MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Elastic Fracture Mechanics. Energy Approach.

Elastic Deformation is a reversible deformation.
Fracture is an irreversible process
How to determine elastic fracture?
Elastic fracture produces broken pieces that can be refitted to regain the original
size and shape of the body.
The elastic fracture is almost always elastic only in a global sense. Some process
zone exists around the crack tip.

process zone
crack
The process zone confines the volume wherein inelastic processes associated with
crack propagation take place. It propagates with the crack and produces a
boundary layer.
The elastic fracture model can be used if the process zone size is much smaller than
all characteristic lengths of the strain distribution and no inelastic processes occur
outside the crack process zone.
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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

elastoplastic
>y

elastic
<y

Part 3

plastic

Major types of the fracture process and the location of the inelastic zone.

C
E

B D

Load

Load

C
B

F
A

Displacement

D
F

D' G
Displacement

a
b
Load - Displacement curves of: (a) linear elastic and (b) elastoplastic (plastic)
fracture processes (quasi-static crack growth in both cases). (a) A-B-C - elastic part
of elastic fracture curve before cracking; C-D-A unloading path without cracking.
C-E-F-A cracking and unloading path. (b) A-B elastic part without cracking on
elastoplastic (plastic) fracture curve; B-C plastic part without cracking; C-D-D' unloading before cracking but after the beginning of plastic deformation; C-E-F-G
cracking and unloading path.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Energy characteristics in the elastic fracture model.

R the work of fracture: the work that is required to propagate a crack by a unit
area (material property)

strain energy release rate (used in the linear elastic fracture theory)

the rate of the change of potential energy with respect to the crack area (used
in the theory of elastoplastic and plastic fracture)

We also need to introduce elastic energy, U e :

1
1
U e Fi ui M i i
2
2
where

Fi

are applied forces,

ui

are displacements,

Mi

are applied moments and

are rotations.

Alternatively, U e can be obtained as:

1
U e ij ij dV
V2

The energy balance during fracture:

If crack area increases by

dA , then the energy providing the driving force for this

process can be presented as a sum of contributions from (i) the work of external
forces,

F du , and (ii) the release of elastic energy, dU e :

GdA Fdu dU e

or
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Fdu GdA dU e

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Note that

Part 3

is positive when a crack grows. Historically the conditions with fixed

grips (clamped conditions with du=0) were considered first. Under those conditions

u const , the work of external forces is equal to zero and the driving force for the
crack growth is coming only from the release of elastic energy and we can write:

G
As a result

dU e
dA

was given the name of the strain energy release rate; however, in a

more general case it also includes the rate of the work of the external load:

GF

du dU e

dA dA

(Term rate is used here and further in the sense of value per crack area rather then
value per unit time).
During a static (quasi-static) or equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium) fracture:

R G Gc or R J J c
therefore, the work of external forces can be presented as:

Fdu dU e RdA
Note that both the stored elastic energy and the work of external forces can
contribute to the driving force of the crack growth.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Special Cases of the Energy Balance Equation:

1. The static or equilibrium fracture in an elastoplastic (plastic) material:

Fdu dU e JdA d
where

is the energy dissipated by the remote plastic flow. Note that in this case

the rate of the change of potential energy should be used since JG for plastic or
elastoplastic fracture.
2. Creep fracture:

Fdu dU e' JdA' d

where ' means differentiation with respect to time. The rate of the change of the
potential energy should be used since creep represents a form of the plastic
deformation.
3. Environmental elastic cracking:

Fdu dU e GdA d
where

represents chemical or electro-chemical energy.

4. A dynamic fracture:

Fdu dU e RdA d dH
where

H is kinetic energy. Note that R should be used instead of G since RG

under dynamic fracture conditions when the fracture is not quasi-static.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Deformation curves and strain energy of an elastic body with

cracks.
Stiffness of an elastic body with a crack in it depends on the crack length,
area,

a,

or

A.

