Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
In
1838,
P.
G.
L.
Dirichlet
[9]
defined
for
real
numbers
> 1
the
function
as
=
!!!
1
=
!
1
1 !
!!
(1)
where
the
product,
due
to
Euler
[6],
extends
over
all
prime
.
This
connection
between
the
set
of
prime
numbers
and
intrigued
Bernhard
Riemann,
who
was
looking
to
find
an
analytic
expression
for
the
prime
counting
function
().
Riemann
was
convinced
that
the
function
defined
by
(1)
was
merely
part
of
an
even
larger
function,
defined
over
the
complex
plane.
So
Riemann,
being
Riemann,
extended
to
all
complex
1
via
the
contour
integral
1
=
2
!!!
(2)
!! 1
!
In
the
same
paper
[6],
Riemann
first
conjectured
the
so-called
Riemann
hypothesis:
0 1 & = 0 = 1 2
which,
for
Riemanns
purposes,
would
mean
that
= Li +
log .
Riemann
said
that
he
believed
his
hypothesis
to
be
very
likely
[1]
but
that
he
had
not
been
able
to
construct
a
proof.
Such
is
the
task
I
set
out
to
complete.
While
I
most
certainly
lack
Riemanns
prestige
and
intuition,
that
does
not
justify
me
in
not
trying
hard.
In his paper, Riemann also proves the very important functional equation of
the Riemann zeta function, which forms the basis of my proof. This equation reads
sin 2
= 2 ! 1 1
And thus
1
+ = 2
2
! !!!
!"
1
+ +
2
1
sin 2 2 +
1
+ +
2
where
I
have
made
use
of
the
identities
=
and
= .
From
this,
one
can
show
1
+
2
! !!!
1
+ +
2
sin
1
+
2 2
1
+ +
2
! !!!
1
+ +
2
sin
1
+
2 2
(4)
Note:
This
same
result
was
obtained
by
Saidak
and
Svengrowski
[2]
For
the
sake
of
convenience
throughout,
I
define
the
function
,
such
that
sin
1
+
2 2
1
2
, (5)
! !!!
1
+ + (6)
2
!
!
!
!
for
all
.
Secondly,
since
it
is
the
ratio
of
two
necessarily
positive
values,
(, ) 0.
This
can
be
strengthened
by
noting
that
a
simple
consequence
of
the
functional
equation
is
that
!
!
= 0
!
!
+ +
= 0 and so it has
!
!
+ +
!
!
THE
FUNCTION
,
The
function
,
is
merely
the
modulus
of
the
sine
function
premultiplied
by
2,
so
I
will
begin
by
developing
a
particular
representation
of
the
sine
function
of
which
will
simplify
calculations.
The
sine
function
is
traditionally
defined
only
for
real
arguments,
but
it
has
a
natural
analytic
extension
to
the
entire
complex
plane.
Begin
with
the
following
well
known
theorem
due
to
Euler
!" = cos + sin
from
this
we
have
= !"
or
1
+
2 2
=
!!!
!
2
=
!
!!
!
!"
1
! cos
2
2 2
!"
!!
! !
!!
!
! !
!"
! !
!!!!"
!
!"
2 2
2 2
+ sin
2 2
cos
sin
sin
4
2
2
4
!"
! ! cos
+ sin
!"
+ , we have
!"
! cos
cos
+ sin
sin
2
4
2
4
2
sin
!"
cos
+ sin
sin
4
2
4
2
cos
sin
cos
4
2
2
4
! ! !
=
cos + sin
2
2
2
! !
!
!!!!"
!
! !!
sin
! ! cos
=
!!!
!
2
! !
!"
!"
! + ! !
cos
sin
2
2
2
1
2
cosh
cos
sin
2
2
+ sinh
cos
+ sin
2
2
from
this
it
is
surely
evident
why
I
defined
,
in
the
way
I
did.
It
is
now
simple
to
show
that
!
, = cosh
cos
sin
+ sinh!
2
2
= cosh!
cos !
+ sin!
2 cos
2
2
2
2
+ sinh!
cos !
+ sin!
2
2
2
= cosh!
1 2 cos
sin
+ sinh!
2
2
2
2
!
!
cos
+ sin
2
2
sin
2
+ 2 cos
sin
2
2
1 + 2 cos
sin
2
2
and
using
the
double
angle
formula,
sin 2 = 2sincos,
this
simplifies
greatly,
returning
this
simple
representation
of
! ,
! , = cosh!
