What is Powder Metallurgy?

Powder Metallurgy is a continually and rapidly evolving technology embracing most metallic and
alloy materials, and a wide variety of shapes. PM is a highly developed method of manufacturing
reliable ferrous and non ferrous parts. The European Market alone has an annual turnover of over
Six Billion Euros , with annual worldwide metal powder production exceeding one million tonnes.
Created by mixing elemental or alloy powders and compacting the mixture in a die, the resultant
shapes are then heated or "sintered" in a controlled atmosphere furnace to bond the particles
metallurgically. The high precision forming capability of PM generates components with near net
shape, intricate features and good dimensional precision pieces are often finished without the

need of machining.
By producing parts with a homogeneous structure the PM process enables manufacturers to
make products that are more consistent and predictable in their behaviour across a wide range of
applications. In addition the PM Process has a high degree of flexibility allowing the tailoring of
the physical characteristics of a product to suit your specific property and performance
requirements. These include:

Structural pieces with complex shapes

Controlled Porosity

Controlled performance

Good performance in stress and absorbing of vibrations

Special properties such as hardness and wear resistance

Great precision and good surface finish

Large series of pieces with narrow tolerances

The unique flexibility of the PM process enables products to be made from materials that are
tailored to your specific needs. By using specially selected materials this capability enables
refinements to be engineered into the mechanical properties of the part

Mechanical Properties

Introduction

Impact Strength/Fracture Toughness

Unnotched Charpy impact strength figures for many PM materials range from 5 to around 35J.
Higher values are found in the case of high relative densities (>93-

95%).

The ability of a material to resist crack initiation and propagation can be

quantified only by adopting fracture mechanics concepts.
Fracture toughness values of PM materials are lower than that of wrought materials; in the case
of PM steels with densities in the range 6.5 to 7.0 g/cm, fracture toughness increases and
crack propagation decreases.

However, the most important and experimentally verified aspect shows

that in cyclic loading near the fatigue limit PM steels with a density of about 7.1 7.5 g/cm cracks propagate more slowly in comparison with nodular cast iron and
wrought heat treatable steels.
This effect is due to the presence of pores which compensate for the weakening of the
structure.

Tensile Strength/Yield Strength

When components are designed with low tensile strength in critical features, such as gear teeth,
the designer can use conventional design formulas.

Where strength of a feature is critical, it is essential to work with the PM manufacturer to

optimise the design for manufacturing, determine the strength that can be reasonably specified,
and establish the test and inspection procedures for maintaining performance.

Improvements in the strength could be achieved by filling the surface connected pores
with a liquid metal that has a lower melting point (infiltration)

Elimination of flaws- using hot isostatic pressing.

Because tensile strength (Rm) is the oldest property used to characterise the mechanical
behaviour of PM materials, and since there is a lot of experience behind the interpretation of its
figures, designers have had good reasons for specifying it on their drawings.

They are, of course, right if the application actually requires Rm as a mandatory design
value, to be directly used in calculations;

however, strength and fatigue concepts should not be mixed up: if parts are subject to
dynamic loading, the conclusion about the performance of the component in service may only
be approximate or even wrong when Rm (alone or with other properties, like elongation and
impact strength) is used to establish the suitability of a material for an application where fatigue
is present.
In mechanical design yield strength usually is more important than tensile strength: designers
must take into account that dimensional stability is guaranteed only when stresses due to service
loading are below this threshold value.

Creep

Creep is very slow plastic deformation occurring at stress levels below the yield point.
PM components may offer economical alternatives to injection-moulded plastics,

composites and die-castings designed for temperatures to 400 F (205 C).

For example, a redesign for PM may require fewer or smaller fasteners, require less thread depth
in tapped holes, allow threaded fasteners in tapped holes rather than through bolts and nuts, and
eliminate the need for steel inserts to distribute concentrated loads.

Hardness

When hardness is measured on a porous material, the size of the identation is the combination of
two factors:
1.

the resistance of the base material to the penetration of the indenter

2.

and the resistance to plastic deformation and fracture of the welds which characterise the
sintered structure, stressed beyond its yield point.

Thus compared with dense materials, hardness values of PM materials are always more
scattered and scatter increases with decreasing test load.
For example, in the case of PM steels because there is a decrease in the number of pores

whose effect is averaged during the penetration of the indenter;

ISO standards prescribe that the average value be indicated on drawings.

Hardness can also for an indirect and rough evaluation of Rm of PM parts, provided they are assintered and homogeneous as regards structure and porosity distribution; it cannot be used in the
case of heat treated PM parts.

Elongation

Elongation values give a good indication of the material's ductility, ie. its ability to absorb
substantial amounts of energy in case of breakage.

For PM designers are limited to elongation values ranging between 1 and about 10%.

With the same alloy composition a decrease of density also decreases elongation values;
the decrease is steeper at a relative density higher than about 90% (transition from closed to
open porosity).

Modulus of Elasticity

MOE is directly affected by material density.

Tabulated values foe MOE indicate lower values for PM alloys than for equivalent wrought
and cast alloys, higher values than for die cast alloys, and much higher values than plastics
and most composites.

Higher MOE may allow opportunities to reduce wall thickness and eliminate reinforcing

features, such as gussets and ribs, when redesigning plastics, composites and die-castings for
PM.
The relation between Young's modulus (E) and density is approximately linear for relative
densities higher than 80%:
E value is halved (E ~ 210 Gpa in case of iron) by decreasing the density in the indicated

range;
the decrease becomes steeper with porosity greater than 20%.

For Poisson's ration (v) an increase of porosity up to 15-20% for ferrous PM materials involves a
gradual decrease of the value of v from ~ 0.29 to ~ 0.26.

Dent Resistance

Dent resistance is the ability of a component to withstand impact without permanent

deformation.PM materials with dent resistance are not readily handled by standards methods.

Compressive Strength

This specific property can be increase leading to the reduction in porosity of the surface layer,
increasing the surface hardness and the wear resistance.

Corrosion Resistance

Could be achieved by the filling of some of the porosity.

PM parts working in mechanical devices usually require no protection for corrosion because the
presence of lubricants guarantees safe operation.
However, where PM parts are exposed to high humidity or corrosive media they are more prone
to corrosion than their wrought counterparts.
Surface pores increase the surface area exposed to the environment and they can also act as
pockets where corrosive media have an enhanced effect.
Corrosion resistance can be assured by the use of stainless steels, or by zinc plating

followed by chromating of PM steel components.

Steam treatment and resin impregnation also make PM parts less prone to corrosion.

Temperature Effects

The temperature ranges in which most PM components operate have little effect on
copper, iron, steel and stainless steel alloys. In those applications where anticipated
temperatures are high or low enough,alloy formulation can be modified to improve the
properties.
The stability of mechanical properties at elevated temperatures often makes PM an
economical alternative to injection moulded plastics, composites and die castings, which
can experience loss of strength and reduced MOE at approximately the same

temperatures that induce creep.

When redesigning for PM, design economies discussed previously for MOE, strength and
creep may be applicable.

Fatigue Strength

PM alloys exhibit an endurance limit, as do cast and wrought alloys of similar composition. The
endurance limit increases with increasing component density.
Fatigue performance of a PM component relative to tensile strength is reasonably

consistent.
An increase in mechanical properties is achieved when pores are filled with an organic

rather than metallic material.

The operation prevents the entry of potentially corrosive electrolyte during subsequent

plating operations.
Considering what has been said before on fracture toughness, fatigue endurance limits increase
with increasing density.

Fatigue strength of unnotched PM steels is lower than that of wrought steels;

however, in the presence of notches (Kt > 2.0) the difference practically disappears,
provided that density is 7.1 g/cm or more.
Moreover, porous materials are less sensitive to an increase of Kt than their dense

counterparts.
Of course there is an increase of notch sensitivity with increase of hardness.

Fatigue strength is greater under bending than axial loading, due to the difference in the influence
of pores, which is less severe in the case of bending.
An improvement in strength can be obtained by local densification of the already sintered part, but
the highest improvements are obtainable by means of post sintering heat treatments.
Carburizing or carbonitriding provide the maximum gains as residual compressive stresses can
be introduced.

Porosity

The mechanical properties of structural PM components are influenced mainly by the residual
porosity.

Porosity reduces the amount of metal actually present in a given section of the part and
when it is loaded the pores themselves can act as stress raisers.
In wrought materials tensile strength can be controlled by the composition of the alloy and the
structural changes brought about through heat treatment. Similar strength levels can be achieved
in PM components by raising the density level but not adding alloying elements, or by maintaining
an acceptable level of porosity but adding alloying elements.
Yield strength follows the same pattern. However, these are extremely intricate inter-relations, and
it is therefore important to discuss with the PM producer the choice of both material and
production cycle.

Porosity affects the magnetic properties of PM materials.

It must therefore be minimised when high induction (Bmax) is needed;

remanence (Br) is affected in the same way.

Pores also limit the mobility of domain walls, i.e. an increase in density gives higher values of
permeability () and lowers coercive force (Hc).

Other aspects, like grain size, presence of work hardening (annealing may be required),
presence of impurities in the lattice (C, N), have the same importance as in the case of dense
materials.
Recently, new magnetic powders based on iron where the single particles are coated with an
insulating resin have been developed for AC applications (low eddy current losses).

Powder Metallurgy Process

The general sequence of operations involved in the powder metallurgy process is shown
schematically in the following organigram:
The component powders are mixed, together with lubricant, until a homogeneous mix is obtained.
The mix is then loaded into a die and compacted under pressure, after which the compact is
sintered.
An exception is the process for making filter elements from spherical bronze powder where no
pressure is used; the powder being simply placed in a suitably shaped mould in which it is
sintered. This process is known as loose powder sintering.

Powder Manufacture
There are many ways in which metals may be produced in powder form:

comminution of solid metal

precipitation from solution of a salt
thermal decomposition of a chemical compound
reduction of a compound, usually the oxide, in the solid state
electrodeposition
and the atomization of molten metal

Solid State Reduction

This has been for long the most widely used method for the production of iron powder. Selected
ore is crushed, mixed with carbon, and passed through a continuous furnace where reaction
takes place leaving a cake of sponge iron which is then further treated by crushing, separation of
non-metallic material, and sieving to produce powder.
Since no refining operation is involved, the purity of the powder is dependent on that of the raw
materials.The irregular sponge-like particles are soft, and readily compressible, and give
compacts of good green strength.
Refractory metals are normally made by hydrogen reduction of oxides, and the same process can
be used for copper.

Electrolysis
By choosing suitable conditions - composition and strength of the electrolyte, temperature, current
density, etc., many metals can be deposited in a spongy or powdery state.
Extensive further processing - washing, drying, reducing, annealing and crushing may be
required.
Copper is the main metal to be produced in this way but chromium and manganese powders are
also produced, by electrolysis. In these cases, however, a dense and normally brittle deposit is
formed and requires to be crushed to powder.
Electrolytic iron was at one time produced on a substantial scale but it has been largely
superseded by powders made by less costly processes. Very high purity and high density are two
distinguishing features .

Atomization
In this process molten metal is broken up into small droplets and rapidly frozen before the drops
come into contact with each other or with a solid surface.
The principal method is to disintegrate a thin stream of molten metal by subjecting it to the impact
of high energy jets of gas or liquid.
Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly used gases, and water is the liquid most widely used.

Gas atomization

A commercial scale plant was set up in Japan to produce iron powder using paraffin as the
atomizing liquid the object being to keep the surface oxygen content as low a possible.
The process was technically successful, but the advantages did not justify, in commercial terms,
the extra cost involved.
However, interest has not entirely evaporated and work is going on elsewhere.
Shapes of gas atomization powders
By varying the several parameters: design and configurations of the jets, pressure and volume of
the atomizing fluid, thickness of the stream of metal etc. - it is possible to control the particle size
distribution over a wide range.
The particle shape is determined largely by the rate of solidification and varies from spherical, if a
low heat capacity gas is employed, to highly irregular if water is used. In principle the technique is
applicable to all metals that can be melted, and is commercially used for the production of iron,
copper, including tool steels, alloy steels, brass, bronze and the low-melting-point metals, such as
aluminium, tin, lead, zinc, cadmium.
The readily oxidisable metals, for example chromium-bearing alloys, are being atomized on an
increasing scale by means of inert gas, specially argon.
In addition, there are several other processes that are finding increasing application, an important
one being centrifugal atomization in which droplets of molten metal are discharged from a rotating
source.
There are basically two types of centrifugal atomization processes:

in one a cup of molten metal is rotated on a vertical axis at a speed sufficient to throw off
droplets of molten metal, or a stream of metal is allowed to fall on a rotating disc or cone;
in the other a bar of the metal is rotated at high speed and the free end is progressively
melted e.g. by an electron beam or plasma arc.
This latter process is called the Rotating Electrode Process (REP), and the bar may be rotated
either on a horizontal or on a vertical axis.
A special advantage of these processes is that they can be carried out in a sealed vessel in a
controlled atmosphere - even vacuum - and thus produce 'clean' powders of highly reactive
metals.
With the REP process the avoidance of contact with refractory is a potent means of reducing the
number of non-metallic inclusions in the powder, and in components manufactured from the
powder.

Atomization is particularly useful for the production of alloys in powder form, since the
constituents metals are fully alloyed in the molten state. Thus each powder particle has the same
chemical composition.
Additionally the process is used to produce compositions such as copper-lead, in which the lead,
though soluble in the liquid state, comes out of solution on solidification. If a casting of such an
alloy is made, serious segregation of the lead results, but if the liquid is atomized, the end product
is copper powder containing a very fine and uniform distribution of lead inclusions within each
powder particle.

Mechanical Comminution
Brittle materials such as inter-metallic compounds, ferro-alloys - ferro-chromium, ferro-silicon, etc.
are pulverised mechanically in ball mills, and a process known as the Coldstream Process is
finding increasing application for the production of very fine powders such as are required for
injection moulding (qv).
In this process, granular material, which may be coarsely atomized powder, is fed in a stream of
gas under pressure through a venturi and is cooled and thereby embrittled by the adiabatic
expansion of the gas before impinging on a target on which the granules shatters

Chemical Processes
Thermal decomposition of a chemical compound is used in some cases, a notable one being
nickel carbonyl.
This Carbonyl Process was originally developed as a means of refining nickel, crude metal being
caused selectively to react with carbon monoxide under pressure to form the carbonyl which is
gaseous at the reaction temperature and which decomposes on raising the temperature and
lowering the pressure.
The same process is used for iron, and carbonyl iron powder finds small scale application where
its very high purity is useful.
Recently, demand for very fine powders for the injection moulding process has given a
considerable impetus to the carbonyl process.
Typically the particle size of carbonyl iron powder is 1 - 5 m, but, as in the case of nickel, it can be
tailored to suit particular requirements.

Another case of thermal decomposition is platinum powder of which is made from sponge
produced by heating salt - platinum ammonium chloride. In the Sherritt-Gordon process, nickel
powder is made by hydrogen reduction of a solution of a nickel salt under pressure.
Chemical precipitation of metal from a solution of a soluble salt is used in other cases - e.g. silver,
powder of which is produced by adding a reducing agent to a solution of silver nitrate. This is, of
course, the same basic process as is used to produce black and white photographs.

Conventional Processing

Introduction
The basic procedure in the manufacture of PM parts is:
1. Mix the metal powder or powders with a suitable lubricant.
2. Load the mixture into a die or mould and apply pressure.
This gives what is called a compact which requires only to have sufficient cohesion to enable it
to be handled safely and transferred to the next stage. Such compacts are referred to as green,
meaning unsintered: hence the terms green density and green strength.
3. Heat the compact , usually in a protective atmosphere, at a temperature below the melting
point of the main constituent so that the powder particles weld together and confer sufficient
strength to the object for the intended use.
This process is called sintering hence the term sintered parts. In certain cases a minor
constituent becomes molten at the sintering temperature in which case the process is referred
to as liquid phase sintering.
The amount of liquid phase must be limited so that the part retains its shape. In certain special
cases stages 2 and 3 are combined i.e. compaction is done at an elevated temperature such
that sintering occurs during the process.
This is termed hot pressing, or pressure sintering. In many cases the sintered part is subjected
to additional processing - repressing, plating etc. and these will be dealt with in the appropriate
sections below. In certain special cases, e.g. in the manufacture of filter elements from
spherical bronze powder, no pressure is used, the powder being placed in a suitably shaped
mould in which it is sintered.

This process is known as loose powder sintering.

Mixing

The object of mixing is to provide a homogeneous mixture and to incorporate the

lubricant. Popular lubricants are stearic acid, stearin, metallic stearates, especially zinc
stearate, and increasingly, other organic compounds of a waxy nature.
The main function of the lubricant is to reduce the friction between the powder mass and
the surfaces of the tools - die walls, core rods, etc. - along which the powder must slide
during compaction, thus assisting the achievement of the desired uniformity of density
from top to bottom of the compact.
Of equal importance is the fact that the reduction of friction also makes it easier to eject
the compact and so minimises the tendency to form cracks.
It has been suggested that an additional function of the lubricant is to help the particles to
slide over each other, but it seems doubtful whether this factor is of much significance: good compacts can be obtained without any admixed lubricant, e.g. using die wall
lubrication or isostatic pressing.
Care in the selection of lubricant is necessary, since it may adversely affect both green
and sintered strengths especially if any residue is left after the organic part has
decomposed.
Over-mixing should be avoided, since this increases the apparent density of the mix.
Additionally, over-mixing usually further reduces the green strength of the subsequent
compacts probably by completely coating the whole surface of the particles, thereby
reducing the area of metal to metal contact on which the green strength depends.
The flow properties also are impaired and good flow is essential for the next step i.e.
loading the powder into the die. In the special case of cemented carbides, the mixing
process is carried out in a ball mill, one of the objects being to coat the individual particles
with the binder metal e.g. cobalt, but as the very fine powders involved do not flow, the
mixture is subsequently granulated to form agglomerates.

Pressing

The mixed powders are pressed to shape in a rigid steel or carbide die under pressures of 150900 MPa. At this stage, the compacts maintain their shape by virtue of cold-welding of the powder
grains within the mass. The compacts must be sufficiently strong to withstand ejection from the
die and subsequent handling before sintering.