A
cr
in
B

g
sin
ea

The increase in the crack area (or length) results the jump from the line with a
higher slope (larger stiffness) to the line with a lower slope (smaller stiffness). The
jump can happen in different direction depending on the boundary conditions. For
example constant load conditions correspond to jump B C while the constant
displacement conditions correspond to jump B D for the same change in stiffness.
The elastic energy,

U e , of the body can be determined as an area under the line

representing the current stiffness of the body (current crack length) drawn from the
origin of the coordinate system up to the (F, u) point representing the current load displacement state of the system corresponding to the current crack area or length.
Note that

Ue

increases with

A or a

when

A or a when u const .
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F const

and

Ue

decreases with

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

The effect of the crack length or area on the stiffness,

of the specimen can be presented by the

u / F (a)

Part 3

F / u , or compliance, u / F ,
diagram or by the

u / F ( A)

diagram.
Example. Determine the expression for the

u F , a and U e F , a for the double

cantilever beam (DCB) specimen. Consider a small deflection limit only.

h
B

a
Principal scheme of the DCB specimen

F a3
The deflection of each arm is determined as: ua
3 E I
The total displacement is:

The strain energy is:

, where

B h3
I
12

2 F a3
u 2 ua
3 E I

F u F F a3 4 F 2 a3
Ue

2
3 E I
E B h3

(Note that this strain energy is the strain energy produced by the application of an
external load gradually increasing up to the F value under constant crack length
conditions).
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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

u
2 a3
8 a3

F 3 E I E B h3

u/F

The compliance is:

Part 3

u/F

aa

Compliance as a function of the crack length for the DCB specimen.

The energy release rate and cracking. Graphical approach.

Consider a test with only two crack length states: initial, a1 , and final,

a1
F

a2 .

a2
C

Two limiting cases of the crack growth condition (for the growth starting from point
B on the F-u diagram) are shown by dashed arrows:
at a constant load, F , (BC)
at a constant displacement, u , (BD)

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Cracking at a Constant Displacement

Crack growth produces a transition from point B
to point E
The work of external forces during cracking is 0
The decrease in the strain energy
The strain energy release rate:
where

U e area OBE

Gu

a1
F

area OBE
,
b a2 a1

a2
C

b is the specimen thickness.

Cracking at a Constant Applied Load

Crack propagation produces a transition from point B to point C

The work of external forces during cracking: W

area BCDF

The energy released for the work of the fracture ( Fu U e ):

area BCDF area OBF area OCD area OBC

(Note that strain energy increases from area

OBF

to area

crack propagation).
The strain energy release rate:

In the limit of

GF

area OBC
b a2 a1

(a 2 a1 ) 0 GF Gu

In real tests often neither displacement nor load is constant.

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OCD as a result of

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Schematics of the F-u diagram typical of double ended DCB specimens and of
composite delamination specimens, and schematics of a double ended DCB
specimen. Multiple loading unloading cycles are used to produce segments
corresponding to consecutive increments of the crack length.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Non-linear elastic behaviour.

Non-linear elasticity can be the result of specific material properties (in polymers)
or it can be the result of geometrical effects of the specimen shape (instabilities,
softening or strengthening).
A DCB specimen produces a non-linear response (strengthening) due to the stresses
in the membrane ahead of the crack tip.
The nonlinear elastic behavior can be obtained in the off-axis compression tests
performed on thin sheet materials.

Schematics of the F-u diagram typical of the off-axis compression tests performed
on thin polymer specimens.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Schematics of the specimen for the off-axis compression test.

Analytical approach to the linear elastic fracture energy.

Fdu dU e G dA
in a linear system:

1
dU e d F u ,
2

therefore:

F du
or:

Divide both sides by

1
F du u dF G dA
2

F du u dF 2 G dA .
F 2 dA and obtain:

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Part 3

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

du
dF
F u

dA
dA d u / F 2 G / F 2
dA
F2
or (taking into account that G=R for the quasi-static crack growth):

Fc 2 2 R /

d
u / F ,
dA

where index c denotes the value of the variable when the cracking occurs.
The obtained expression can be used to calculate the

R value from the experimental

F-u diagrams or as a cracking criterion.

The

u / F vs A

dependence (compliance calibration) can be determined

analytically or from the experimental F-u diagrams.

ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS:

uc 2 2 R /

d
F / u
dA

F u
A 2
F F

u
Fc 2 R /
A F Fc

F
uc 2 R /
A u uc

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F u
A 2
u u

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Example 1 (analytical compliance calibration):

An DCB specimen is made of a material with known toughness

R . Determine the

load at the onset of crack growth. The initial crack length and specimen geometry
are as shown below.

h
B

a
We already obtained

u
2 a3

F 3 E I
we know that

therefore:

A Ba
d u 2 a2
,

dA F B E I

and finally

Fc 2 2 R /

d
u / F R B 2E I
dA
a

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Example 2 (graphical compliance calibration using experimental data).

