoons and thus, ensuring
regular attendance of the children in
both the sessions.
Parents expressed that the

implementing agencies were taking away
some part of the cooked food to their
houses and the remains were taken to
the school for serving to school children,
which was hardly sufficient. The other
complaints include improper cooked food
and worms in the rice and vegetable
curries. In some cases, children had
stomachache and other health related
problems. When this was brought to the
notice of the school teachers and to the
implementing agencies, they expressed
inability to solve the problem. There were
also complaints about the illegal sale of
rice allotted under the scheme by the
ration depot dealers and in its place
much more inferior quality of rice was
supplied.
Discussion
Introduction of the Mid-day meal scheme
to the school going children is a novel
method of increasing enrolment and
retention in the school besides partly
filling their hunger. Organisation of such
a scheme on a massive scale certainly
involves careful planning and execution.
Identification of the implementing
agencies is critical for the success of the
scheme. Most of the agencies were Self
Help Groups (SHGs) whose main activity
was micro-credit and thrift. These
agencies were entrusted to take up
responsibility of providing cooked meal
for the school children. But this
enthusiasm did not last long as there
were structural constraints in
implementation. The allocation of money
of Rs.1.60 per child was found to be
inadequate for the agencies to supply
required calories of food.
November 2006
Though the rice is being supplied

through the outlets of public distribution
system, there were several complaints
with regard to the supply of inferior
quality of rice. These complaints could
not be attended as the dealers expressed
helplessness in this regard. There were
also complaints that some ration depot
dealers were selling the rice procured for
the scheme to others for a higher price
and in its place much more inferior
quality of rice was supplied.
Some parents stated that some part
of the food materials cooked by the
implementing agencies were being taken
away for their personal consumption, and
the remaining was taken to school and
served to the children. Due to this,
children were not getting adequate lunch.
It is found in the study that half of
the agencies were cooking outside the
premises of schools due to lack of space
and cooking shelter in the school
premises itself. When food was cooked
outside the premises of the schools, the
chances of pilferage would be more and
as such the children would be getting
less quantity. The heads of the schools
can approach local philanthropists to
donate for the construction of cooking
sheds in the school premises.
The inordinate delay in release of
funds to the Mid-day meal scheme by the
Government is causing hardship to the
implementing agencies to continue and
sustain the programme. These agencies
borrowed petty loans from its members
and others to mitigate the problem.
As regards the quality and quantity
of food served to the school children,
there were divergent views expressed by
the teachers, parents, implementing
agencies and students. Teachers and the

implementing agencies stated that the
quantity of food served to the school
children was sufficient to fill their hunger
whereas the parents and their children
informed that the food was inadequate
and children were asked to adjust with
the rice and the curries served for first
time. If the children go for the second time
for some more food the answer would be
negative.
Though not quantitative data to find
out the increase in the enrolment and
improvement in academic and health
standards, the opinions of the heads of
the schools revealed that there is
considerable increase in the enrolment
and retention of the school children
besides improvement in the academic
and health standards of the wards.
There seems to be little monitoring
from the government officials as they
rarely visit to oversee the implementation
of the programme. It was mostly the
heads and teachers of the schools,
who evinced more interest in supervising
the process of cooking and serving the
meal.
Suggestions
Construction of cooking shelters at

the school premises helps to save time
and avoid pilferage and misuse of food
by the implementing agencies.
Provision of a store room in the school
premises helps to keep the food in
safe custody of the heads of the
schools.
The Heads of the schools may be
entrusted to release adequate
quantity of rice and other items to
the implementing agencies to ensure
105
adequate quantity of rice and curries

for serving.
The process and scrutiny of the bills
and registers may be made easy and
less complicated as most of the
members of the implementing
agencies are either illiterate or semiliterate. It would be advisable to
process the bills through the heads
of the schools.
It is learnt that most of the amount
is spent by the agencies in initial
days and the rest of the days they
were borrowing loan from other
sources. On the other, if the amount
is released to the heads of the schools
directly, they can in turn release the
funds to the implementing agencies
to ensure accountability.
The delay in release of funds has
caused several problems, as these
agencies have less financial
resources. Hence, funds may be
released without causing delay.
The amount of Rs. 1.60 per child may
be increased to Rs. 2.00 in view of the
hike in the prices of food commodities
and vegetables.
As the amount earmarked per child
is much less, these agencies are not
able to get any margin out of it.
Hence, there may be a provision for
payment of a token honorarium to
the members who are involved in the
procurement and cooking processes.
This instills a sense of commitment,
responsibility and stakeholdership.
There may be a monitoring cell to
check illegal sales of the rice meant
for the scheme by the ration depot
dealers so as to ensure good quality
of rice supplied to the implementing
agencies.
November 2006
The members of the implementing

agencies need to be trained on
budgeting, preparation of nutritious
and tasty food and scientific handling
and processing of food. For this, the
services of Food and Nutrition Board,
Government of India and Chartered
Accountants can be drawn to impart
training to the members engaged in
supply of cooked meal to the children.
As contemplated by the Government

of India, the mothers of the school
children can be engaged in
supervision process of the cooking
and serving the meal to the school
children.
The study brought to light several

bottlenecks infringing upon effective
implementation of the Mid-day meal
scheme. Some of the findings made may

also be generalised to the other rural
areas in the State where Mid-day meal
programme is being implemented. The
programme is a stepping stone for
enhancing the literacy rates and also
promoting health concept among school
going children. Such a novel programme
should be sustained despite heavy
financial commitment on the part of the
government. Hence, the recommendations suggested may well be conceived
and the government in all its true spirit
make appropriate changes in policy for
effective implementation of the
programme. The role of Academicians,
Social Workers, Political Leaders, and
Media is onerous in contributing their
knowledge and services for the success
of the programme.
REFERENCES
AKSHAY SOOD. 2003. Critical issues in Primary Education. Economic and Political Weekly,
XXXVIII, (25), p.2469.
Centre for Equity Studies, 2003. A Survey, New Delhi.
CHARULATA, S. 2005. Value Education Yojana, 49, pp.45-46.
FAHIRUDDIN. 2003. Nutritional Support to Primary Education. Anmol Publications Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi.
Government of India. 2002. Selected Educational Statistics. Ministry of Human
Resource Development. New Delhi.
GOVINDA, R. 2005. Elementary Education: Progress and Challenges, Yojana, 49, p.10.
JEAN, D. AND G. APERAJITA. 2003. Future of Mid-day Meals. Economic and Political
Weekly, XXXVII, (44), pp.4673-74.
JEYAPAUL, C. 1996. Nutritional Support to Primary Education. Yojana, 40(1), pp.82-83.
Lizard in Mid-day Meal. 2006. July 14. Eenadu (daily), p.11.
MADHUSUDAN, J.V. 2003. Shifting Cultivation and its Affect on Primary Education.
Yojana, 47(9), p.31.
Mid-day Meal Food Poisoning. 2003. January, 4. National Network, Express News
Service, p.11.
Mid-day Meal Scheme. 2005. March, 9. The Hindu, p.7.
107
Mid-day Meal in School for Children. 2006 January, 1. The Hindu, p.14.
NAIDU. 2003. Set to Make Meal Scheme A Hit, 20th January. Financial Express, p.8.
NCERT. 2000. State Policies on Incentive Schemes in Primary Schools and their
Contribution to Girls Participation, New Delhi.
Operation Research Group. 2003. Mid-day Meal Scheme. National Programme of
Nutritional support to primary education, Evaluation of the Scheme, New Delhi.
Planning Commission. 2000. Mid-day Meal Scheme, National Programme of Nutritional
Support to Primary Education, New Delhi.
State-wise situation: Mid-day Meal. 2001. 28 November. The Hindu, p.12.
VIMALA RAMACHANDRAN. 2003. Backward and Forward Linkages that Strengthen Primary
Education. Economic and Political Weekly, XXXVIII, (10), pp.960-62.
November 2006
Achievement Motivation among Secondary

School Tribal and Non-tribal Students
BIDYADHAR SA*
Abstract
The major purpose of this research was to investigate into the level of achievement
motivation among secondary school tribal and nontribal students. The data were
collected on the 600 sample subjects selected through stratified random sampling
by employing Deo-Mohan Achievement Motivation Scale. The collected data were
subjected to t-test for large independent groups and Means of different groups
were represented in Bar Graphs. The outcome of the research investigation was
in favour of secondary school non-tribal students it means that all the alternative
hypothesis are accepted. We can conclude that the secondary school tribal students
lag behind in their level of achievement motivation than their non-tribal counterparts because of various reasons, which have been discussed in the result, and
discussion section, which is followed by educational implications.
Achievement Motivation (N-Ach), which

is characterised by a desire to attain a
high standard of excellence and to
accomplish a unique objective, was one
of the first social motives to be studied
in detail by McClelland in 1953. He
expressed that social process of
interaction with the environment is
important and instrumental to learn
various categories of motives. Different
levels of environmental variables, which
exist in family, school and society,
influence development of achievement
motivation. When parents expect high
level of excellence in the performance of
their children and accordingly give them

guidance to achieve the goal,
achievement motive of the children is
developed and influenced. Similarly, the
impact of social expectation and models
in society is seen on the mind of the
children in the development of
achievement motive. When the children
go to the school, their mental faculties
are diversified due to their new
experiences in the academic environment of the school. Role models of
teachers and seniors, information of
achievement of towering personalities in
various fields, etc. influence the mind of
* Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Addis Ababa University, PO

