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PART ONE: THEORY

LECTURE 1: PHILOSOPHY
In this lesson I am going to introduce you to philosophy by inviting you to think to wonder, to reason, to question, to figure out, to speculate, and even to doubt while seeking to understand our universe and yourself as part of it. There is no
universally accepted definition of philosophy. This is partly becauseaz philosophy
does not have any content that students can merely read, memorize, accept and
believe. Instead, as Christian (1973) observes, philosophy is a "do-it-yourself
enterprise". It is a way of doing things - a way of thinking that is systematic,
disciplined skillful, responsible and flexible. The best way to understand what
philosophy is, therefore, is to participate in it. However, for the sake of giving you
at least some idea of the subject, let us try to define and characterize it.
2.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
Define philosophy
Debate the extent to which philosophy is beneficial to society
Formulate and discuss philosophical questions.
2.3.1.0 Defining Philosophy
The term "philosophy" has various senses and uses. Wambari (1992) distinguishes
the following: ideological, stoical and technical or professional usage.
2.3.1.1 Ideological usage
This is the sense in which we talk about "philosophy of life." Philosophy, in this
sense, is an attitude or approach to life, a guide to action or a set of beliefs
concerning morality, politics or life in general. Ideological philosophies are helpful
in religion, business and politics in terms of mobilizing people psychologically
towards some desired goal. This is a narrow conceptualization of philosophy.
Properly understood, philosophy involves criticizing and evaluating such

ideologies in order to determine their meaning, underlying assumptions,


implications, justification and value.
2.3.1.2 Stoical usage
Stoicism was a philosophical school of thought which had its origin in Athens in
the third century B.C. stoicism taught the following:
- The universe is orderly due to the operation of a universal force they called God.
- God was understood as a material but invisible substance permeating all things
and all beings.
- God determines the laws of nature and the orderliness of the universe is natural
and rational.
- Everything that occurs is inevitable and is governed by reason.
- Human nature and human life is governed by inviolable universal force or law.
Everything humans do or experience is inevitable.
- God assigns to all beings their particular place and role in the universe. Life is
therefore, a package.
- A wise person recognizes his/her role and accepts it.
Stoicism taught people to adjust their thought to reality as it is and accept it in
order to save themselves the agony of trying to change what cannot be changed.
The stoical sense of philosophy reflects the teaching of stoicism. When one is
claimed to be philosophical, it is meant that one is realistic and sensibly calm under
trying circumstances.
2.3.1.3 The technical or professional usage
This is a special sense that transcends the popular usages described above. It
implies a way of thinking that involves examining, questioning and doubting much
of what we normally take for granted. It is in this sense that the term "philosophy"
itself was coined by the Greek thinker Pythagoras. The word itself means "love of
wisdom". Wisdom is neither inheritable nor instantly available. It is earned through
diligent and disciplined mental activity. One has to set the mind in motion toward

examining concepts, relating ideas, developing new concepts and seeing through
and beyond mere words and facts. This is the sense in which we shall understand
philosophy as "a reflective and reasoned attempt to infer the character and the
content of the universe, taken in its entirety and as a single whole, from an
observation and study of the data presented by all its aspects". (Fuller, 1955, 1).
2.3.2.0 Distinctive Characteristics of Philosophy
Philosophy, in the technical and professional sense, is an intellectual activity
characterized by among others, the following:
2.3.2.1 Inquiry based on philosophical questions.
Philosophers ask and attempt to answer difficult but important questions about the
universe and their experience within it. Such questions include: what makes
actions right or wrong? How can we know that we know? What is real? Is reality
one or many? What is beauty? Are truth and beauty related? Lavine (1984) Calls
these questions stubborn, indestructible questions the kind of which "time will not
banish them or get rid of them for you. To be a human being is to ask these
questions. " (Ibid, 5) Philosophical inquiry is based on such questions. It also
generates them.
2.3.2.2 Analysis
This is the process by which complex concepts are broken down into their
component parts for the sake of clarification and simplification analyzed concepts
are easier to examine, relate and understand.
2.3.2.3 Criticism
This is careful examination of issues, arguments, points of view and claims in
order to determine their foundations, assumptions, meaning and implications. It is
an assessment of the strengths as well as weaknesses of an argument or a position
taken in a given issue. This assessment is based on reasons and evidence and is,
therefore, impartial and rational. Criticism, in philosophy, is not merely looking for
faults. It is impartial scrutiny geared toward the pursuit of truth and understanding.
2.3.2.4 Discussion
Open minded discussion is central in philosophy. Dialogue enables people to freely
express their opinions and beliefs as well as attempt to justify them. Through

