The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems (Figure
-1). Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex organic molecules like amino acids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. The store of nitrogen found in the atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (mainly N2),
plays an important role for life. This store is about one million times larger than the total nitrogen contained in
living organisms. Other major stores of nitrogen include organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its
abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs
because most plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion (NH4+ ) and the ion nitrate
(NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as inorganic nitrate from the soil solution. Ammonium is
used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is extremely toxic. Animals receive the required
nitrogen they need for metabolism, growth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic
matter containing molecules composed partially of nitrogen.

Figure -1: Nitrogen cycle.

In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matter. This organic nitrogen is
converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via decomposition. Decomposers,
found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in organic matter from ammonia (NH3 ) to

ammonium salts (NH4+ ). This process is known as mineralization and it is carried out by a variety of bacteria,
actinomycetes, and fungi.
Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil. The ion of
ammonium has a positive molecular charge is normally held by soil colloids. This process is sometimes called
micelle fixation (see Figure 9s-1). Ammonium is released from the colloids by way of cation exchange. When
released, most of the ammonium is often chemically altered by a specific type of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria
that belong to the genus Nitrosomonas) into nitrite (NO2- ). Further modification by another type of bacteria
(belonging to the genus Nitrobacter) converts the nitrite to nitrate (NO3- ). Both of these processes involve
chemical oxidation and are known as nitrification. However, nitrate is very soluble and it is easily lost from
the soil system by leaching. Some of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until it reaches
the oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitrification is also common in
anaerobic soils and is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria. The process of denitrification involves the
metabolic reduction of nitrate (NO3- ) into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then
diffuse into the atmosphere.
Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere. Significant
amounts enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is biochemically
fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and cyanobacteria.
Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships
with nitrogen fixing bacteria. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates
and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a moist environment. Scientists estimate that
biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year.
The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes involved in this
alteration include:

The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of denitrification and leaching
of nitrate into groundwater. The additional nitrogen entering the groundwater system eventually flows
into streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to
eutrophication.
Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel combustion and forest
burning. Both of these processes release a variety of solid forms of nitrogen through combustion.
Livestock ranching. Livestock release a large amounts of ammonia into the environment from their
wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the hydrologic system through leaching,
groundwater flow, and runoff.
Sewage waste and septic tank leaching.
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions PO 43- and
HPO42-. It is a part of DNA-molecules, of molecules that store energy (ATP and ADP) and
of fats of cell membranes. Phosphorus is also a building block of certain parts of the
human
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Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments. Unlike the compounds of
other matter cycles phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous state. This is
because phosphorus is usually liquid at normal temperatures and pressures. It is mainly
cycling through water, soil and sediments. In the atmosphere phosphorus can mainly be
found as very small dust particles.Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in
sediments, to living organisms, and than much more slowly back into the soil and water
sediment. The phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the matter cycles that are described
here. Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as
phosphate salts. Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually
dissolve in soil water and will be absorbed by plants. Because the quantities of
phosphorus in soil are generally small, it is often the limiting factor for plant growth.
That is why humans often apply phosphate fertilizers on farmland. Phosphates are also
limiting factors for plant-growth in marine ecosystems, because they are not very watersoluble. Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals.
Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals much faster than it does through rocks and
sediments. When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans
again during decay. After that, phosphorus will end up in sediments or rock formations
again, remaining there for millions of years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again
through weathering and the cycle starts over. A schematic representation of the
phosphorus cycle:

Sulphur Cycle
Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and vitamins. Proteins consist of
amino acids that contain sulphur atoms. Sulphur is important for the functioning of
proteins and enzymes in plants, and in animals that depend upon plants for sulphur. Plants

absorb sulphur when it is dissolved in water. Animals consume these plants, so that they
take up enough sulphur to maintain their health.
Most of the earth's sulphur is tied up in rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in
oceanic sediments. Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. It enters the atmosphere
through both natural and human sources. Natural recourses can be for instance volcanic
eruptions, bacterial processes, evaporation from water, or decaying organisms. When
sulphur enters the atmosphere through human activity, this is mainly a consequence of
industrial processes where sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are
emitted on a wide scale.
When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere it will react with oxygen to produce sulphur
trioxide gas (SO3), or with other chemicals in the atmosphere, to produce sulphur salts.
Sulphur dioxide may also react with water to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Sulphuric
acid may also be produced from demethylsulphide, which is emitted to the atmosphere by
plankton species.
All these particles will settle back onto earth, or react with rain and fall back onto earth as
acid deposition. The particles will than be absorbed by plants again and are released
back into the atmosphere, so that the sulphur cycle will start over again.

A schematic representation of the sulphur cycle: