I.

Types of Character
A. "Round" and "flat" characters
The novelist E.M. Forster categorized fictional characters as being either "round" or "flat".
Round characters are developed "in the round"; that is, we can see their complexities and
contradictions. To continue the visual metaphor, we might say that we can see "different
sides" of someone's personality. Flat characters, conversely, are depicted as always
embodying one characteristic, personality trait, role, or function. There's a relationship
between genre and the "flatness" or "roundness" of the characters. Myth, satire, romance,
and melodrama tend toward the use of relatively "flat" characters, even in major roles.
Realism depends on the depiction of psychologically-complex "round" characters.
Most realistic stories involve both round and flat characters. The round characters occupy
centre stage: unless the story is a short fable, the main character is probably "round", and
there may be one or two other characters who are sufficiently developed that we can see
their complexities and contradictions to some degree. Other characters will simply serve a
limited function and not de developed "in the round": the desk clerk in the hotel where the
main character stays may be sketched in as a generic character (the typical desk clerk), or
he or she may be presented as a unique and even eccentric figure to add colour and
interest to the story.
Too many "round" characters will tend to crowd a story and make it difficult for the reader
to empathize with a particular central character. Organizing the characters in a story is a
little like painting a group of figures in a scene: one or too will be portrayed in the
foreground and become the focus of the viewers interest; others will be background
figures, diminished by perspective, shadow, etc.
B. Static and dynamic characters
Static characters do not change during the course of the story. They learn nothing
important about themselves and they do not substantially change their opinions of the
other characters. Dynamic characters, on the other hand, are capable of change, growth,
and insight. The main characters of realistic stories are usually (for obvious reasons)
dynamic characters.
C. Normative Character(s)

A Normative character exists to embody the values of the readers

culture: he or she is the character whom the reader would consider
normal and with whom the reader would thus be likely to empathize. If
the main character is relatively unique or eccentric, it's logical to provide a
normative character, someone we can relate to easily. It's also a common
technique to have the normative character tell the story. Having a
normative character tell us about a fascinating, self-destructive, eccentric
friend or relative is a standard way of doing business. Somerset

Maugham and Scott Fitzgerald constructed stories around just that

premise, and so have plenty of more recent writers.
D. Sympathetic Characters
Fiction allows readers to see the characters as if they were real people. Our enjoyment of
a story is founded on our willingness to accept characters as real and to sympathize with
their problems and aspirations. A sympathetic character is one to whom our sympathies
are drawn: usually, the main character of a story is also the sympathetic character.
It's notoriously difficult to write a successful story that doesn't have a sympathetic
character or that has a main character who does not elicit our sympathy.
E. Foil characters (aka "parallel" or "contrasting" characters)
A foil character is a character who resembles but is to some degree different from the main
character. Stories are very often built around the use of these parallel or contrasting
characters. It's much easier to reveal a character's personality by contrasting him or her
with another character than it is to develop the character in isolation. The importance of
using foil characters can't be overstated: characters are representations of "real" people;
they are also, however, structural elements within the "architecture" of the story. You can
build your story around a set of parallel or contrasting characters.
F. "Off-stage" Characters
In addition to the characters who populate the scenes of the story, there may also be
characters who don't actually appear in any scenes but who are referred to by the narrator
or by the "on-stage" characters, typically in dialogue. Obviously, most of the important
characters should be "on-stage" and interacting with the other characters. Characters who
are important to backstory can sometimes simply be referred to and thus remain "offstage".
The reason for placing some characters "off-stage" is simple: putting too many characters
into a scene crowds the action and makes it difficult for the reader to tell who and what is
important; simply referring to the minor characters can solve this problem. Also, some
characters only play a role in the backstory, not in the primary narrative. Unless we wish to
develop backstory scenes, the easiest way to deal with these characters is to refer to them
rather than representing them. For example, our main character may have inherited a
business from her parents, and the parents efforts to build up that business may be
relevant to the plot of the story; we may not, however, wish to devote paragraphs or even
pages to dramatizing the parents' lives, so we may simply refer to them in exposition or
possibly in dialogue.
G. Catalysts

In some stories, a minor character will provide the impetus for the main
character to come to a crucial decision or realization and thus to resolve
the conflict. It isn't the catalyst's own actions of decisions that determine

the outcome of the plot; he or she simply provides a context for the main
character's climactic decision or revelation. His or her advice or example
may help the main character to see his or her situation more clearly, or
the catalyst may force a wavering main character to confront the central
conflict in his or her life.
H. Stereotypes
A stereotype is a flat character who is intended to represent a group or culture: the ditzy
waitress, the gregarious salesman, the nerdy intellectual, etc. Stereotypical characters can
function effectively in minor roles, but they are often a sign of bad writing and they may
reflect a prejudice or narrow-mindedness on the part of the author.
II. Methods of character development
Characters are usually developed gradually throughout the narrative. The process
involves supplying "character indicators" at various points in the story. A character indictor
might be something the character says (or how he or she says it), an action, a lack of
sympathy for another's characters problems, or something as simple as a way of dressing,
a gesture, a preference in food or hobbies.
As is often the case, we can learn quite a bit about how to develop characters in fiction by
considering how we get to know people in life. Developing a character in fiction is often
similar to getting to know someone. Your first impression (and subsequent understanding)
of a new acquaintance may come from any or all of the following possibilities:
1. appearance (attraction/repulsion, grooming, stature, apparent health, dress, age)
2. dialogue: what we say (and do not say) reveals our character to others; so the way we
say it (accent, dialect, slang, formality, etc.)
3. body language (demeanor, stance, gestures, personal space)
4. opinions and judgment (his/her opinion of others)
5. reputation (other characters' opinion of him/her)
6. actions/behavior (dramatic presentation)
Is who we are reflected in our behavior? Most of us would assume that the answer to this
question is "Yes". In that sense, our actions reveal our character. Paradoxically, it may
also be true that our character determines our actions. The novelist Henry James was
exploring this paradox when he asked, "What is character but the determination of
incident? What is incident but the illustration of character?" There is, however, a question
of emphasis which springs from James' epigram: some stories may emphasize one half of
the paradox, some the other. In myth, for example, character exists for the sake of action;
in psychological realism, action exits to illustrate character.
As well, writers can make use of some techniques that we can't use in day-to-day life, such
as
1.) Narrative access to character's consciousness This is a useful technique, but it can
cause problems. Spending too much time inside the character's head can be boring: a
little goes a very long way. Some writers will also try to use the character's thoughts as a