1 sin + sinh!
1 + sin
COEFFICIENT
OF
! ,
Before
moving
onto
the
gamma
function,
for
completeness
I
will
quickly
evaluate
!
1
2
!
!!!
1
!! !"# !!
!
!!!
that appears in ! , .
2log(2)
2
!!!
= 2log(2) (9)
THE
MODULUS-SQUARED
OF
K.
Kono
[3]
proves
the
following
identity
to
hold
for
complex
, :
!
!!!
!
1
=
+
+
1+
+
letting
=
and
=
!
!!!
1+
+
!
!
=
=
+
+
= !
!!!
1+
+
!!
(10)
We
are
mostly
interested
in
the
partial
derivative
of
this
expression
with
respect
to
= .
Write
! = 1 +
!!!
!
! !!
= !
!!!
1+
+
!!
!
!
+ !
!!!
1+
+
!!
! = ! ! ! ! ! + ! ! ! ! ! + ! ! ! ! ! +
!!!
where
! ! = !
1+
+
! !!
2 !
=
+
1+
+
! !!
2 !
+
! !
and
so
!
! =
!!!
2 !
+
! ! ! ! + !
! !
+! !
2 !
+
2 !
+
! ! ! !
! ! ! +
And
we
have
!
! =
!!!
!!!
!!!
2 !
+
! !!
!
!!!
1+
+
2 !
+
! . (12)
!!!
! !!
=2
!!!
1
!
(13)
+ + ! + !
The
sum
on
the
RHS
of
(13)
is
critical
in
the
proof
that
follows.
(11
-
13)
combine
with
the
expression
for
!
!
= 2
!!!
to give
1+
+
!!
! +
!!!
1
!
+ + ! + !
=2
! +
!!!
1
!
(14)
+ + ! + !
THE
PROOF
1
!
,
1
1
+
+
!!!
+2+
2
.
+
! , =
1
!
!
1
1
!!! + +
+2+
2
+ !
2!
! , =
! ! + !
!!!
! .
! ! , =
!
!!!
2!
! ! + !
2!
! ! + !
2 4! ! 4!!
! ! + !
the
negative
contribution
from
the
!
terms
shows
that
the
terms
are
monotonic
decreasing
in
! .
This
implies
that
on
any
interval
!
all
the
terms
of
! ! , , ! ! , ,
are
minimized
for
the
extreme
value
of
! ,
which
corresponds
to,
on
the
interval
+ 1/2 ! + 1,
the
statement
= 1/2.
LEMMA
3.
There
exists
a
(not
unique)
constant
!
such
that
for
all
> !
the
inequality
! ! , > 0
holds.
PROOF.
Equation
(6)
above
reads
(, ) =
! !!!
1
+ + .
2
!!!
1
, + +
2
The
partial
derivative
of
this
expression
with
respect
to
then
reads,
letting
!
= ! 2
!!!
1
! , = ! , + +
2
!
1
+ ! , + +
2
+ ! , !
1
+ +
2
1
+ +
2
+ cos
1
+ +
2
1
+ 2 , + +
2
! +
!!!
1
!
+ + ! + !
1
= + +
2
2 log 2 ! , cos
!
!
+ ,
! +
!!!
1
!
+ + ! + !
+ +
!
1
!
,
1
1
!!! + + + +
2
2
!
+ !
1
+
2
dividing
both
sides
of
this
by
! , ,
which
can
be
done
without
problem
because
! , > 0,
results
in
the
inequality
!
1
!
1
1
!!! + + + +
2
2
> 2log(2) +
+ !
cos
1
! + (15)
!
,
2
Note
that
the
LHS
of
(15)
is
the
function
, ,
which
by
Lemma
2
satisfies
, >
!
!
1
!
1
1
!!! + + + +
2
2
!
!
>
+ !
!!!
1
!
=
+ 1 + 1 ! + !
!!!
1
!
!
(16)
+ !
It
can
be
seen
from
the
series
expansion
of
! ()
given
by
Abramowitz
and
Stegun
[5],
!
! = +
!!!
1
1
,
+1 +
!!!
1
!
= + ! (17)
! + !
cos
1
+
!
! ,
2
2 log 2 + !,!
cos
1
! + (18)
!
,
2
. Since
!! !,!
!
!
!,!
cos
1
+
!
! ,
2
< !,!
cos
1
+
!
! ,
2
cos
1
+
!
! ,
2
! !"# !!
!!"# !!
= !,!