Compacting

A critical operation in the process, since the final shape and mechanical properties are
essentially determined by the level and uniformity of the as-pressed density. Powders
under pressure do not behave as liquids, the pressure is not uniformly transmitted and
very little lateral flow takes place within the die.
The attainment of satisfactory densities therefore depends to a large degree on press tool
design

Sintering

Sintering is the means whereby the powder particles are welded together and a strong
finished part produced
The sintering of mechanical parts is usually done in a continuous belt furnace - in special
cases a vacuum furnace is used.

Post-Sintering

Re-Pressing
Even with the best control that is feasible in practice, there will inevitably be some variation in the
dimensions of parts produced from a given material in a given die set.
Typically, it is possible for parts 'as-sintered' to be accurate to a tolerance of
-0.0508mm per mm, in the direction at right angles to the pressing -direction, and 0.1016mm per
mm parallel to the pressing direction.
Dimensional accuracy can be greatly improved by re-pressing the part after sintering. This
operation is called sizing.
Sizing may be done in the die that was used for compacting the powder in those cases where the
dimensional change on sintering is controlled at or very near to zero, but commonly separate
sizing tools are used.
Re-pressing is used also to imprint or emboss the face(s) of the component in contact with the
punch(es), in which case the process is referred to, for obvious reasons, as coining.
During re-pressing the density of the part is generally increased, especially if the as-sintered
density is low.

In certain cases where strength and other mechanical properties are required to be at
maximum, re-pressing is used principally to achieve such densification.

Further improvement is achieved by re-sintering.

Hot Re-Press
Hot Repressing will give even greater densification, with consequent greater improvement in the
mechanical properties, but less accurate control of the final dimensions is to be expected.

Hot Isostatic Pressing

HIP is used as a post-sintering operation to eliminate flaws and microporosity in cemented

carbides.
It is predicted that as HIP vessels increase in size the economics of the process will be sufficiently
attractive to allow its use even on low-alloy steel structural PM parts in order to achieve fulldensity.

Forging
Forging is a comparatively recent technique in which a blank is hot re-pressed in a closed die
which significantly changes the shape of the part, and at the same time can give almost complete
density and hence mechanical properties approaching or even surpassing those of traditional
wrought parts.
Sinter forging is dealt with in more detail in a later section.
Infiltration
An alternative method of improving the strength of inherently porous sintered parts is to fill the
surface connected pores with a liquid metal having a lower melting point.
Pressure is not required:

capillary action is sufficient, provided that the infiltrant wets the metal concerned. It is
desirable, however, that the infiltrant have a limited capacity to dissolve the metal being
infiltrated otherwise the surface of the part may be eroded.
The process is used quite extensively with ferrous parts using copper as infiltrant but to avoid
erosion, an alloy of copper containing iron and manganese, is often used.
Clearly if the molten copper is already saturated with iron its ability to erode the surface is lost.
Other proprietary infiltrant compositions are also on the market.
However, as we saw in the section on dimensional change during sintering, the diffusion of
copper into iron can lead to growth.
Infiltration is also used to make composite electrical contact material such as tungsten/copper and
molybdenum/silver; the lower melting point metal being melted in contact with an already sintered
skeleton of W or Mo.

Impregnation

This term is used for a process analogous to infiltration except that the pores are filled with an
organic as opposed to a metallic material.

An outstanding example is oil-impregnated bearing materials which are dealt with in detail
later; but, increasingly, impregnation with thermo-setting or other plastic materials is being
done.

The benefits to be obtained include some increase in mechanical properties, sealing of

the pores which may provide pressure-tightness and will also prevent the entry of potentially
corrosive electrolyte during a subsequent plating operation.

Additionally the machining of sintered parts is improved, a feature that is referred to in

more detail later.

Heat Treatment
Although many, perhaps the bulk of sintered structural parts are used in the as-sintered or
sintered and sized condition, large quantities of iron-based parts, correctly steels, are supplied in
the hardened and tempered conditions.
Conventional hardening processes are used, but because of the porosity inherent in sintered
parts, they should not be immersed in corrosive liquids - salt baths, water, or brine - since it is
difficult to remove such materials from the pores .
Heating should be in a gas atmosphere followed by oil-quenching.
These restrictions may not apply to very high density parts 7.2 g/cc nor to parts that have been
infiltrated.
Surface-Hardening
Carburizing and carbonitriding of PM parts is extensively used, and again gaseous media are
indicated.
Because of the porosity of the 'case' is generally deeper and less sharply defined than with fully
dense steels, but this is generally an advantage rather than the revers.

Steam Treatment
A process peculiar to PM parts is steam-treatment which involves exposing the part at a
temperature around 500C to high pressure steam.
This leads to the formation of a layer of magnetite (iron oxide) on all accessible surfaces and a
number of desirable property changes result.

Firstly the corrosion resistance is increased by the filling of some of the porosity,

and secondly, this reduction in porosity of the surface layer leads also to improved
compressive strength.

Thirdly, the oxide layer significantly increases the surface hardness and more importantly
the wear resistance.
Steam-treatment is often followed by dipping in oil which enhances the blue/black appearance
and still further increases the corrosion resistance.
The treatment is not generally applicable to hardened and tempered parts because the exposure
to the high temperature would undo the hardening.

Blueing
Heating in air at a lower temperature (200-250C) can also be used to provide a thin magnetite
layer that gives some increase in corrosion resistance, but it is much less effective than steam
treatment.

Plating
Sintered parts may be plated in much the same way as wrought or cast metals, and copper,
nickel, cadmium, zinc, and chromium plating are all used.

However, it is important to note that low density parts should be sealed - e.g. by resin
impregnation, before plating, to prevent the electrolyte from entering the pores and causing
corrosion subsequently.

Parts that have been oil-quenched cannot be plated satisfactorily unless the oil is
removed before resin impregnation.
Recent work has shown that it may be possible successfully to plate unimpregnated porous parts
with nickel by electroless plating, which process will plate also the surfaces of any of the pores
into which the solution penetrates.

Coatings
A large percentage of hardmetal cutting tool inserts are now coated using chemical vapour
deposition (CVD) or physical vapour deposition (PVD).
The lower temperature PVD process also allows steels to be given a wear resistant layer of TiC,
TiN, Al2O3 or a combination of these materials and sintered high speed steel tools are also now
being coated.
Mechanical Treatments

Although a major attraction of PM parts is that they can be produced accurately to the required
dimensions, there are limitations to the geometry that can be pressed in rigid dies, and
subsequent machining, for example of transverse holes or re-entrants at an angle to the pressing
direction is not uncommon.
The existence of porosity alters the machining characteristics and in general tool wear is greater
than with the same composition in the fully dense form.
Carbide tools are recommended, and lower cutting speeds may be necessary.
The machinability can be improved by incorporating certain additions in the powder mix - e.g.
lead, copper, graphite, sulphur or a metal sulphide such as manganese sulphide, and, as already
indicated, by infiltration or resin impregnation.
If these points are borne in mind all the traditional machining processes - turning, milling, drilling,
tapping, grinding, etc. - can be done quite readily.

De-burring
De-burring is done with sintered parts, and is used to remove any 'rag' on edges, resulting from
the compacting operation or a machining step.
Tumbling, sometimes in a liquid medium with an abrasive powder, is normally employed. At the
same time, brushing and some hardening of the surface layers may occur.
Rapid Solidification
Another class of wrought sintered material that is beginning to make an impact is based on
particulate material - powder or chopped ribbon - that has been solidified and cooled at a very
high rate such that metastable non-equilibrium microstructures result. They may be
microcrystalline or amorphous.
The process is applicable only to certain alloys, and one important feature is that the matrix metal
can retain in solid solution a much higher than the equilibrium percentage of the alloying element.
Providing that the densification and mechanical working is carried out at a temperature low
enough to avoid destroying the non-equilibrium structure, remarkably enhanced mechanical
properties can be achieved.
A major development programme is underway with alloys of aluminium, titanium, and
magnesium, the hope being that their use in aircraft structures will significantly reduce the weight
and increase the payload.

Design Factors

The high precision forming capability of PM generates components with near net shape , intricate
features and close dimensional precision pieces finished without the need of machine work.
By producing parts with a homogeneous structure the PM process to enables manufacturers to
make products that are more consistent and predictable in their behaviour across a wide range of
applications
Attention must be given to the following design factors in the light of limited lateral flow and also of
the necessity of ejecting the green part in the direction of pressing:

Length-to-Width Ratio. The applied pressure and, therefore, the density decreases over
the length of the compact. Double-ended compaction assists in equalising pressure distribution
but still leaves a lower density region at the middle section of the part. Ratios of length to width
in excess of 3:1 are not recommended.
Re-entrant Grooves, Reverse Tapers and Lateral Holes cannot be moulded into the
compact because of the impossibility of ejection and must, therefore be subsequently
machined, although elaborate, sometimes flexible die assemblies have been designed and
patented to overcome this limitation.
Bevels require feather-edged tools, which are fragile and easily fractured; so, if design
permits, the bevelled edge of the component should end in a small flat.

Abrupt changes in section should be avoided since they introduce stress raisers which
may lead to crack formation as a result of the stresses induced by the elastic expansion spring back - that takes place as the compact is ejected from the die.
To a first approximation the size of part that can be made is a direct function of the
capacity of the press available, but the complexity of the part and number of punch motions
required also influence the equation.
These same factors are relevant also to production rates: the simpler the part the easier it
is to press at high speed. With such parts rates as high as 1 part per second have been
achieved using mechanical presses.

Hydraulic Press

Hydraulic presses enable greater pressures to be used - up to 5,000 tonnes - but speeds are
necessarily much lower, 10 parts per minute being a fairly representative high speed for parts of
comparatively simple geometry .

Shapes for Correct Design

Designers should take into account design rules, and the experience of the supplier, and discuss
with them the producibility of parts with boundary shapes and the dimensional tolerances
compatible with a given shape-material.
Shape designs depend on the forming method that has been chosen, as with other processes,
this may have some restrictions in terms of dimensions, weight, and profile freedom.
Some examples of these are outlined below:

Guideline for shapes

Neither the diameter of the holes nor

their distance from the edge should
be less than 1.5mm.

When the upper punch is withdrawn

there is no longer any balance of
forces acting on the compact: both
elastic spring back of the lower punch
that forms the hub and internal stress
in the compact (still in the die) try to
bend the piece: give it an adequate
thickness.

Avoid specifying narrow and deep

splines, requiring the construction of
dies with reduced and therefore weak
sections.

Long and narrow teeth make flow of

the powder mix difficult during filling
of the die cavity and the die becomes
fragile.

A fillet radius favours filling of the die

cavity and increases the robustness of
the part.

Rounded corners allow better filling

and increase die life.

Thin walls having a thickness of

less than 0.8mm limit the flow of
the powder and should be

Metal Injection Moulding (MIM)

Introduction

Metal injection moulding (MIM) has over the past decade established itself as a competitive
manufacturing process for small precision components which would be costly to produce by
alternative methods.
It is capable of producing

in both large and small volumes

complex shapes

from almost all types of materials including metals, ceramics, intermetallic compounds,
and composites
Metal injection moulding (MIM) is a development of the traditional powder metallurgy (PM)
process and is rightly regarded as a branch of that technology.
The standard PM process is to compact a lubricated powder mix in a rigid die by uniaxial

pressure, eject the compact from the die, and sinter it.
Quite complicated shapes can be and are regularly being produced by the million, but there is
one significant limitation as regards shape.
After compaction in the die the part must be ejected, i.e. pushed out of the die cavity.

It will be obvious, therefore, that parts with undercuts or projections at right angles to the
pressing direction cannot be made directly.
That limitation is substantially removed by the metal injection moulding process developed
during the last decade and now expanding rapidly.
The use of injection moulding for the production of quite intricate parts in a number of plastic
materials has been known for many years, and most of us come into contact with them in some
form or other every day.
One important feature of such parts is that they are relatively cheap .
However, for engineering applications these thermo-plastic materials have quite inadequate
mechanical properties.
Some improvement is made possible by the use of solid fillers - ceramic or metal powders - but
the real breakthrough occurred when it was found possible to incorporate a very high volume
fraction of metal powder in a mix so that, instead of a filled plastic part, a plastic-bonded metal or
ceramic part is produced.
Careful removal of the plastic binder leaves a skeleton of metal or ceramic which, although fragile,
can be handled safely and sintered in much the same way as traditional die compacted parts.
After sintering densities of 95% or more are reached and the mechanical properties are, for that
reason, generally superior to those of traditional PM parts.

Comparison with Competitive Technologies

MIM (Metal Injection Moulding) is essentially a technology for producing complex shape
parts in high quantities. If the shape allows the production of the part by, for example,
conventional pressing and sintering, MIM would in most cases be too expensive.
However, if the required number of complex parts is higher than a certain amount MIM is
cheaper than machining.
The effect of the volume production on cost shows that, for example, for the smallest part
weighing 4.5g the cost per part falls from $1.4 for an annual production of 250,000 pieces
to $0.2 for 3 million or more.
This figure also shows the influence of part size on the cost factor - the bigger the part the
smaller is the gap between the cost of 250,000 and 3 million pieces.
A typical competing process to MIM is investment casting and the table below compares
the characteristics of parts produced by the two processes.
Table: Comparison of parts manufacturing processes in terms of shaping capabilities.
In regard to many features MIM comes out on top.
However this does not tell the whole story,and many shapes that are possible by MIM
cannot be produced by other routes.
MIM certainly has advantages compared with investment casting in the case of high part
numbers of castings, and of course in non-castable alloys.

MIM Process

Fundamental requirements of MIM in each step of the process:

Metals Powders

Binders

Mixing

Moulding

De-binding

Sintering

Post-sintering operations

Mechanical properties of MIM components

Carbonyl Iron Powder CS (Courtesy of BASF, Germany)
Introduction In the traditional PM process it is normal to produce after sintering a part having
dimensions very close to those of the original compact.In this way it is not difficult to ensure close
dimensional tolerances.
With injection moulding, however, the situation is quite different.

The 'green' compact, as the as-moulded part is called, contains a high volume percentage
of binder - as much as 50% - and during sintering a large shrinkage occurs.
It is, therefore, a major requirement of the sintering process to ensure that this shrinkage is
controlled.

In this regard, MIM has an advantage over conventional PM in so far as the density of the
metal in the compact is, if the mix has been made correctly, uniform throughout and the
shrinkage, though large, is also uniform.

This eliminates the possibility of warpage that can result from non-uniform density in a diecompacted part.
The rheological properties of the feedstock, that is the powder/binder mix, are of major
importance.
The viscosity at the moulding temperature must be such that the mix flows smoothly into the
die without any segregation, and the viscosity should be as constant as possible over a
range of temperature.
However, the mix must become rigid on cooling.
These requirements dictate the properties of the binders used, and to some extent, the
granulometry of the powder. Let us look first at the powders.
Carbonyl Iron Powder OM
(Courtesy of BASF, Germany)
Metal Powders
Almost any metal that can be produced in a suitable powder form can be processed by MIM.
Aluminium is an exception because the adherent oxide film that is always present on the surface
inhibits sintering.
The list of metals that have been used includes many common and several less common metals
and their alloys - plain and low alloy steels, high speed steels, stainless steels, superalloys,
intermetallics, magnetic alloys and hardmetals (cemented carbides).

However, the most promising candidates from the economic point of view are the more
expensive materials.
This is accounted for by the fact that, unlike alternative processes that involve machining,
there is practically no scrap which helps to offset the high cost of producing the powder in the
required form.
Scrap is of lesser significance in the case of inexpensive metals.
The term 'suitable powder form' deserves clarification, and it can be seen that the issue is not
clear cut - there are conflicting requirements.
Particle shape is important for a number of reasons:

It is desireable to incorporate as high a proportion of metal as possible, which means that

powders having a high packing density are indicated.

Spherical or near spherical shape should, therefore, be preferred, but the risk of the
skeleton going out of shape during the debinding process is increased: (there is no
metallurgical bonding between the particles as happens in a die pressed compact).
Average particle size and particle size distribution are also important :

Fine powders which, as is well known, sinter more readily than coarser powders would,
therefore, seem to be desireable, but there are a number of limiting factors.
The table below compares the different powder production techniques and their relative cost for
MIM powders.
Ideal powder is said to be as follows:

Tailored particle size distribution, for high packing density and low cost ( (mixture of lower
cost large particles and higher cost small particles)

No agglomeration predominantly spherical (or equiaxed) particle shape sufficient

interparticle friction to avoid distortion after binder removal

Probably a an angle of repose over 55 degrees small mean particle size for rapid
sintering, below 20 micron dense particles free of internal voids minimized explosion

Toxic hazards clean particle surface for predictable interaction with the binder.
In the real world, of course, the choice is restricted to what is available, but growing demand has
stimulated a major effort by powder manufacturers to produce powders to meet the special
requirements of MIM.
Mixing

Tumbler mixes - double cone mixers for example - such as are widely used for the dry
blending or mixing of powders are of little use for MIM mixtures.
For these it is necessary that a shearing action takes place.

Several different types are available:

Z blade and planetary mixers are examples.

A major objective is to ensure that the whole of the surface of each particle is coated with
binder.
As has been indicated earlier the least possible amount of binder should be used, but the
appropriate volume ratio of binder to powder depends on the powder characteristics. In industrial
practice, the ratio varies from about 0.5 to 0.7.
Moulding
The machines used for this part of the MIM process are substantially the same as those in use in
the plastics industry.

Here it is usual to convert the mix into solid pellets by a process referred to as granulation.
These pellets can be stored and fed into the moulding machine as required. The screw from
which the mix is extruded into the die cavity is heated and the nozzle temperature carefully
controlled to ensure constant conditions.

The die temperature also is controlled - it must be low enough to ensure that the compact
is rigid when it is removed.

A method of reducing the unit cost of parts is to use a mould with multiple cavities so that
several parts are produced at each injection.
To be worthwhile, however, the saving must be such that it more than offsets the increased
cost of the mould. It is, therefore, more relevant when very large quantities of a particular
part are to be produced.
De-binding
The removal of the binder from the green part is a key stage of the process and one that requires
most careful control.
There are two basic processes:

Heating of the green compact to cause the binder to melt, decompose, and/or evaporate.

This must be done with great care in order to avoid disruption of the as-moulded part, and
in this connection the use of binders with several ingredients which decompose or evaporate at
different temperatures is advantageous.

The process normally takes many hours, the time being dependent, inter alia, on the
thickness of the thickest section.
The recent introduction of catalytic debinding of polyacetal MIM feedstock using gaseous
nitric acid or oxalic acid has greatly reduced the time for debinding, and equipment has been
developed whereby catalytic debinding and sintering can be executed on a continuous
production basis.