discussion, ideas are subjected to criticism and review. New ideas are generated
and subjected to further discussion. In such discussions, persons address issues
instead of attacking persons.
2.3.2.5 Evaluation
This is the process of ascertaining the worth or worthlessness of ideas or arguments
on the basis of clear and reasonable criteria. It involves the making of judgements
regarding ideas.
2.3.2.6 Synthesis
This is reconstruction of ideas concepts and arguments in order to develop better
and well justified ones. Such synthesis is based on reasoned thought.
NOTE:
There is no universal definition of philosophy; neither is there a complete list of its
characteristics. What we have arrived at so far is a working definition of
philosophy and a working list of distinctive characteristics of philosophy.
Questions:
1. Why is it difficult to define philosophy?
2. How are philosophical questions different from other questions?
Activities:
Discuss with your friends how the characteristics of philosophy (taken together)
make philosophy distinct from other disciplines.
Identify expressions used in your surrounding that can be categorized as:
philosophy in the ideological sense
philosophy in the stoical sense
Find out more about stoicism. What are its strengths and weaknesses?
2.3.3.0 Areas in Professional Philosophy
There are four main areas of study in professional or technical philosophy namely:
metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and logic. In addition, there is applied
philosophy or called "philosophy of - "category as explained below.

2.3.3.1 Metaphysics: This is also called the study or theory of reality. It is


reasoned thought about reality. The main question of metaphysics is: what is
reality? Other related questions include: Is reality one or many? How is reality
accessible if at all?
2.3.3.2 Epistemology: This is also called the theory of knowledge. It is reasoned
thought about knowledge. The main question of epistemology is: what is
knowledge? Other related questions include: How is knowledge attained if at all?
How do we know that we know?
2.3.3.3 Axiology: This is also called the theory of value. Th main question raised
is: What is value as such. This question is indifferent to any specific sort of values.
They may be economic, cultural, political or moral values. However, greater focus
has historically been given to moral and aesthetic values leading to focus on ethics
and aesthetics.
Ethics
This is reasoned thought about moral values. It is concerned with value as it
applies to personal actions, decisions and relations. It raises questions such as:
What is morally good? What makes actions right or wrong? Are there any
universal moral principles?
Aesthetics
This is reasoned thought about artistic values and our experience of beauty. It
raises such questions as: What is art? What is beauty? What is the connection (if
any) between beauty and truth?
2.3.3.4 Logic
This is also called the study of reasoning and argumentation., It is reasoned thought
about argument action. The questions raised in logic include: How can correct
reasoning be distinguished from incorrect reasoning? How are errors in reasoning
committed?
2.3.3.5 The "Philosophy of - " category
In addition to the above fields of philosophy, philosophy relates Itself to other
disciplines as well leading to the "philosophy of - " category. When reasoned
thought is applied to religious concerns, this leads to philosophy of religion, for
instance reasoned thought about education leads to philosophy of education. Other

examples include: philosophy of history, philosophy of law, philosophy of biology