!
!
cos
1
! +
cosh sin
2
+ evidently occurs at = 0 so
cos
1
! +
cosh sin
2
cos 0
1
!
cosh sin 0
2
+ 2log(2) + 2.23452497742
()
cos
1
! + <
+ 2log(4) + (19)
!
,
2
()
! >
+ 2log(4) (20)
()
implies
(15)
and
thus
that
! ! , > 0.
However,
by
Lemma
1,
the
LHS
of
(20)
increases
monotonically
for
> 0.
Because
of
this,
it
will
increase
without
bound
from
its
value
at
= 0
to
infinity
and
hence
it
must
either
begin
above
the
line
!
= !"#!(!) + 2log(4),
or
it
must
cross
this
line
at
some
finite
point
! .
In
either
case,
the
inequality
(20)
must
hold
at
all
points
beyond
some
critical
point,
and
hence
there
exists
!
such
that
for
all
> !
the
inequality
! ! , > 0
holds.
THEOREM
1.
!
For
0 < < !
and
all
> !
for
some
! ,
the
inequality
, > 1
holds.
Note.
This
was
originally
conjectured,
but
not
proved,
by
Saidak
and
Svengrowski
[2].
PROOF.
By
Lemma
3,
we
have
for
all
> !
for
some
!
! ! , = 2 , , > 0 .
Then,
using
the
fact
that
, > 0
over
its
entire
domain,
we
have
, > 0
i.e.
that
,
is
monotonic
increasing
in
for
all
> ! .
With
this,
!
!
, would be
the
maximum
value
of
,
at
a
given
.
From
(6),
(7),
(10),
and
(17)
we
can
write
!
1
1
2
, =
cosh
2
2
2
! () +
From
this,
by
Lemma
1
and
the
fact
that
cosh
is
increasing
for
> 0,
it
is
evident
!
that !
!
!
, , and hence
!
!
, 1
is
1
1
,1 =
2
and
so
!
!
2
cosh() 2
2
3.00103508437
1+ 1
, > 3.00103508437 for all > 1. Thus, for all > ! , so long as ! 1,
1
+ +
2
+ +
= 0. Hence, the
existence
of
implies
the
existence
of
three
zeros
other
than
that
do
not
lie
on
the
!
1
+
2
>
1
+ + .
2
This contradicts existence of the zeroes and , and hence the existence of .
!
Therefore, there are no zeros with [] > ! that do not lie on the line = ! .
CALCULATION The value of ! is the first > 1 that satisfies the conditions
! >
+ 2log(4)
cosh()
> 2 + 1
Andrew M. Odlyzko [6] has computed the first 100 zeros of with incredible
!
accuracy and has shown that they all lie on the line = ! . I have tabulated the
values of ! for all of these zeros in Appendix A. The 85th zero of the has
!" 209.5765097168562.
The
value
of
!
for
this
zero
! !"
5.345090771
This
value
satisfies
the
necessary
conditions
for
Theorem
1,
and
hence
Corollary
1,
to
hold
and
so
I
have
proven
THEOREM
2
The
Riemann
Hypothesis
The
Riemann
Zeta
function,
,
has
its
zeros
only
at
the
negative
!
REFERENCES
[1]
Edwards,
Harold
M.
Riemann's
Zeta-function.
Mineola,
N.
Y.:
Dover,
2014.
Print.
[2]
Saidak,
Filip;
Svengrowski,
Peter
On
the
modulus
of
the
Riemann
zeta
function
in
the
critical
strip.
(English).
Mathematica
Slovaca,
vol.
53
(2003),
issue
2,
pp.
145-172
[3]
K.
Kono
,
,
{http://www.geocities.jp/uchu_tak
o/sugaku/jx09.pdf}
[4]
EULER
L.:
Variae
observationes
circa
series
infinitas.
Comm.
Acad.
Sci.
Petrop.
9
(1737),
222-236.
[5]
Abramowitz,
M.;
Stegun,
I.
A.,
eds.
(1972).
"6.3
psi
(Digamma)
Function.".
Handbook
of
Mathematical
Functions
with
Formulas,
Graphs,
and
Mathematical
Tables
(10th
ed.).
New
York:
Dover.
pp.
258259.
[6]
Plouffe,
Simon.
The
First
100
(non
Trivial)
Zeros
of
the
Riemann
Zeta
Function.
Plouffe.fr.
N.p.,
n.d.