The second debinding process applicable to certain binder systems only, is to dissolve out
the binder with suitable solvents such as trichlorethane.
Normally heating is required as a final step to complete the removal by evaporation.
Other less commonly used binding processes use gelation, e.g. with mixtures of cellulose and
gums, and freezing of an aqueous slurry containing also organic ingredients.
During debinding the strength of the compact decreases markedly and great care is necessary in
handling the 'brown' parts as they are called.
Sintering
This is the name given to the heating process in which the separate particles weld together and
provide the necessary strength in the finished product.

The process is carried out in controlled atmosphere furnaces - sometimes in vacuum - at

a temperature below the melting point of the metal.

Sintering in MIM is substantially the same as that used for traditional PM parts.

Because it is essential to avoid oxidation of the metal, the atmospheres used are
generally reducing.
Apart from protecting the metal, such atmospheres have the further advantage of reducing
any oxide existing on the surfaces of the powder particles.
This surface oxide is, of course, greater in total the finer the powder and so is of greater
significance in MIM than it is with traditional PM.

The exact composition of the sintering atmosphere used depends on the metal being
sintered.
For many metals a straightforward atmosphere containing hydrogen is all that is required, but
in the case of steels which have carbon as an essential alloying element, the atmosphere
must contain a carbon compound or compounds so that it is in equilibrium with the steel, i.e.
it must neither carburise nor de-carburise the steel.

The fact that the powders used are very much finer in MIM than those used in PM means
that sintering takes place more readily by reason of the higher surface energy of the particles.

As the 'brown' part is extremely porous, a very large shrinkage occurs and the sintering
temperature must be very closely controlled in order to retain the shape and prevent 'slumping'.

The final part has a density closely approaching theoretical, usually greater than 97%,
and the mechanical properties are not significantly, if at all, below those of wrought metal of the
same compositions

Post-Sintering Operations
The properties of MIM components can be improved by many of the standard processes that are
applicable to wrought metals and/or PM components
Mechanical Properties of MIM Components
The attached table lists typical mechanical property data for a range of materials processed by
MIM.
Comparison with wrought materials is not straightforward because data for identical compositions
are not available, but the data in the table below are indicative.

MIM Products

Metal injection moulding (MIM) has over the past decade established itself as a competitive
manufacturing process

for small precision components which would be costly to produce by alternative methods.

It is capable of producing in both large and small volumes

complex shapes

from almost all types of material s including metals, ceramics, intermetallic compounds,
and composites.
Components made by MIM technology are finding new applications in industry sectors such as
automotive, chemical, aerospace, business equipment, computer hardware, bio-medical and
armaments.
MIM and Powder Metallurgy
Metal injection moulding (MIM) is a development of the traditional powder metallurgy (PM)
process and is rightly regarded as a branch of that technology.

The standard PM process is to compact a lubricated powder mix in a rigid die by uniaxial
pressure, eject the compact from the die, and sinter it.

Quite complicated shapes can be and are regularly being produced by the million, but
there is one significant limitation as regards shape.

After compaction in the die the part must be ejected, i.e. pushed out of the die cavity. It
will be obvious, therefore, that parts with undercuts or projections at right angles to the
pressing direction cannot be made directly.

That limitation is substantially removed by the metal injection moulding process developed
during the last decade and now expanding rapidly.
Plastic Material
The use of injection moulding for the production of quite intricate parts in a number of plastic
materials has been known for many years, and most of us come into contact with them in some
form or other every day.

One important feature of such parts is that they are relatively cheap.

However, for engineering applications these thermo-plastic materials have quite

inadequate mechanical properties.
Metal and Ceramic Material

Some improvement is made possible by the use of solid fillers - ceramic or metal powders - but
the real breakthrough occurred when it was found possible to incorporate a very high volume
fraction of metal powder in a mix so that, instead of a filled plastic part, a plastic-bonded metal or
ceramic part is produced.
Careful removal of the plastic binder leaves a skeleton of metal or ceramic which,

although fragile, can be handled safely and sintered in much the same way as traditional die
compacted parts.
After sintering densities of 95% or more are reached and the mechanical properties are,

for that reason, generally superior to those of traditional PM parts.

MIM Work Sequences Animation

Information courtesy of ARBURG GmbH

The Injection cycle consists of several stages
The production of an injection-moulded part from the feedstock is comparable with the
injection-moulding of plastics. The binder component of the compound is melted in the
injection unit and is again kneaded through the screw during dosage. It is then injected
under high pressure into the cavity of the mould inserted into the clamping unit. After the
feedstock has hardened there, the mould is opened by opening the clamping unit, the
moulded part is ejected by the ejector and is picked up by a robotic handling unit.
Due to the fact that material and mould changing can be carried out manually in as short
a time as under 20 minutes allows just-in time production in line with requirements. The
wide range of automation possibilities means that uncomplicated series production of
components made of metal powder is easily possible.
The structure of an injection moulding machine
In general, a normal screw-type injection moulding machine consists of a clamping unit,
an injection unit and a controller.
The mould, consisting of two halves, is securely fitted in the clamping unit. The clamping
unit itself has a stationary platen, referred to as the fixed mounting platen, and also a
moving mounting platen. When the clamping unit and therefore the mould is closed, the
material can be injected. If the mould is opened due to the clamping unit being open, the
moulded part can be removed.
The structure of the injection unit
The machine's injection unit principally consists of the screw, which transports the
compound and compresses it so that is free of bubbles, the heating system which controls
the temperature of the compound, and the nozzle out of which the compressed and
heated material is injected under pressure into the mould.
Finally, the controller coordinates all movement and production sequences of the powder
injection moulding machine.
The injection moulding machines are equipped with computer controllers and monitors to
allow ease of use.
All defined adjustment parameters can be saved on data mediums, thereby guaranteeing
that executed production cycles can be reproduced. As early as during the production
process, reject and good parts can be identified and automatically separated.

The mould
To inject powder materials, it is possible to use moulds with the features normally used for
working plastics, such as sliding bars, core pulls, unscrewing units, cavity pressure
transducers etc.
However, due to the abrasive properties of the powder / binder melts, attention should be
paid to providing protection against wear (e.g. by way of special hardening or alloys).