Box 150370, Addis Ababa Ethopia.
Achievement Motivation among Secondary School Tribal...
the students to develop higher level of

achievement motivation. Thus, the
degree of achievement oriented
behaviour, which the people with strong
underlying achievement motivation
show, depends upon factors like child
rearing practices, race, environment,
family structure, occupational status,
climatic condition and so on, which
directly or indirectly are responsible for
the same.
In this direction if we think of the
tribals, they are not only socially
disadvantaged, economically deprived
and geographically cut off but also
psychologically alienated. Therefore, it is
essential to investigate into the level of
achievement motivation of the tribals.
With regard to achievement motivation
of tribal and non-tribal students, the
research findings are contradictory.
L yngdoh (1976), Mubayi (1976) and
Lalitha (1982) reported that tribal and
non-tribal students did not differ
significantly in their level of achievement
motivation. Lyngdoh came out with the
conclusion that the socio-economic
status factor had significant contribution
in the development of n-Ach. Mubayi was
of the opinion that the type of school did
affect the level of achievement motivation
of both the tribal and non-tribal
students. He further, opined that cultural
background, number of siblings in a
family, birth order of the student,
occupational and educational level of the
father, age, motivation towards school
had little to do with n-Ach of the students
of both the groups. Lalitha did not find
any significant impact of socio-economic
status, school environment, sex and
parental behaviour on achievement
motivation.
109
On the contrary to the above stated

results, Gokulanathan (1972), Singh
(1979), Sujatha and Yasodhara (1986),
Fatima (1986), Nayak (1990), Narain
(1996), Bharsakle (1997) reported
significant differences between tribal and
non-tribal students on achievement
motivation measure. But again here
controversy aroused as to which group
was better, whether the tribal or the nontribal.Gokulnathan (1972) and Singh
(1979) found high need achievement
level in tribal students as compared to
non-tribal ones whereas Sujatha and
Yasodhara, Fatima, Nayak and
Bharsakle reported that non-tribals were
better than the tribals in n-Ach.Fatima
concluded that social background,
religious background, sex, caste status,
area of residence, socio-economic status
had laudable effect on achievement
motivation of both the groups however
the effect of family type and birth order
was not significant. The study conducted
by Balkrishna (1986) revealed that
Christian tribals were better than nonChristian tribals in achievement
motivation. Taluja and Zainuddin (1993)
came out with the finding that childrearing practices had significant role in
the development of achievement
motivation. Narain (1996) lauded that
mothers education and socio-economic
status exercised greater effect on the
achievement motivation of the students
of both the groups. Against this back
ground for the present study the
following objectives were developed.
(i)
To compare the level of achievement

motivation of secondary school
tribal and non-tribal students.
(ii) To compare the level of achievement

tribal boys and nontribal boy
students.
(iii) To compare the level of achievement
tribal girls and non-tribal girl
students.
(iv) To compare the level of achievement
tribal boys and non-tribal girl
students.
(v) To compare the level of achievement
tribal girls and non-tribal boy
students.
November 2006
Methodology
Sample
For the present study the survey type
descriptive research method was
adopted. A sample of 600 secondary
school tribal and non-tribal students
studying in Class- X from three districts,
i.e. Kalahandi, Bolangir and Koraput
(KBK) of Orissa State were selected using
stratified random sampling on the basis
of equal allocation. The two strata
selected for sampling were category
(Tribal and Non-tribal) and gender (Boys
and Girls). The detail of the selected
sample is presented in the following
figure.
Hypothesis of the Study

Representation of the sample
N= 600
Category
On the basis of the objectives of the study

following alternative hypothesis were
developed:
Tribal (300)
Non- Tribal (300)
Gender
Girls
(150)
Boys
(150)
Gender
Boys
(150)
(i) There exists significant difference in

the level of achievement motivation
of secondary school tribal and nontribal students.
(ii) There exists significant difference in
of secondary school tribal boys and
non-tribal boy students.
(iii) There exists significant difference in
of secondary school tribal girls and
non-tribal girl students.
(iv) There exists significant difference in
of secondary school tribal boys and
non-tribal girl students.
(v) There exists significant difference in
of secondary school tribal girls and
non-tribal boy students.
Girls
(150)
To collect data Deo-Mohan

Achievement Motivation (n-Ach) scale
(Deo and Asha, 1990) was administered
on the selected sample of subjects. It is
meant for subjects between the age group
13 to 20 years for both boys and girls,
which was one of the major criteria for
selecting this tool. This scale consisted
of 50 items as suggested by McClelland
and Atkinson. Out of 50 items 13 are
negative and 37 are positive items. This
scale is broadly based on three factors
such as: (i) academic factors, (ii) factors
of general interest, and (iii) factors of

social interest. Under these three main
factors, items relating to other subfactors such as academic motivation,
need for achievement, academic
challenge, achievement anxiety,
importance of grades/marks, meaningfulness of tasks, relevance of school/
college to future goals, attitude towards
education, work methods, attitude
towards teachers, interpersonal
relations, individual concern, general
interests, dramatics, sports, etc. are
included. The test-re-test reliability
coefficient of the test for boys is 0.67, for
girls 0.78 and for both 0.69. The validity
of this scale was established through
concurrent method with Projective Test
of Achievement Motivation and the
111
coefficient of correlation was 0.54 and

with the Aberdeen Academic Motivation
Inventory of Entwistle (1968) yielding a
coefficient of correlation as 0.75 for a
mixed sample of 93.
After the collection of data, the
scoring was done using two stencil
keys one for positive items and the
other for negative items. A positive item
carried the weights of 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0
respectively for the categories of Always,
Frequently, Sometimes, Rarely and
Never. A negative item was scored 0, 1,
2, 3, and 4 for the categories stated above
respectively. The total score was the
summation of all the positive and
negative items scores. Minimum score
obtained could be 0 and maximum could
be 200.
TABLE 1
Comparison of Mean Achievement Motivation Scores of Different Groups of
Secondary School Tribal and Non-tribal Students
Groups
S.D.
Tribal
300
132.50
22.39
Non-tribal
300
155.39
19.80
Tribal Boys
150
139.19
22.52
Non-tribal Boys
150
157.41
17.91
Tribal Girls
150
125.81
20.14
Non-tribal Girls
150
153.37
21.32
Tribal Boys
150
139.19
22.52
Non-tribal Girls
150
153.37
21.32
Tribal Girls
150
125.81
20.14
Non-tribal Boys
150
157.41
17.91
Table Value:
At 0.05 level 1.96
At 0.01 level 2.58
SED
t-ratio
Level of Sig.
1.73
13.23
.01 Level
2.35
7.75
.01 Level
2.39
11.53
.01 Level
2.53
5.60
.01 Level
2.20
14.36
.01 Level
November 2006
200
180
155.29
160
157.41
153.37
139.19
140
153.37
157.41
139.19
132.5
125.81
125.81
120
100
80
60
40
Tribal Girls/
bal
Non-tribal Boys
bal
Tribal Boys/
Non-tribal Girls
Tribal Girls/
bal
Non-tribal Girls
bal
Tribal Boys/
Non-tribal Boys
Tribal/Non-tribal
bal
20
Bar Graph showing Mean Achievement Motivation Scores of Different Groups of

Secondary School Tribal and Non-tribal Students
(Figure A)
Statistical Treatment
The raw data of sample subjects were
subjected to t-test to transform into
information. Further the mean scores of
different groups have been depicted in
bar graphs.
Results and Discussion
From table A and figure A, it can be
clearly viewed that all the groups of tribal
and non-tribal students differ

significantly in their level of achievement
motivation. The mean scores of entire
non-tribal students (155.39), non-tribal
boys (157.41) and non-tribal girls
(153.37) are considerably higher than
the mean scores of entire tribal students
(132.50), tribal boys (139.19) and tribal
girls (125.81) on the achievement
motivation scale. As shown in table A,

the t-ratios for mean achievement
motivation scores of secondary school
tribal and non-tribal students (13.23),
tribal boys and non- tribal boys students
(7.75), tribal girls and non-tribal girls
students (11.53), tribal boys and nontribal girls (5.60) and tribal girls and nontribal boys (14.36) are more than the table
value at point 0.01 level of significance
(2.58). Therefore, alternative hypothesis
stated beforehand are approved. Thus,
it can be interpreted that the secondary
school non-tribal students have better
level of achievement motivation than
their tribal counterparts.
The findings of the present study are
in contradiction with the results of the
studies conducted by Lyngdoh (1976),
Mubayi (1976) and Lalitha (1982), who
reported that tribal and non-tribal
students did not differ significantly in
their level of achievement motivation.
These contradictory results may be due
to differences in sample selected for the
research, tools used in the research,
geographical area taken for the
research. However, the findings of the
present study concerning achievement
motivation are in agreement with the
results of Gokulanathan (1972),
Singh(1979), Sujatha and Yasodhara
(1986), Fatima (1986), Nayak (1990),
Taluja and Zainuddin(1993), Narain
(1996) and Bharsakle (1997). In the
present study non-tribals have scored
better than their tribal counterparts on
achievement motivation scale. This may
be due to factors like social background,
religious background, sex, caste status,
area of residence, socio-economic status
(Fatima, 1986), child rearing practices
(Taluja and Zainuddin,1993), mothers
113
education and socio-economic status