B
The compliance calibration curve of pre-cracked notched 3-point bending
specimens is shown below. The specimens had D=40 mm, B=20 mm and a different
crack length, a (where a includes the depth of the notch and the length of the crack
fatigued from the tip of the notch). The F-u plot obtained on the specimen with the
initial crack length of 15 mm and deformed to the complete fracture is also shown.
Determine toughness using the analytical (compliance calibration) method and
using the area under the fracture curve. Compare results. Discuss accuracy.

2 10

6 10

5 10

4 10

3 10

2 10

1 10

1.5 10

F, N

u/F, mm/N

1 10

5000
0

0
0

10

15
a

20

25

30

(a)

u, mm
(b)

Compliance calibration curve (a) and F-u fracture diagram (for the specimen with
the initial crack length of 15 mm) (b) of 3-point bending specimens.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Solution:
By drawing a tangent to the u/F(a) curve at the point with a=15 mm we can
estimate:

d u 1 d u
7
7.5 10

dA F B da F

N 1 mm 1,

therefore:

1
d
1
R Fc 2 u / F 17,000 2 7.5 10 7 N / mm 108 kJ / m 2
2
dA
2
From the area under the F-u fracture diagram we can estimate the fracture energy
as:

G A

17,000 2.2 17,000 4.4 2.2

35,700 N mm 35.7 J
2
2

The increment of the crack area is:

A 40 15 20 500 mm 2
Therefore (assuming quasi-static fracture conditions):

35.7
kJ
G A
J

71
A
500 10 6 m 2
m2

The difference between the

value obtained using compliance calibration and the

value obtained using the F-u curve is mainly due to the error in the drawing

tangent line which was used in the compliance calibration method. If the actual
slope (from the digital curve data) is used:

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

d u 1 d u
7

5.108 10
dA F B da F

Part 3

N 1 mm 1

then the compliance calibration method produces an estimate:

R 75.8

kJ
m2

The accuracy of this method can be improved if the specimens with a linear
vs.

A (or vs. a ) dependence are used.

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u / F

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Specimens with linear compliance curves.

A contoured DCB test specimen.

F
A double-torsion specimen.

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Part 3

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Non-linear elastic behaviour.

1. In the case of a non-linear elastic solid material a complementary strain energy,

F u Ue
should be also taken into account.

X
F

U
e

uu

2. The elastic energy of a nonlinear body:

1
Ue F u
2
U e F (u ) du

or

1
U e ij ij dV
2
U e ij ( ij ) d ij dV

3. The energy balance during crack growth is presented by:

F du dU e JdA

u dF d JdA
4. Manipulation of energy balances leads to cracking conditions:

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

J
u

A F F A
F
J

A u
u A

u
J

dF

A F
F

U
F
J e du
A u
A u
To use these criteria:
we need an experimentally fitted
A frequently used form of

F (u , A) (or u ( F , A) ) dependence.

F (u , A) :
F k A u n

where

k A is a simple function

F (u , A) of a double ended DCB under an eccentric compression is often presented

by:

F
m

Cm u m
m 1
A 2

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

A double ended DCB specimen subjected to the eccentric compression.

Example:
Non-linear load-deflection diagrams at a constant crack area were curve fitted by:

u2
u3
u

4500
F 200 1500
3/ 2
2
A
A

A
where

was the applied load in N,

was the displacement in mm and

was a

crack area in mm2. A crack of the area of 35 mm2 started to propagate when

F 80

N and

1. Integrate the

u 3 mm. Determine the toughness of the material.

F (u , A)

relationship with respect to

Ue :

Page 21

at constant

A and obtain

MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

u2
u3
u4

1125
U e F u du 100 500
A
A3 / 2
A2

2.

Use:

u2
u3
u4
U e
J
100 2 750 5 / 2 2250 3
A u
A
A

A
32
33
34
U e

750
2250
100
J c

352
355 / 2
353
A u uc , A Ac

J c 2.2

N mm
mm 2

2.2

J 103
m 2 10 6

2.2

R J c 2.2 103

J
m 2 103

2.2 103

J
m2

J
m2

Elastic fracture with apparent irreversibility.