Designing for MIM

As the MIM process is in several significant ways different to the press and sinter method the key
design factors for the Mim process are included in this separate section

Sketches of some viable component geometries for MIM

Uniform Wall Thickness/Holes

Uniform wall thickness is critical in order to avoid distortion, internal stresses, voids, cracking and
sink marks.
Variations in wall thickness also cause variations in shrinkage during sintering making
dimensional control difficult. Examples of designing for uniform wall thickness are shown above

One method used to attain uniform wall thickness is coring (see diagram above), and
coring can also reduce cost by reducing material and processing times.

In some parts coring can easily be achieved by adding holes that are formed by pins
protruding into the mould cavity.

Through holes are easier to mould than blind holes, because the core pin can be
supported at both ends.

Blind holes formed by pins supported at only one end can be off centre due to deflection of the
pin by the flow of feedstock into the cavity.
Therefore the depth of a blind hole is generally limited to twice the diameter of the core

pin.

Holes perpendicular to one another cause special problems of sealing-off or closing-off in

the mould.

By redesigning one hole to a 'D' shape, the tooling will function better, be stronger, and
minimise flashing.
An example of this construction is shown above.
Reinforcing ribs are another effective way to improve rigidity and strength in parts with thin walls.

The thickness or width of a rib should not exceed the thickness of the wall to which it is
joined, with the principle of uniform wall thickness being maintained whenever possible.

However, while ribs can increase part strength, improve material flow, and prevent
distortion during processing, they may also produce warpage, sink marks, and stress
concentrations.

Ribs should be added to a part design cautiously, and it is often better to wait for an
evaluation of the initial tool samples.
In some parts, different wall thicknesses cannot be avoided.

A gradual transition from one thickness to another reduces stress concentrations and poor
surface appearance (flow lines).
The recommended ratio for transitions is shown in the figure.
In addition, the mould should be gated at the heavier section to ensure proper packing of the
feedstock.

Gating

Feedstock enters the mould cavity through an opening called a 'gate'.

In general, gate locations should permit the feedstock to flow from thick to thin sections as it
enters the mould cavity.

Ideally, the flow path from the gate should impinge on the wall of the cavity or a core pin as shown
below.
A flow path of thin to thick, generally, will cause voids, sink marks, stress concentrations and flow
lines on the part surface.
Many MIM components are produced using multiple cavity tooling, where each cavity must be
identical to the others.
To ensure part reproducibility, the gate and runner system to each cavity must be carefully sized
and located so that each cavity will be filled with the identical amount of feedstock at a balanced
fill rate.
Since the gate will leave a mark or impression, its location must be carefully selected with regard
to part function and appearance.

Part Ejection from Mould Cavity

Draft, or a slight taper, may be required for the ejection of parts from the mould cavity.
This is particularly true for core pins, and the need increases with the depth of the hole or recess
being formed.
When draft is required an angle from 0.5 to 2 is generally sufficient.
Knock-out ejector pins are usually required for removing parts from the mould, and good design
of these pins is critical to minimise flash marking of the parts.

Reducing Stress Concentrations

Sharp internal corners and notches should be avoided because they cause stress concentrations.
Thus generous fillets or radii, which will also improve feedstock flow during moulding and assist in
the ejection of the part, should be considered.

Both inside and outside corners should have radii as large as possible, typically not less than 0.4
to 0.8 mm.

Threads

When required, external and internal threads can be

automatically moulded into the part thereby eliminating the need for mechanical thread-forming
operations, like in the figure.
Internal threads are typically moulded by using automatic unscrewing devices, but this route is
often not cost-effective and tapping should be considered.

Parting Lines
Parting lines are formed by the opposing faces of the mould, in the plane where the mould halves
are separated to permit removal of the part, as was shown in the previous diagram.
With moulds of normal construction this feature is transferred as lines or witness marks onto the
surface of the parts.

Undercuts

Undercuts, classified as internal and external are often required for part function.
Undercuts may increase tooling costs and lengthen cycles, but this is dependent on the type and
location of the undercuts on the part.
External undercuts, often specified on MIM parts for 'o'-ring seating can be formed by using a split
cavity mould. As with the threaded components, there will be two parting lines 180 apart on the
surface of the undercut, which may be objectionable in an 'o'-ring groove.
Internal undercuts can be formed by using collapsible cores. However, most MIM parts are
relatively small and cannot accommodate this approach. Designing MIM parts with internal
undercuts or recesses is not recommended.

Tolerances
MIM processing normally requires a dimensional tolerance of +/-0.003 mm/mm (+/-0.3%).
As part size decreases, increasingly tighter tolerances can be achieved, as would be expected.
However, the reduction in tolerances is not directly proportional to decreasing dimensions and
may depend on material, part shape, and process requirements.
A tolerance of +/-0.001 mm/mm (+/-0.1%) can generally be held on a small, selected dimension
when the mould has been 'fine-tuned'

Surface Finish
Surface finish of MIM parts is approximately 0.80 m, appreciably better than most investment
castings. However, profilometer readings may be affected by residual porosity and are subject to
interpretation.
The method of measuring surface finish should be agreed upon by both the customer and the
vendor.
The surface finish of MIM parts can be improved by conventional processes such as grinding,
lapping or burnishing.

Size of MIM Parts

There is, theoretically, no limit to the maximum size of part that could be produced, but economic
considerations restrict the sizes that are currently viable.
There are two important factors in this connection:
The larger the part the greater is the proportion of the overall cost that is attributable to the raw
material which is costly.
The total cost of the powder is a linear function of the weight of the part but in the case of parts
produced by machining from solid bar stock, for example, the machining cost increase with
increasing part size at a much lower rate.
The thicker the section the longer the debinding time, and thus the higher the cost of that part of
the process.
At the present time, the limiting thickness seems to be about 30 mm.
A novel approach has been developed for a 'binderless' MIM process (4) whereby a
homogeneous mixture of a powder and a liquid medium containing chemical additives is injected
into a cold mould where the mixture is solidified.
After ejection from the mould the liquid (approx 1 wt% of the part) is evaporated in a vacuum a
process which can take 1 to 2 days depending on part thickness, powder size and powder
loading.
Fully dense parts up to 800 g have been made in this way with wall thicknesses greater than
20mm.