(Narain,1996). Fatima conducted a study
on achievement related motivations
among tribal and non-tribal high school
students and depicted that social
background, religious background, sex,
caste, area of residence and socioeconomic status contributed more to
develop higher level of achievement
motivation in non-tribal students. But
these factors proved to be ineffective to
develop higher level of achievement
motivation in tribal students. Taluja and
Zainuddin (1993) found that child
rearing practices as the most important
motivating force in the development of
higher level of achievement motivation
in their study on the development of need
autonomy, need achievement and need
affiliation in children as related to child
rearing practices. Narain (1996)
concluded that mothers education and
socio-economic status of the family play
a very significant role to develop higher
level of achievement motivation in her
study on achievement motivation in
tribal and non-tribal women. However,
the authors, who did not see any
difference in the achievement motivation
of tribals and non-tribals, are of the
opinion that the above discussed factors
have little to do with n-Ach of the
students of both the groups.
In the case of non-tribal students,
their higher level of achievement
motivation might be influenced by the
presence of various powerful forces in
their family like parents own high
achievements, parents high expectation
from their children, parents involvement
and interest in their childrens activities,
encouragement to children from their
parents, etc. Such motivational forces
may be lacking in the families of tribal

students.
Teachers and conditions in the
school also play important role in
developing achievement motivation in
the students. Non-tribal students already
might be possessing higher level of
achievement motivation due to their
strong family motivational forces. Their
level of achievement motivation may be
further enhanced and solidified because
of role model of teachers and reinforcing
conditions in the school. As a result they
will develop awakening and awareness
about the aims and objectives of their
schooling. Teachers personality plays
hypnotizing effect on the mind of the
students to understand the reasons to
have achievement motive in society. But
in case of tribal students, they may not
be so sensitive to understand the reasons
to have achievement motive in life. They
may be in the grip of non-motivational
forces of the fears by like illiteracy, lack
of role model of parents, lack of exciting
achievements of their parents, etc. They
may not be ready to learn from within.
Therefore, this difference in the outlook
of tribal and non-tribal students may be
responsible in the development of
difference in their levels of achievement
motivation. Therefore, non-tribal
students might have depicted higher level
of achievement motivation in comparison
with tribal students.
Educational Implications
The present study within its limitations
has implications for policy-planners,
educational experts, teachers and above
all the society itself. The study confirms
that secondary school tribal students
November 2006
lack behind in their level of achievement

motivation in comparison to their nontribal counterparts.
Therefore, the following suggestions
are made so that the above mentioned
stakeholders will have a strong base to
upgrade the level of achievement
motivation of secondary school tribal
students.
(i) Achievement motivation can be
developed among tribal students in
school itself by designing special
curriculums and this deserves
attention in view of the educational
needs of the country.
(ii) The life stories of successful
personalities of their local
community can be included in the
syllabus so as to boost their level of
achievement motivation.
(iii) The teachers should make clear the
importance of achievement motive
in life by means of telling the stories
of great personalities and their
achievement from every walk of life.
(iv) The teachers should make them
understand the aims and objectives
of schooling and provide conducive
environment in the school and
outside the school so that they may
develop higher level of motive.
(v) The teachers attitude and
enthusiasm will create better
environment for achievement
motivation in tribal students.
(vi) Qualified and good teachers
belonging to same locality should be
appointed so that they may
understand the difficulties faced by
the tribal students and moreover
they will not hesitate to talk about
their problems to the teachers.
(vii) Self-study should be emphasised.

The teachers should ask the
students to keep the record of
their progress towards their set
goal.
115
(viii) The teachers should make an effort

to develop a conducive social
climate in the class so that every
student should feel that he/she
belongs to a group.
REFERENCES
AGGARWAL, Y.P. 1998. Statistical Methods, Concepts, Application and Computation. Sterling
Publishing Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
AGGARWAL, Y.P. 1998. The Science of Educational Research- A Source Book. Nirmal
Book Agency. Kurukshetra.
BEST, J.W. AND J.V. KAHN. 1996. Research in Education. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi.
BHARSAKLE, SURENDRA. 1997. A Study on Need Achievement Motivation in Tribal and
Non-tribal High School Students. Indian Psychological Abstracts and Reviews.
Vol. 4 Number 1 January-June.
DEO, PRATIBHA and ASHA MOHAN. 1984. Manual for Deo-Mohan Achievement Motivation (nAch) Scale. National Psychological Corporation. Agra.
DUBE, S.C. 1998. Tribal Education. In S.C. Dube (Ed.) Antiquity to Modernity in
Tribal India: Continuity and Change among Indian Tribes. Vol. I pp. 333-346 Inter
India Publication. New Delhi.
DUTT, M.L. 1991. Achievement Motivation and Parental Behaviour: A Creative of
Researchers Indian Educational Review, Vol. 26(1): 107-14.
FATIMA, S.M.B. 1986. A Study of Achievement-related Motivations among Tribal and
non-Tribal High School Students. In M.B. Buch (Ed.).1991 Fourth Survey of
Research in Education (1983-88). Vol. II. NCERT, New Delhi,
GARRET, H.E. and R.S. WOODWOR TH. 1981. Statistics in Psychology and Education.
Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd. Bombay.
GOKULNATHAN, P.P. 1979. A Study of Achievement-Related Motivation (n-achievement
and anxiety) on Educational Achievement among Secondary School Pupils. In
M.B. Buch (Ed.) Second Survey of Research in Education (1972-78). Society of
Educational Research and Development. Baroda.
LALITHA. 1982. A study of Achievement Motivation among School going Tribal Children
is Relation to their Perceived Parental Behaviour. In M.B. Buch (Ed.)1987 Third
Survey of Research in Education (1978-83). NCERT. New Delhi.
LYNGDOH, K.H. 1979. A Study of the Achievement Motivation, Fear of Failure, Concerns.
Occupational Aspiration and Family Influence of the College Tribal and NonTribal Boys and Girls of Meghalay. In M.B. Buch (Ed.) Second Survey of Research
in Education (1972-78). Society for Research and Development. Baroda.
_________ 2002. Secondary Education in Tribal Dominated Areas. In M.
Mukhopadhyay and M. Narula (Eds.) Secondary Education: The Challenges Ahead.
NIEPA. New Delhi.
MORGAN, CLIFFORD T. et al., 2001. Introduction to Psychology. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited. New Delhi.
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MUBAYI, H. 1976. A Study of the Achievement Motives of Secondary School Pupils of

Scheduled Tribes of South Gujrat. In M.B. Buch (Ed.).1979 Second Survey of
Research in Education (1972-78). Society for Research and Development. Baroda.
NARAIN, VINITA. 1999-2000. Achievement Motivation in Tribal and Non-tribal Women.
In NCERT (Ed.) Indian Educational Abstract. Issue 7 and 8 July to Jan. NCERT.
New Delhi.
NAYAK, B.P. 1990. Achievement Motivation and Level of Aspiration of Tribal and
Non-tribal Children (7-11 age group). In NCERT (Ed.) 1997 Fifth Survey of
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BIDYADHAR, SA 2006. Focusing on Some Psychological Dimensions of Tribals-ISBN
81-88865-21-4 India, Gagandeep Publications. New Delhi.
_________ 2006. A Comparative Study of Mental Abilities and Achievement (n-Ach.)
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Motivation and Personality. In M.B.Buch (Ed.).1991 Third Survey of Research in
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SKINNER, C.E. (Ed.) 1995. Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
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in Education, Vol. II (1983-88). NCERT. New Delhi.
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A Study of Existing Facilities of Science Teaching in the High Schools...
117
A Study of Existing Facilities of Science