The specimens with a low bending stiffness can have an irreversible fracture
behavior even if the elastic fracture takes place.
An insufficient stored elastic energy is the reason for irreversibility.
For example, the tearing of a thin sheet produces a residual displacement; however,
pieces obtained by tearing can be refitted back to restore the original shape.
The tearing test (trousers test) and the peeling test are most common examples of
the elastic irreversible fracture.
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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Trousers test

u
a

The specimen geometry (a) for the trousers test and (b) load deflection curve of the
trousers test for a zero elastic energy in tension during crack propagation.

If there is no contribution into

dU e

either from the bending resistance or from

stretching the trousers legs, then the energy balance becomes

2F du / 2 J dA J B du / 2
and the cracking or fracture condition can be expressed as

Jc R 2F / B
which also can be used as an equation for toughness.

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Note that in the trousers test a fracture develops at a constant load, and toughness
plays the role of the material strength in a most direct form.
Trousers test with linear elastic legs.
If trousers legs can store elastic energy, then the load-deflection curve has a
different slope of the loading and unloading line.

A'

u=2.(a+)

B'

Load deflection curve for the trousers test when the legs store elastic energy.
During the loading up to the offset of cracking the length of each leg increases by .
As the cracking starts, a total displacement can be presented as:

u 2a
where

is an unstretched leg length (crack length).

The stress in the legs is

F /( wB )
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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

The elastic strain in the legs is

/ E F /( w B E )
and the elastic displacement is

a a / E F a /( w B E )
The energy balance can be presented as

F du F d 2a d 2 F R dA
2

or

d
1
R
2

dA F w E B 2 F 2 FB
Therefore, the equation for toughness is:

F2
w E B2

2F
B

Note that:
for

we'll obtain the same expression for

R as in the previous case

the decrease in stiffness effectively results in a lower strength in the

trousers test

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Peeling Test.

The peeling test scheme.

No stretch conditions
The net displacement in the direction of the peeling force is
The crack area increment:

dA w da

The toughness equation:

J c R F 1 cos / w

da1 cos

Peeling with stretching

Toughness equation:

F
1
F
R 1 cos
w
w 2E B
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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

At a low peeling angle

Part 3

cos 1 and

FC 2 R E B w2
The product of stiffness and toughness determines the effective resistance to peeling
at low peeling angles.

The Griffith analysis of crack stability. Part 2.

In the considered earlier Griffith model for the through crack stability in a wide
plate we used constant displacement (zero work of external forces) conditions.
Constant load conditions are more typical. Is the failure criterion the same?

w
B

2h
D

2a

An elliptic crack in a loaded plate. w>>2a and D>>2a

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

Under constant load conditions the strain energy of the plate increases as the result
of cracking. The increase in the elastic energy is:

U e
where:

is the plate thickness,

2 a2 B
E

is the Young's modulus,

is the crack half-

length and is a nominal stress:

where

is the applied load and

F
,
w B

w is the plate width.

The general linear elastic failure criterion is:

Fc 2 2 R /

d
u / F
dA

or, by taking into account that:

u D D

where

E1

F /( w B )
E1

E1 is an apparent Young's modulus of the cracked plate, and

1 d
d

dA 2 B da

(a is a half length of the crack),

we can obtain:

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

c2

where

Part 3

2 R
F / w B
D

E1
1 d
2

w B
F
2 B da

E1 is an apparent Young's modulus of the cracked plate.

Rearranging produces:

c2

4 R B
d 1

V
da E1

The apparent Young's modulus can be determined from the elastic energy of the
cracked plate:

2 V
2 E

2 a2 B
E

2 V
2 E1

therefore:

d 1 4 a B

da E1
E V
And finally:

c2

ER
4 R B

4 a B a
V
E V

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MAAE 4102 Engineering Materials: Strength & Fracture

Part 3

ER
a

If only the surface energy, , produces a contribution into

R , then

R 2
and

2 E
a

The fracture condition

ER
a

can be rearranged as

c a E R

The right-hand side now contains only material constants and the left-hand side is a
function of the applied load and the specimen geometry, i.e. the crack length. The
left-hand side determines the severity of the combined effect of the load and the
crack. It is called stress intensity, and the critical value of the stress intensity is the
material parameter as well as

and

R.

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