{www.plouffe.fr/simon/constants/zeta100.html}
[7]
Weisstein,
Eric
W.
Digamma
Function.
From
MathWorld--A
Wolfram
Web
Resource.
{http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DigammaFunction.html}
[8]
Sondow,
Jonathan
and
Weisstein,
Eric
W.
"Riemann
Zeta
Function."
From
MathWorld--A
Wolfram
Web
Resource.
{http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
RiemannZetaFunction.html}
[9]
DIRICHLET
P.
G.
L.:
Sur
l'usage
des
series
infinies
dans
la
thorie
des
nombres.
J.
Reine
Angew.
Math.
18
(1838),
257-274.
!! ()!
!! ()!
14.134725142 2.64905185869731672
95.870634228 4.56300878933048732
21.022039639 3.04576000517047652
98.831194218 4.59342181756363814
25.010857580 3.21944327269296575
101.317851006 4.618270732977480787
30.424876126 3.41535060172385445
103.725538040 4.641756098917708841
32.935061588 3.49461462402577298
105.446623052 4.658212377001603396
37.586178159 3.62669537266597375
107.168611184 4.674410655475080715
40.918719012 3.71163740968319323
111.029535543 4.709803011867908496
43.327073281 3.76882208249404139
111.874659177 4.717385788357506450
48.005150881 3.87134447796104335
114.320220915 4.739009842452344766
49.773832478 3.90752303198970385
116.226680321 4.755548593891996897
52.970321478 3.96976148545545748
118.790782866 4.777369724111116791
56.446247697 4.03331497257189288
121.370125002 4.798850418198097078
59.347044003 4.08342597462109046
122.946829294 4.811757492735852062
60.831778525 4.10813484559051806
124.256818554 4.822355938525734545
65.112544048 4.17613687576664772
127.516683880 4.848252334922338059
67.079810529 4.20590163255899991
129.578704200 4.864293414083804586
69.546401711 4.24201141003660032
131.087688531 4.875871326872448620
72.067157674 4.27761447521732223
133.497737203 4.894089203894328861
75.704690699 4.32685466339067329
134.756509753 4.903474107515336776
77.144840069 4.34569869748696564
138.116042055 4.928098584772903188
79.337375020 4.37372256878763792
139.736208952 4.939760691249262001
82.910380854 4.41777239862133519
141.123707404 4.949641047482575121
84.735492981 4.43954616365083417
143.111845808 4.963630531897984068
87.425274613 4.47079532718200053
146.000982487 4.983617260440841919
88.809111208 4.48649981439452621
147.422765343 4.993308248196369318
92.491899271 4.52713080652395211
150.053520421 5.010995734342509851
94.651344041 4.55020937953570825
150.925257612 5.016788390015906911
!! ()!
!! ()!
153.024693811 5.030602864577521753
204.189671803 5.319051324343192823
156.112909294 5.050582942319380839
205.394697202 5.324935455565976523
157.597591818 5.060048252187072755
207.906258888 5.337089227592765720
158.849988171 5.067963588773949961
209.576509717 5.345090771499052858
161.188964138 5.082580574422175279
211.690862595 5.355128874746667466
163.030709687 5.093941721366546505
213.347919360 5.362926088156698882
165.537069188 5.109198193839527914
214.547044783 5.368530847718313337
167.184439978 5.119100615444828120
216.169538508 5.376064783636656299
169.094515416 5.130460735891485829
219.067596349 5.389382077773284462
169.911976479 5.135283404040192303
220.714918839 5.396873619429349747
173.411536520 5.155670364567286994
221.430705555 5.400111398391014455
174.754191523 5.163383095409425822
224.007000255 5.411678963225213695
176.441434298 5.172991681120308033
224.983324670 5.416027933217976226
178.377407776 5.183904193129423814
227.421444280 5.426806490120280894
179.916484020 5.192495339965392820
229.337413306 5.435195924103444388
182.207078484 5.205146344239665746
231.250188700 5.443501750707644340
184.874467848 5.219679480766799267
231.987235253 5.446683898120729112
185.598783678 5.223589686060374770
233.693404179 5.454011543595367791
187.228922584 5.232334430338302197
236.524229666 5.466052143298442741
189.416158656 5.243948814747928023
192.026656361 5.257636457544517982
193.079726604 5.263105430173968566
195.265396680 5.274361827439531516
196.876481841 5.282578686331982586
198.015309676 5.288346474611516831
201.264751944 5.288346474611516831
202.493594514 5.310710286360726542