Teaching in the High Schools of
Chhimtuipui District, Mizoram
T.B. SINGH*
Abstract
This paper following a descriptive survey method attempts to make an assessment
of the existing facilities available for science teaching in the high schools of
Chhimtuipui District of Mizoram. A purposive sample consisting of all the 60
teachers 51 males and 9 females in 40 different high schools of the district was
taken for the present study. The major findings were: (i) lack of qualified teachers
in all types of schools, (ii) lack of qualified teachers both in urban and rural schools,
(iii) lack of library, laboratory, equipment and chemicals, audio-visual aids, etc. in
all types of schools, (iv) teachers are found to be using mainly the translation
method in the teaching of science.
Science is considered to be one of the

most important subjects in school
curricula because it can play a vital role
in the development of human resources.
Progress in science is the key to progress
in all walks of life. Every country
develops its own system of education to
meet the challenges of the changing
times. The progress, welfare and security
of a nation largely depend on the
scientific research done in its
laboratories. But, it is a fact that no
country can produce qualified personnel
at higher levels of education all of a
sudden without putting a firm base of
science education right from the school

level. The Education Commission
(1964-66) report rightly directed that the
science teaching can become meaningful
and useful only if the methods of teaching
are vitalised and proper facilities are
provided for the teaching of the subject.
Adequate
facilities
create
an
environment in which interest and
creative thinking develops and many
types of processes may be tried out.
Science is essentially a practical subject
and that the young pupils like doing
something rather than simply listening.
Hubler (1974) states, Learning in an
*Selection Grade Lecturer, Government Saiha College, Mizoram.
active process rather than a passive

receptively; hence resources or
facilities which facilitates learning are
fundamental.
In the National Curriculum (NPE,
1986) teaching-learning facilities for
schools are outlined as follows: Provision
for essential facilities required for
effective transaction of the curriculum
in all schools needs to be articulated
effectively in all the plans and
programmes
for
educational
development. It is necessary to ensure
that all schools have the minimum
essential facilities in terms of classrooms,
teachers, teaching aids, etc. But the
present school science education in
India presents a diversity of problems
and issues. Despite the efforts that have
been made from time to time to improve
school science education, the situation
has not improved noticeably and in some
respects one might even say that it had
deteriorated.
Even
after
fifty
years
of
independence, science education in the
high schools of Mizoram seems to have
serious drawbacks. The reasons for this
type of situation can be traced to the
inadequate and weak foundations of
science education in the school system
in the state.
Prior to 1973, science was taught in
the middle schools as general knowledge
dealing mainly with biological sciences.
The subject was not given due
importance even in the high schools and
it was taught at theoretical levels.
Mizoram followed the traditional science
curriculum of pre-independence day till
1990. The curriculum has been revised
keeping in view the national curriculum.
Textbooks have been prepared and
November 2006
introduced in the schools in a phased

manner since 1991. However, the
problem remains about the qualitative
and quantitative improvement of science
education, such as providing facilities,
recruiting qualified and trained science
teachers, etc. There are teachers
teaching science in many high schools
without science background. There is
ample evidence to infer that there is
dearth of qualified and trained science
teachers and the schools are lacking in
facilities like laboratories, equipment,
teaching aids, etc. for effective teaching
of science. In a study conducted by
Vadhera (1992), it was found that there
were only 19.49% trained science
graduate teachers in the state and
25.81% teachers who were teaching
science at the secondary level were not
having even a science degree. Chimara
(1999) also revealed that some of the high
schools in Mizoram do not have adequate
number of qualified teachers and more
than 30% teachers were untrained. With
regard to laboratory, 70% secondary
schools in Mizoram neither have
separate nor combined laboratories for
Physics, Chemistry and Biology
(Mahanjan, et al, 1995). Therefore, the
present study attempts to make a
comprehensive survey of the existing
facilities available for science teaching
in the high schools of Chhimtuipui
District, Mizoram to identify the
measures which are appropriately in line
with the actual situation and needs
prevailing in the schools for improvement
of science education.
Objectives
(i)
To make an assessment of the

existing facilities such as
(ii)
(qualification of science teachers,

library, laboratory, equipment and
chemicals, audio-visual aids,
method of teaching, etc.) available
for Science teaching in the high
schools of Chhimtuipui District,
Mizoram.
To recommend on the basis of the
findings, remedial measures for the
improvement of facilities for effective
Science teaching.
Terms Defined
Government schools: Schools fully
financed and managed by the
Government.
Deficit schools: Schools under private
management but receive financial help
from the government in the form of
grants-in-aid.
Aided schools: Schools under private
management but receive less financial
help from the government as grants- inaid.
Private schools: Schools completely
managed by private bodies.
Delimitations
The present study includes all the four
types of schools Government, Deficit,
Aided and Private in the district of
Chhimtuipui. Out of 44 high schools in
the district, 40 (90.91%) schools were
selected for the study. Of the 40 schools,
12 were Government, 13 were Deficit, 2
were Aided and 13 were purely Private.
The schools for this study were selected
from both urban and rural areas of the
district.
Procedure
The information about the facilities of the
schools was collected through
119
questionnaire from the science teachers

of the schools under study. A purposive
sample consisting of all the 60 teachers,
51 males and 9 females in 40 different
high schools of Chhimtuipui District
were taken for the present study. The
different items of the questionnaire on
facility were converted into percentages.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
The results of the analysis of
qualifications of teachers by type of
schools and locationurban and rural
are given in Table 1 and Table 2
respectively.
It can be seen from Table 1 that out
of the 60 teachers, only 22 (36.67%)
teachers possess a Bachelors degree in
Science with a teacher training degree
Bachelor of Education (B.Ed). There is
only one teacher with a Master Degree
in Science. There are two Science
teachers at Aided High Schools but
untrained. While majority of the Science
teachers at Deficit schools are trained,
majority of the Science teachers at
Government and Private schools are
untrained. It is found that there are
18.18 % Science under -graduate
teachers teaching Science in the Private
high schools. A close observation of the
data further reveals that there are arts
under graduates teaching Science in all
types of schools. It is clear from the above
analysis that there is lack of Science
teachers having minimum requisite
qualifications as well as trained teachers
in all types of high schools. The findings
of the present study go in close
conformity with the findings of the
studies of Vadhera (1992) and Chimara
1999).
November 2006
As 33.35% teachers manning the

subject do not have requisite
qualifications, the study suggests the
urgent need for appointment of qualified
teachers for effective Science instruction
in all types of high schools of the district.
under -graduate teachers are also

teaching science in urban high schools.
All these indicate that there is acute
shortage of teachers having requisite
qualifications as well as trained science
teachers in the urban and rural high
TABLE 1
Qualifications of Teachers by Type of School
Qualifications
Govt.
Deficit
Aided
Private
Total
8
(42.11 %)
12
(70.59%)
(9.10%)
2
(36.67%)
22
B.Sc.,B.Ed.
B.Sc
4
(21.05%)
1
(5.88%)
1
(50%)
11
(50%)
17
(28.33%)
1
(5.26%)
(1.67%)
M.Sc.
5
(26.32%)
3
(17.65%)
(13.33%)
B.A.,B.Ed.
1
(5.88%)
1
(50%)
5
(22.73%)
7
(11.67%)
1
(5.26%)
(1.67%)
4
(18.18)
4
(6.67%)
19
17
22
60
B.A.
B.Com., B.Ed.
Under Graduate
(Science)
Total
As shown in Table 2, 33.33%

teachers in the urban and 37.78%
teachers in the rural possess a
Bachelors degree in science with a
teacher training degree. Surprisingly,
the percentage of trained science
teachers is more in rural than the urban
schools. It is significant to observe that
there are arts graduate teachers
teaching science both in urban and rural
high schools. A close observation of the
data further shows that the percentage
of such teachers is more in rural schools
than that of urban ones. It is also
significant to observe that science
schools of the district. Headmaster of

some of the Government and Deficit high
schools even lamented that in spite of
their repeated request to the authority
for the appointment of science teachers
no positive response has been received.
Further, they expressed that to meet the
situation, they had to engage the arts
teachers of their schools to teach science.
It appears that there is regional disparity
and the district is deprived of having
adequate number of teachers. This
emphasises the urgent need for appointment of adequate number of teachers to
remove regional disparity and for effective
teaching-learning in the schools.
121
TABLE 2
Qualifications of Teachers by Location: Urban/Rural
Qualifications
Urban
Rural
Total
5
(33.33%)
(26.67%)
17
(37.78%)
(28.89%)
22
(36.67%)
(28.33%)
M.Sc.
(2.22%)
1
(1.67%)
B.A.,B.Ed.
2
(13.33%)
6
(13.33%)
8
(13.33%)
B.A.
7
(15.56%)
7
(11.67%)
B.Com.,B.Ed.
1
(2.22%)
1
(1.67%)
4
(26.67%)
4
(6.67%)
15
45
60
B.Sc.,B.Ed.
B.Sc.
Under Graduate
(Science)
Total
Methods of Science Teaching

The analysis of the methods of science
teaching employed by teachers is
presented in Table 3.
It is evident from the above analysis
that most of the science teachers, i.e.
55% employ translation method while
26.67% follow lecture-cum-demonstration method and 11.67% notedictating method. It appears that activity
method is not familiar to the teachers.
Further, demonstration, which is one of

the most versatile and useful methods
is not employed by majority of the
teachers. The overall situation,
therefore, indicates that science is
taught mainly with traditional methods
using only textbooks and blackboards in
most of the high schools. So, the need to
organise orientation of the teachers to
make them aware of the various methods
of teaching is called for.
TABLE 3
Methods of Teaching
Methods of teaching
No. of Teachers
Translation Method
Lecture Method
33 (55%)
1 (1.64%)
Lecture-cum-demonstration Method
16 (26.67%)
Activity Method
3 (5%)
Note Dictating Method
7 (11.67%)
Total
60
Utilisation of Audio-visual Aids

The analysis of the utilisation of audiovisual aids in science teaching is given
in table 4.
November 2006
Table 5 shows that out of the 40 high

schools selected for the study, 23 (57.5%)
schools do not maintain library and 17
(42.5%) are found to have libraries.
TABLE 4
Utilisation of Audio-visual Aids
Response
No. of Teachers
Yes
10 (16.67%)
No
50 (83.33%)
Total
60
It is clear from the above table that

in 83.33% of the schools audio-visual
aids are not used. It is observed that
there is lack of audio-visual aids in many
of the schools. Eliyas (2003) also
revealed that audio-visual aids were not
available in many of the schools in the
Saiha district of Mizoram. This is a
serious drawback as schools do not have
adequate audio-visual aids. This
emphasises the authority the need for
supplying audio-visual aids to all
types of schools to supplement and
enrich the classroom instructions.
Library Facility
The results of the analysis of the library
facilities are shown in table 5.
A close observation of the data reveals

that out of 17 schools, 3 (17.65%) schools
have a separate room meant for library
but not conducive to read. However,
except one, others have neither table and
chairs nor bench and desks. In 11
(64.71%) schools, the library books are
kept in Headmasters room. It is evident
from the above analysis that many
schools do not have library facilities.
This is a major constraint in science
teaching. The results of the Sixth All India
Educational Survey conducted by NCERT
(1999) revealed that library facility is
available only in 45.4 per cent secondary
schools of Mizoram. A recently
conducted study by Eliyas (2003) also
TABLE 5
Library and its Location in Schools
Item
Schools with Library
No. of Schools
Location
17 (42.5%)
Separate Library room

Teachers Room
Headmasters Room
Schools without Library
23 (57.5%)
Total
40
No. of Schools
3 (17.65%)
11 (64.71%)
3 (17.65%)
17
revealed that many high schools located

in the villages of Saiha district are
without libraries.
Science Laboratory
Sixth All India Educational Survey
conducted by NCERT (1999) reveals that
nearly 45 per cent secondary schools of
Mizoram have science laboratory.
However, the number of secondary
schools having separate laboratory for
Physics, Chemistry and Biology is
dismally low. The results of the analysis
of the laboratory facilities in the schools
of sampled district of Mizoram are
summarised in Table 6.
123
the findings of Mahajan, et el. (1995).

Therefore,
the
present
study
suggests the school authorities and the
Government to take appropriate steps to
provide laboratory facilities in schools for
meaningful science instruction.
Availability of Equipment and
Chemicals
The results of the analysis of the
availability of equipment and
chemicals in the schools are presented
in Table 7.
As shown in Table 7, out of 60
teachers, 43 (71.67%) teachers stated
that there are inadequate equipment in
TABLE 6
Laboratory Facilities
Type of Laboratory
No. of schools
having laboratory
Common
science
subjects
Separate lab.
for all science
subjects
No. of Schools
having no
laboratory
Total
10 (25%)
10 (100%)
30 (75%)
40
From Table 6, it can be seen that only

10 (25%) schools have laboratory
facilities. A close observation of the data
reveals that all the 10 schools have
common laboratory for all science
subjects. Further, out of 10 schools
having common laboratory, only 2 (20%)
schools are found to have laboratories
in a separate room and the rest are
attached either to headmasters room or
teachers common room.
It is evident from the above
discussion that there is a serious
limitation with regard to laboratory
facilities in most of the schools. The
findings of the present study supports
their schools, while 28.33% teachers

pointed out that they have no equipment
at all. With regard to chemicals, 51.67%
teachers complained about the
shortage of chemicals in the schools
whereas 48.33% teachers expressed that
chemi-cals are not available at all in their
schools.
From the above analysis, it may be
concluded that there is acute lack of
equipment as well as chemicals in the
high schools of the district.
Conclusion
In the light of the results of the present
study, it may be concluded that there is
November 2006
TABLE 7
Availability of Eguipment and Chemicals
Availability
No. of Teacher who

responded
Equipment
Adequate
Inadequate
43
71.67
Not available at all
17
28.33
Total
60
100
Inadequate
31
51.67
Not available at all
29
48.33
Total
60
100
Chemicals
Adequate
serious lack of facilities such as qualified

teachers, library, laboratory, equipment
and chemicals, audio-visual aids, etc. in
all types of schools of sampled district of
Mizoram. Therefore, it may be suggested
that the concerned authorities should

take appropriate steps to provide proper
facilities for effective science teaching
and better academic performance of the
students in science in the district.
REFERENCES
CHIMARA, B. 1999. Education in Mizoram: Development Perspective and Future
Challenges, Journal of North Eastern Council, Vol. 19, No. 4, October-December.
ELIYAS, D. 2003. Teaching of English at High School Level with a Special Reference
to Saiha District, M.Phil. Dissertation, Madurai Kamaraj University.
HUBLER, H.C. 1974. Science for Children. Random House, Inc. P. 51. New York.
MAHAJAN, et el. 1995. Educational Administration in Mizoram, P. 54. NIEPA, Vikas
Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi: Guwahati.
Ministry of Education, Government of India, Education and National Development:
Report of the Education Commission, 1964-1966, New Delhi, pp. 343-344.
National Council of Educational Research and Training. 1999. Sixth All India
Educational Survey: The Main Report, New Delhi.
Government of India, MHRD. 1986. National Policy on Education, New Delhi.
VADHERA, R.P. 1992. A Profile of Science Teachers at Secondary Level in Mizoram,
Paper presented on 6-7 November at the Second Annual Conference of North
East India Education Society, Aizawl.
Heritage Crafts and Education An Interview
125
Heritage Crafts and Education

An Interview with Ms. Laila Tyabji*
As a part of the review process of the National Curriculum Framework (NCF),
twenty-one National Focus Groups covering curricular areas, national concerns
and systemic reforms were created to generate ideas and thereby develop researchbased position papers on various themes related to school education. Each of
these twenty-one position papers presenting a comprehensive view of the existing
knowledge in the area as well as directives for the future provides inputs towards
the formulation of the NCF2005.
Following the approval of the NCF2005 by the Central Advisory Board of
Education in September 2005, ideas of the NCF began to be disseminated among
teachers, teacher educators, educational administrators, etc. through face-to-face
training and tele-conferencing. The Central Institute of Educational Technology
recorded a series of interviews with the Chairpersons of various National Focus
Groups. Transcription of these interviews with Ms. Laila Tyabji, Chairperson of
NCF on Heritage Crafts is presented here. The anchor is Ms. Shubra Majumdar.
Shubra Majumdar (SM): I have great

pleasure in welcoming Ms. Laila Tyabji,
Chairperson of National Focus Group on
Heritage Crafts. Ms. Laila Tyabji, Craft
Designer and Founder Chairperson,
Dastkar, Society for Crafts and
Craftspeople, New Delhi has worked in
the craft sector for more than thirty
years. She has been instrumental in
helping crafts people, particularly
women use their traditional skills as
means of earning a livelihood and gaining
empowerment. She views serving on the
focus group as an opportunity to draw
crafts and craftspeople back into the
mainstream of contemporary Indian

education which will empower crafts
people and also introduce the beauty, the
utility and the potential of Indian craft
to a new generation of young Indians.
Welcome Laila Tyabji. Nice having you
with us today.
Laila Tyabji (LT): Thank you so much.
SB: When we start thinking of crafts, it
is always something which is done
outside of the classroom learning of
curricular areas and one of the prime
curiosities, that awaken my mind, and I
am sure in the minds of several parents,
* Designer and Founder Chairpersen, Dasthai, Society for Crafts and Crafts People, New Delhi.
teachers and students as well is what