etc.
In this category, a particular discipline is treated philosophically questions are
raised regarding the discipline's subject matter, the adequacy of its methodology,
the meaning and clarity of its concepts and its relation to and implications for other
disciplines.
(Miller, 1984, 4-7).
NOTE:
All philosophizing is characterized by reasoned thought about some aspect of the
universe or our experience of it. The object of thought serves to distinguish the
different areas in professional philosophy.
Questions
1. How is metaphysics related to Epistemology.
2. Why is philosophy concerned about other disciplines?
Activity
Think of the important questions that concern you in your life. Where do they
belong among the fields of philosophy and why?
2.3.4.0 Functions of Philosophy
Olela (1988, 19-26) discusses the following functions of philosophy.
2.3.4.1 Integration of experience
The universe as we experience it is both diverse and unified. Reasoned thought
helps us to integrate and harmonize these apparently opposed aspects of reality.
2.3.4.2 Nurturing of our awareness and sensitivity.
Reasoned thought assists us to not only understand the universe but also ourselves
as part of it. Self-examination enhances the consciousness of our own limitations
and capabilities. This awareness and sensitivity is crucial in assisting us to adapt to
the challenging and complex situations of life.
2.3.4.3 Clarification and justification of belief

Beliefs are the basis of our actions. Reasoned thought about our beliefs enables us
to ensure that they are well-founded and thus rationally justifiable. If our actions
are to be effective in enhancing our well-being, they should be founded on a clear
and rationally justifiable beliefs.
2.3.4.4 Bridging the gap between theory and practice
Philosophy raises questions regarding the meaning, foundations, purpose,
justification, verification and application of theories. This is useful in ensuring that
theories inform practice appropriately. Philosophy also evaluates practice and
raises questions regarding the extent to which practice confirms to theory and why.
2.3.4.5 Providing a condition for the freedom of the mind
Philosophy seeks to literate us from the slavery of ignorance and irrationality. It
helps us to examine our own beliefs, assumptions and prejudices. It assists us to,
act rationally and justly. This broadens our realm of freedom and enhances our
capacity to act and respond responsibly, intelligently and creatively.
2.3.4.6 CONLUSION
Considering the above functions of philosophy "can you imagine a world in which
nobody any longer asked the philosophic questions, nobody was philosophical?
It would be a world in which nobody penetrated below the facts of everyday life to
think about what is real, true, valuable, just and meaningful in life. It would be a
world of mechanical men, women and children moving among physical objects; a
world in which we would have become hollow men going through meaningless
motions and speech would be empty chatter." (Lawine, 1984, 5)
NOTE
Philosophy aims at enabling us to make sense of the world and operate within it in
such a way that enhances our well being.
Question
1. What other functions does philosophy serve?
2. Why is philosophy not primarily aimed at making money?
Activity

1. Suggest ways in which reasoned thought can enhance human well-being in


Kenya today.
2.4 Summary
In this lesson we have realized that philosophy involves thinking rationally and
critically about important questions regarding our universe and ourselves as part of
it.
We have also seen that philosophy is characterized by iniquity, analysis, criticism,
discussion, evaluation and synthesis. We have also found that philosophy is
significant because it helps us to make sense of existence and order our lives and
actions appropriately as free, rational and creative beings.
2.5 Definition of key words and concepts:
1 Aesthetics
Reasoned thought about artistic values and our experience of beauty.
2 Axiology
Reasoned thought about values in general.
3 Ethics
Reasoned thought about moral values.
4 Epistemology
Reasoned thought about knowledge
5 Logic
Reasoned thought about the principles of right reasoning and argumentation.
6 Metaphysics
Reasoned thought about reality.
7 Philosophy

A critical and reflective attempt to understand our universe in its entirety and as a
single whole and ourselves as part of it.
2.6 Further Reading
a) Required Reading
Wambari, K. 19092. Reading in Introduction to Critical Thinking. Kijabe: AIC
Kijabe Printing Press.
b) Recommended Reading
Christine, J. 1973. Philosophy: An Introduction to the Art of Wondering. Corte
Madera, CA: Rinehart Press.
Fuller, B. 1955. A History of philosophy. 3rd Ed. Revised by sterling M.
Mc.Murrin. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winton.
Lavine, T. 1984. From Socrates to Sartre: The philosophical Quest. N.Y: Bantam
Books.
Miller, E. 1984. Questions that matter: An Invitation to philosophy, N.Y. McGraw
Book Company.
Olela, H. 1988. Philosophy of Education. Nairobi. Kenyatta University, Faculty
of Education.
Popkin, R. and Stroll, A. 1981. Philosophy Made Simple. London: Heinemann.
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