can craft teach us?
LT: I think it is not a question of what
craft can teach us. Why is craft not
looked as an ideal medium for education
particularly, in a country like India,
where one in every two hundred Indian
is a craftsman and which has such a long
tradition of craft in every aspect of life?
Craft is a part of Indias aesthetics and
it is also a part of Indian culture. Our
social system and, of course, our economy
also can not be isolated from it. It is the
second largest sector of employment in
India after agriculture. So it is rather
curious that actually craft has not been
looked on as a part of mainstream
education and I am delighted that it
finally has got its right place.
SB: Well. Hearing you, it seems quite
right to associate craft with our heritage
and with our long-standing tradition, etc.
But my question is how can heritage
crafts be included in the school
curriculum of today which is generally
classroom
learning-based
and
examination-oriented.
LT: I think one of the problems of Indian
education has been to be classroom
oriented and to be textbook-oriented and
I think the children, particularly young
children, can learn a lot of things they
dont find very interesting in textbooks
through actually practising craft.
Whether this is Algebra, whether it is
Geometry, all these abstract subjects
which seem to have no values to young,
suddenly while practising craft or making
with their own hands, they have to use
their skills and it becomes valuable in
the society. I think you can learn more
Science and more Mathematics actually
November 2006
making a piece of craft than you can from

reading a textbook.
SB: Well. It sounds interesting. But yours
is not the first time as far as my memory
goes when craft was introduced into
school education, I think even Bapu
(Gandhiji) had tried putting that into
practice in the Wardha Scheme that he
had started. But over the years, the
Wardha Scheme given all its advantages
failed in certain respects. Now when you
have introduced heritage craft, have you
in any way considered the Wardha
Scheme before launching it into our
curriculum today?
LT: We didnt look at what had been done
in the past. In fact, a lot of us in the Focus
Group fought against this word heritage
because it immediately connoted the
past. And our craft is very much a part
of the present and future. We are looking
at craft not actually as a kind of cultural
activity or something which is a hobby.
We are looking at it as a very practical
way for a young person to learn about
the use of material, about the
environment, to learn about geography,
to learn about economics and ecology.
The point needs to be emphasised that
in school curriculum craft should be
taught as an area of professional
expertise. We feel that it is very holistic
and a living way to acquire education of
all kinds while preserving our own
cultural assets, tradition and values.
SB: It sounds interesting in a way. But
like all learning in a classroom is related
to a kind of textbook or a kind of marking
scheme, etc. How will the child be
assessed in heritage craft?
LT: For one thing, we are looking at craft
not to be taught too much in a classroom.
Obviously in subjects like history or

social science, the experiences of
craftspeople or stories of craftspeople,
stories of Indian craft in the past are
linked up very much with Indian history.
In those areas it will become a part of
textbook learning. But, we look at the
children who will learn craft more in
projects, more outside the classroom by
practical examples and actually using
these wonderful resources.
SB: What kinds of projects will be
introduced and how will they be different
from, say a project which is put by a
history teacher or by a geography teacher
or a science teacher. How would a craft
teacher differentiate his or her project
from that of the other subjects?
LT: I would like to clarify that in one
sense, we hope that the history teacher
or geography teacher will use craft
medium as a way of teaching a subject.
SB: But this project, if I may interrupt, it
may be an accidental thing, one among
many projects that he or she gives but
will that comprise an entire years
course?
LT: No. What I am trying to emphasise is
that craft will infiltrate into the whole lot
of subjects but apart from that it will
obviously be a main subject as well as a
compulsory subject in schools and there
we want children to use craft as a
medium to learn about their
environment and perhaps even enhance
it. I see this particularly in village schools
or urban schools which tend to be rather
alienated, sort of sad and gloomy places
where they can use different types of
craft, making things from environment,
make environment more exciting by
127
decorating the schools, making their

classroom for themselves, or perhaps put
together small museum in the school of
local artifacts. All these kinds of things
which will both get them out but also
contribute to their own environment.
SB: This also brings me to another
interesting fact. I am just supposing that
if a craft related education was to be
introduced into an already well-known
craft related area, say, let me take for
example, Sanganer (Rajasthan) or
some places like that. How will you teach
craft to a place where there is craft
already? Is it a situation of calls to new
castle?
LT: I am so delighted that you raise this
voice because it was one of the preoccupation of the focus group, that in
India, there are many different kinds of
situations and we tend to think over
school as a kind of monolithic thing,
which is exactly the same in all area. Of
course, it isnt. The needs of the children
are very different in different areas. And
as you so rightly said, there are many
pockets in India whether it is Sanganer
which you mentioned, whether it is
Kalahasti or Mouradabad or Banaras,
where all the children do know craft. And
there you actually want craft to become
something which they can choose as an
elective. And when they will be taught
the craft, they are already taught by the
parents in their family environment. But,
they do learn ancillary skills which would
enhance and help them become modern
and successful entrepreneurs and
producers. They can learn about
packaging, about design terminology,
they can learn about many of the things
stock keeping, book keeping, marketing
which otherwise they get left out. A little

earlier, you were saying something that
craft has never been part of the learning
process in India. It actually has been part
for millions of Indians. But in the process
they then loose out of the formal
conventional education. So, we want to
integrate the two. One of our
recommendations is that there should be
quite different courses for schools in
rural crafts pocket where craft education
could enhance existing craft vocations
and for schools in urban areas where
education in craft would constitute an
alternative experience and an outlet for
creativity and personal expression.
SB: Would it create a divide between
schools where there is no heritage craft
and a school where there is a heritage
craft, but no ancillary skills?
LT: We hope that far from creating a
divide, it will actually create a unity
because in urban school, children are
not exposed to craft as something
valuable or something integral to our
country. They tend to think of crafts
people as socially inferior and we hope
that learning about craft, learning to do
craft themselves will make them value it
more and they will also be able to
contextualise craft in subjects like
history or social studies and in rural
pockets or in crafts pocket, they will no
longer be marginalised because they will
also have an opportunity to integrate
into the mainstream education.
SB: This will be an eye opener for both
sections of urban and rural children.
LT: We also hope that we can also have
a situation where urban school children
visits crafts pocket and spend some time
and that is one of the projects we are
November 2006
recommending. As I said, it is not always

to bring craftspeople to become trainers
in the schools but the school children
can go and spend some time in a crafts
pocket and learn the craft literally from
the person practising it.
SB: This brings up another question in
mind. The resource material and the
division of the curriculum, say, in a
History course or a Geography course or
a Science course, there are so many
weeks of studies or subjects; there are
so many chapters to be covered. How
about the craft thing? Have you done
some kind of formalisation of the subject
and the resources?
LT: What we have done is actually sort
of we didnt take every craft because it
takes several years rather than the few
months we have to do this. But we did
take weaving and pottery as two kinds of
modules and broke it down as to how a
craft could be interpreted in a school from
the primary level to the final school
leaving stage of childs development.
Craft should be taught initially when the
children are very small. Obviously, it
would be small manual exercise where
they learn how to handle material and
as they go higher in the curriculum, they
can learn about its technology, its
significance and symbolism. They can
learn about the design and we have given
a module of that and I think it is quite
applicable. We were conscious that many
schools in India dont have resources
space resources and financial resources.
So we try to pack our recommendation
into what is doable and practical using
the means that are available in India,
which are very rich rather than saying,
that they have to do this and they have
to do that.
SB: Another joy which a child feels is

when he can demonstrate or show off or
tell his friends and parents that he has
done this or he has done that. Now is
there a way in which all these little
models which the children prepare can
be exhibited apart from within the
schools?
LT: Yes, I hope that when children learn
craft they will also learn of the many sort
of the functions that craft can play in
their own home or on their own self to
make something which you can wear or
which you can use or your mother can
use. And I think it is one of the greatest
thrills. And I think their craft has
enormous advantage because unlike say
science lessons which is not always
practical to do those experiments at
home and it may not have direct
relevance, but with craft, you can make
something that can actually be used in
your daily life.
SB: So that way, they can be able to
demonstrate their skills.
LT: Yes.
SB: A certain amount of skills as far as
craft is concerned that it is a general
belief that it is a creative skill. It is not a
skill which can be learned by rote.
Creativity is considered to be a talent. It
cannot be measured but is obviously
different in different children. Now, how
do you integrate that creative aspect with
the learning aspect in craft learning?
LT: Well. I think you can learn and gain
a lot from learning without necessarily
being a master. I think the process of
learning, the process of handling
material; the process of seeing why
something works and something does not
129
is as valuable as the end product. I think

it is lovely if you have something and you
discover within yourself the skills you did
not know you had. But, I dont think the
idea of putting heritage craft in the
curriculum was to turn out master craft
people. It is so that children actually
could hone skills which perhaps they
didnt know: cognitive skills or value
skills, creative skills, problem-solving
skills. They didnt know that they had so
much learning experiences even much
more than they just get from looking at
computer screens or reading a book or
hearing a lecture. I think, actually doing
and learning with your hands is quite a
different experience.
SB: The other thing, which the traditional
learning method does, is it creates a
sense of enquiry. How does craft create
that sense, the craft curriculum? You are
giving the child a definite process. Here
is a lump of clay and you can mould it
into a pot. Here is a thread which you
can weave into a cloth. Where is the
enquiry coming in?
LT: Because, that process is neverending in its range. I mean, you have
taken a wonderful example of weaving
because as we know weaving is just to
weave in a web and shuttle which you
put in between and yet every corner of
India, practically every village has a
different motif, different design and
texture. So, the potential is endless and
I think that is very exciting for the child
that you can never stop. You never say,
ok, this is fine; and I have learnt
everything about this and so let me shut
the book, because you can go on and on.
Even in pottery which is perhaps the
most basic form of craft, a lump of clay
as you said with your hand, you can

make not just a simple pot, you can also
make the most extraordinary sculpture
and the piece of architecture through the
same potters wheel and that lump of clay
and you have examples all over India, not
just in museum but on the streets and
in shops everywhere which show the
whole range of craft. So it is not that you
are not aware that your learning could
not produce practically anything. And we
have given a module for that.
SB: What have you mentioned so far is
wonderful specifically as an experiential
exercise to a student in the class? What
are the other contributions of craft
learning?
LT: Well, I think as I said, a teacher
teaches them about their environment.
Teacher teaches them about their own
potential, the teacher teaches them
about the use of material, about problemsolving, about physics and geometry and
all that. But, it also teaches them about
something which I think is very
important that it is something that we
as Indians have and no one in the world
has. And in a country which today is
looking perhaps for both role models and
icons and to the level that we get quite
excited when a young tennis star
becomes number 34 in the world or
somebody becomes a beauty queen and
we are quite desperately looking for
people who inspire us. It is surprising
that young Indians dont marvel and
rejoice the fact that we still have so many
November 2006
extra-ordinary skills which are the

countrys goose and which actually are
what attract a lot of people to India
whether they are entrepreneurs,
whether they are investors, whether
they are researchers. They come to India
actually because they dont get this
anywhere else and I think that if craft is
taught well and if it lights lamp in the
mind of children in India can lead to
extraordinary awareness and growth in
India.
SB: So my final question will be the
lamp lighters in this whole situation, i.e.
the teachers. How will the teacher of the
craft inspire the student learners to
become oriented to a craft related
education?
LT: This is a million dollar question and
I dont think it is just in heritage craft,
but in every area of the whole
curriculum. Teachers have to be inspired
and it is not easy and I think we
remember inspirational teachers. We
also remember those who made a subject
incredibly boring. So there is a challenge
in it. But as I said, we have a living
resource of practising craftspeople. That
is not that we have to dig out of the dead
museum or textbooks. Teachers can go
out themselves and learn from practising
craft people and hopefully convey that
excitement and potential to their
students.
SB: That is a lovely thought that we have
teachers beyond classroom for subjects
like craft. Thank you.
Book Reviews
131
Book Reviews
The Routledge Falmer Reader in
Philosophy of Education
EDITOR: Wilfred Carr, Rutledge, London
and New York, 2005
Pages ix+238. Price 19.99.
Routledge Falmer Reader in Philosophy of
Education brings a wide range of material
in philosophy and existential reality of
education on different topics. The focus
on the enduring trends in this field
covers crucial topics such as philosophy
and education, the aims of education,
politics and education, educational
policy, the moral dimensions of teaching,
etc. With an emphasis on recent
developments in philosophy and their
relevance to contemporary educational
policy and practice, this book presents
the research and views of some of the
most respected authors in the field today.
Wilfred Carr has written introduction
which provides a much needed context
to the role of philosophy in the current
educational climate. Editor starts with
pertinent questions about what the
philosophy of education is and what it
tries to achieve, in his introductory
chapter entitled Introduction: What is
the Philosophy of Education?
The book mainly divides into five parts
on various issues in addition to
introductory chapter. In this chapter, the
editor discusses the Anglo-Saxon
analytical philosophy of education.
However, he argues analytical philosophy
of education as a value-neutral, secondorder activity concerned with meaning
of basic educational institutional
concepts by analysing the logical
conditions governing the terms used to

express them. Part 1 of this book
emphasises on Philosophy and Education
that covers three chapters. In Chapter 1Philosophy and Educational Policy:
Possibilities, Tensions and Tasks,
Terrence H. Mclaughlin examines the
role which philosophy can and should
play in relation to educational policy. He
argues that philosophy has a potentially
important contribution to make
educational policy but there are some
unexamined complexities which he
characterizes as Possibilities, Tensions,
Tasks that need to be explored if this
potential is to be realised. He explores
the contribution of analytical philosophy
in the policy making process. Chapter 2
Philosophy and Education offers a
different interpretation of how
philosophy is related to education.
Wilfred Carr analyses historical roots of
the Aristotelian philosophical tradition
in the reconstruction of the philosophy
of education. Chapter 3 on Feminism,
Epistemology and Education, Shirley
Pendlebury examines the possibility of
the use of feminist views to mainstream
epistemology in the analysis of
education, curriculum and teaching that
were originally produced by analytical
philosophy of education.
Part II, The Aims of Education deals
with fundamental questions about the
aims of education in four chapters that
are intended to show how these
questions are being addressed by
philosophers of education. Chapter 4
entitled Autonomy as an Educational
Aim, Christopher Winch makes a

distinction between weak autonomy
(ability to choose from a variety of socially
approved and tolerated ends) and strong
autonomy (ability to choose ends other
than those that are socially, only weak
autonomy can be justified as a legitimate
and realisable educational aim. In
Chapter 5 Self-determination as an
Educational Aim James Walker is
critical of the liberal nationalism that
informed early analytical philosophys
justification of autonomy as an
educational aim. However, he does not
provide any alternate philosophical
account, like Winch, but he outlines a
philosophical case for self-determination
as the fundamental educational aim. In
Chapter 6 The Politics of Identity and
the Epiphanies of Learning, Padraig
Hogan also takes a critical attitude
towards the efforts of analytical
philosophers of education to uphold
rational autonomy as an educational
aim. For Hogan, the aim of education is
to maximise the scope to choose and rechoose ones identity. In Chapter 7
Education, the Market and the Nature
of Personal Well- being, John While does
not try to justify this commitment but
instead poses the question of whether
the educational aim of well-being is
compatible with the aims and values of
the market.
Part III, Politics and Education,
discusses a growing interest in the
political philosophy of education and in
the implications for educational policy
and practice of liberal and democratic
political theories in three chapters. In
Chapter 8 Liberal values and liberal
education, Mark Halstead emphasises
on the fact that the best way to identify
November 2006
a societys educational values is by

examining the political values of that
society. In Chapter 9 The politics of
differences and this does not imply the
abandonment of liberal education. In
Chapter 10 Rethinking democracy and
education: towards an education of
deliberative citizens, Tomas Englund
accepts Deweys idea of education as
comminucation in creation of a
deliberative democracy.
The four chapters in Part IV
educational policy discuss the
contributions of philosophy to the
formation and critical assessment of
specific educational policies. In Chapter
11 What is good of education?, Joshef
Dunne does not able to make specific
recommendations for the understanding
of the good of education. Chapter 12
Imagining future: the public school and
possibility, Maxine Greene outlines the
vision for public education in the United
States and advocates the need for
community participation that will lead to
the development of social imagination
and creatin of an articulate democratic
public. Chapter 13 The limits of
aesthetic separatism: literary education
and Michael Oakeshortts philosophy of
art, Kevin Williams makes an
observation on the educational
significance of literature and the toey of
literary education. In Chapter 14
Inclusion vs Fairness, Robin Barrow
examines educational policies based on
the principle of inclusion that are
practicsed in many educational systems
and this to point out the similarities
between inclusion policies and
affirmative actions policies.
The four chapters of Part V the moral
dimensions of teaching emphasise on the
Book Reviews
educational discourse in the moral

dimension of teaching. Chapter 15
Education as a moral practice, Richard
Pring advocates the need to connect
between morality and education that are
failed to recognise this in the
contemporary educational systems.
However, he considers that education
itself is a moral practice. Richard Smith,
in Chapter 16 Paths of Judgment: the
revival of Practical Wisdom warns about
the modern demoralisation of teaching
due to widespread impact of technicism
on the modern world. In Chapter 17
Moral language and Pedagogical
Experience, Max Van Manen
emphasises on the strong need and care
for the moral dimension of teaching in
educational institutions. Paul Standish
is not so much concerned about the
morality in teaching rather he examines
this discourse in the light of the work of
two major postmodern philosophers
Jean Francos Lyotard and Emmanual
Levinas in the Chapter 18 Ethics
before equality: Moral education after
Levinas.
This book provides an elaborative
document of some of the philosophical
issues on education. The editor tries to
make its language simple and easy to
understand. However this book is not
concerned about the whole bulk of
philosophy of education in terms of
psychological, sociological, historical,
political and so on but on some cases the
contributors try to bridge the gap
between philosophical and empirical
dimensions of education. Had the editor
consulted a wide range of philosophical
traditions not only from western world
but also from other parts of the third
133
world, then the work would be considered

more fruitful for readers. Despite this, the
book provides an important route map
to further reading and understanding on
philosophy of education.
SUJIT KUMAR CHOUDHARY
Doctoral Fellow
Center for the Study of Social Systems
School of Social Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi 110 067
Child Labour in Informal Sector:
A Sociological Study
A U T H O R : Suresh Chander, Sunrise
Publications, New Delhi, 2004.
Price Rs. 400.
The problem of child labour has been an
international one since long. It is the
declaration of 1979 as International Year
of the Child by the United Nations, which
has exposed the magnitude of the
problem in its varied dimensions. The
problem of child labour emerges out of
the socio-economic conditions prevailing
in the Indian economy. Because of
economic necessity and social
conditions, children are forced to work.
They work under conditions detrimental
to their health, welfare and development.
In India, to engage a child below the age
of 14 years is a crime according to the
existing legislative enactment of the
country. But unfortunately the practice
of employing children below the age of
14 years has been in vogue and is
observed to be highly prevalent
mainly in urban area. These children
are engaged by manufacturing
establishment, shopkeepers, and eatinghouses, Contractors etc. although
education is free at the primary level in

the country. These children are deprived
of the opportunity of receiving formal
education at the school level.
Child labour in informal sector is the
focus of this book. This book is the
doctoral thesis based on empirical study
of Aligarh city of western Uttar Pradesh.
It examines the key aspects of the child
labour in informal sector. It focusses
especially on aspects of socio-economic
characteristics of child labour, factors
responsible for encouraging child labour,
migratory character of child labour and
role of child labour in maintaining family
status in society. An attempt has been
made to examine the various dimensions
of the problem of child labour in informal
sector from sociological angle.
There are ten chapters in this book.
Chapter 1 Introductory deals with
approaches to the child labour in
informal sector. The author is not merely
content with the discussions of the
approaches applied to the problems so
far, but has also attempted their critical
appraisal which in turn, provides the
base for the need for a new approach
with which the author ends this chapter.
Chapter 2 Defining Child Labour deals
with various definitions of child labour,
where again, the author offers a critical
review of the studies made so far in India.
In this chapter, an attempt has been
made by the author to highlight working
characteristics about the child labour.
Chapter 3 Magnitude of Child Labour
in India and Chapter 4 Child Labour
in Some Informal Sector deal with
magnitude of child labour at macro level
and child labour in some informal sector
including lock industry in Aligarh, bangle
industry in Ferozabad, gem polishing in
November 2006
Jaipur, slate industry of Makarpur,

match industry of Sivakasi, etc. Chapter
5 Issues and Problems of Informal
Sector highlights issues and problems
related to informal sector, which includes
concept of informal sector and concept
of child labour. Chapter 6 Profile of
Uttar Pradesh and Aligarh District and
Sampled Area describes profile of Uttar
Pradesh and its study area.
Geographically, Uttar Pradesh is divided
into three regions. It has more than onesixth of the total population of the
country. Uttar Pradesh is predominantly
an agricultural state with little more than
80 per cent of the population living in
rural areas. Industrially, it is not a welldeveloped state of the country. Chapter
7 Dynamics of Child Labour in Informal
Sector Micro-analysis and Chapter 8
An Empirical Analysis of Child Labour
deals with dynamics of child labour in
informal sector based on micro empirical
analysis. Chapter 9 Government and
Child Labour describes governmental
role to eliminate problems of child labour
and Chapter 10 Summary and
Conclusions describes summary,
conclusions and suggestions offered by
the author. Following are some of the
remedial measures to rectify the problem
of child labour.
(i)
The government has to take

concrete steps to strictly prohibit
the employment of the children in
occupation which have been
banned under the Child Labour
Act;
(ii)
The government has to suitably

amend the law, if need be, so that
firm action could be taken against
the employers who had engaged
Book Reviews
child labour under the prohibited

category of works;
(iii) The government must activate the
law enforcement machinery to see
that all the legislative measures
aiming at the welfare of the child
labour are fully implemented in
occupations, where employment of
children is permitted;
(iv) Efforts should also be undertaken
by the voluntary organisations to
involve the local public and
parents/guardians of child labour,
so that they become aware of the
efforts made by the government for
the upliftment of child labour; and
(v)
Free and compulsory education

should be given top priority as this
is the only instrument for checking
evils of child labour.
Besides this, the government should

also provide financial assistance in the
form of grants-in-aid to the voluntary
organisations for imparting non-formal
education, health care, nutrition and
135
vocational training to the child labour.

This book has made a substantial
contribution to the understanding of the
problem of child labour engaged in
informal sector in India with the help of
the case study method. It is argued that
poverty and illiteracy in a family leads to
child labour. The perception and
experience of child labourer themselves
and attitudes of their employers towards
the problem of child labour have also
been examined intensively in this book.
The cover page is very suitable with the
title of the book showing the children
carrying tomatoes, vegetables and their
young brother/sister.
If the sample of the study had been
large, then the problem of child labour
could have been clearer and more
understandable. However, this book is
quite informative, interesting and useful
for the person working in the field of child
labour and policy-makers.
PRATIMA KUMARI
Lecturer, Economics
DESSH, NCERT.
Priority Areas of Research under ERIC. NCERT

Educational Research and Innovations Committee (ERIC) of NCERT
has identified the following priority areas of research. Research
proposals related to these areas will receive priority for providing
financial support by the ERIC in coming years.
Curricular Areas
In the backdrop of National Curriculum Framework (NCF2005) it is
important that each curricular area is revisited by the researchers
and probed in depth to find answers to problems related to teachinglearning of different subjects. In this context the status and role of
arts, crafts and aesthetics; health, yoga and physical education; work
education and peace education also need to be examined. The
linguistic diversity of India poses complex challenges but also a range
of opportunities. Language teaching needs to be multilingual not only
in terms of the number of languages offered to children but also in
terms of evolving strategies that would use the multilingual classroom
as a resource. Issues related to language as medium of instruction
and multilingualism, therefore, assume significance. Research
proposals will also be welcome in the area of comparative studies on
concerns related to school education.
National Concerns
One of the foremost concerns is ensuring enrolment and retention of
all children in the school. Commitment to Universal Elementary
Education presupposes representation of cultural diversity, ensuring
enrolment of children from different social and economic backgrounds
with variations in physical, psychological and intellectual
characteristics in the education process. In this context,
disadvantages in education arising due to inequalities of gender,
caste, language, culture, religion or disabilities need to be addressed.
Research related to education of the disadvantaged groups, inclusive
education, gender equity, education of rural children and functioning
of rural schools becomes significant in this background. Vocational
education and environment education are two emerging concerns
that require attention from sociological, psychological, economic and
pedagogical point of view. Some other concerns in this context like

psycho-social development of children, education for life skills, and
education policies and practices related to school education will also
receive priority.
Systemic Concerns
The curricular vision presented in NCF2005 needs to be supported
and sustained by systemic reforms. Important among these are the
system for preparing teachers - both pre-service and in-service,
system of producing textbooks and learning materials and the
examination system. Integration of ICT in education as a pedagogic,
administrative and monitoring tool and the related practices require
extensive research for maximum efficiency within the boundaries of
democracy, human dignity and freedom. Classroom processes and
practices and management strategies are other useful areas of
research in this context.
Pedagogic Practices and Learning Processes
Our current concern in curriculum development and reform is to
make it an inclusive and meaningful experience for children. This
requires a fundamental change in how we think of learners and the
process of learning. Within the ambit of child centred pedagogy,
research in areas like thinking and learning processes of children,
pedagogic approaches of training teachers, text-analysis and textlearning dynamics becomes crucial.
Any other area as per National Curriculum Framwork2005
(NCF2005) not covered above.
Research proposals may be submitted in prescribed format. The format
and necessary guidelines can be downloaded from NCERT website
(www.ncert.nic.in) or can be obtained by post from the address given
below:
Head
Department of Educational Research
and Policy Perspectives (DERPP)
National Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016
Tel: 011-26563980, Fax: 011-26868419
e-mail: derppncert@rediffmail.com

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Quality Improvement in Elementary

if quality achievement is aimed at.

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crucial. The ultimate goal of all quality

situations and used throughout each

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to learn (Johnson and Johnson, 1989).

group processing. (Johnson, Johnson

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teamwork. Since cooperation and conflict

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To compare the performance level

There will be no significant

Quality Improvement in Elementary Education...

One of the units from Process of

The groups were given material for

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was taken alternately. The unit selected

to knowledge, 60% weightage to

Journal of Indian Education

Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of

Psychologists assert ability to do a task

dual configuration of content/structure

* 110-B, Sushmita, Sector-A, Sarvdharm, Bhopal 462 042.

Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of Eleven-year-old ...

16% attainment on the level three task

What percentage of the eleven-year

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Sample: 104 SS (51 girls/53 boys) of the

Level I concrete content

Level II concrete content and

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Level IV formal content and formal

Journal of Indian Education

girls had performed better (34%) than

from 8. To maintain equivalence of the

Arithmetic Reasoning Ability of Eleven-year-old ...

algorithmetic manner (that probably has

Journal of Indian Education