way of interpreting the story for the reader or of preaching about politics or religion or
whatever. That method turns the character into a puppet and a mouthpiece for the
author's opinions. There's also a small mechanical problem with reporting the character's
thoughts. You either have to use intrusive tags such as "she thought" or you have to put
the thoughts into italics, which is also a little intrusive and which can be confusing.
2.) Character's name and function. Some stories include figures whose names reveal their
personality. Obviously, this method usually only works with flat characters, but it can be
used subtly in a more realistic context. Charles Dickens used these "emblematic" names
frequently in his novels. In Bleak House, for example, we encounter characters named
"Smallweed", "Lady Dedlock", "Skinpole", "Snagsby", "Tangle", "Bucket", and "Clam".
III. Characterization and Motivation
Characters can't just appear and act in a certain way; we have to understand why the
character acts in that way. The easiest way to establish motivation is by analogy: if a
character is capable of one act of kindness or cruelty, he or she may be capable of other,
similar acts.
IV. Common Problems in Characterization
A. Inconsistent characterization
If a character changes, we have to understand what made him or her change. A character
cannot be cruel and uncaring one minute and generous and sympathetic the next unless
we've made the reasons for the transformation clear to the reader.
B. Implausible characters
Characters have to seem plausible in the context of the story. A mutant with telekinetic
powers might work perfectly in the context of a sci-fi story, but that character would be
absurd and distracting in a work of realistic literary fiction. Conversely, portraying a
psychologically-complex figure in a melodrama such as a suspense novel might not work
either. You have to make the character fit the genre.
C. Too many characters
A common problem with short stories is an over-abundance of characters. In a short story,
a couple of major characters is usually enough. Other characters should usually be minor,
"flat" characters who perform a specific function or who are part of the background. Too
many names will be confusing to readers, and too many people will clutter the scenes.
It's a good idea, by the way, to avoid giving your characters similar names. Names that
are too similar will blur in the readers' minds and make it more difficult for the readers to
differentiate between characters. Getting a clear sense of who's who in a story is difficult
enough for readers; don't make the task even more trying by giving characters similar
names.
D. Too few characters

Quite a few stories are built around two or three characters. It's difficult, however, to build
a story around just one character. There's no opportunity for interaction, no dialogue, and
probably little occasion for dramatic action. Writing a story with one character is like
painting a picture in one colour: it's possible, but it's difficult and probably not a good idea.
E. Disappearing characters
If a character is important to the beginning of a narrative, he or she should probably be
important to the end of the story as well. Characters who simply wander out of the plot
leave readers feeling unsatisfied and confused. If a character dies or leaves (and that
event is crucial to the plot) then he or she could be replaced by a similar or contrasting
character so that the pattern of important figures remains the same.
F. "Pop-up" characters
Just as it's important not to let major characters wander out of the story, it's also important
not to introduce a new major character late in the plot. This is particularly crucial in a short
story, where the major elements, including characters, almost always have to be
introduced early in the narrative.
G. "Deus ex machina" characters
An extreme form of the "pop-up" character is the person who appears at the end of the
story in order to resolve the conflict. The sudden, inexplicable appearance of a god-like
personage who can solve the main character's problems is a fatal flaw in any story. This
problematic character is called the "deus ex machina". (The term was originally used to
denote the technique of lowering an actor onto the stage with a crane, a device employed
in the ancient Greek theatre. This actor would portray a god or hero who appeared at the
end of the play--the "god out of the machine.")
H. Nameless characters
Name your characters right away. The standard formula for a short story lead goes like
this: start with the main character's name, then show us him or her doing something.
Providing the reader with the character's name makes it easier for the reader to visualize
and empathize with the character, and it also prevents the confusion that can arise from
referring to more than one character as "he" or "she". This sort of "pronoun fog" is
extremely irritating and usually completely unnecessary.

Assignment #2: Character/Setting Sketch

Step 1. Visualize a person whom you know. List at least ten words or phrases
which could be used to describe that person's physical appearance.
Describe his or her clothing, using the same method. Consider how you
might use gestures or expressions to convey the character's mood.
Step 2. Visualize a place in which the person you've just described might
commonly be found. List ten words or phrases which describe the place.

Step 3. Using at least some of the words or phrases you've come up with,
write a descriptive sketch in which you show us the person in the place. Try
to communicate a specific mood or aspect of the character's personality in
your description of the place. Concentrate on showing, not telling! Avoid
clichs--no tear-stained cheeks or laughing eyes, please!
Exercise #3: Celebrity Riddle
Write a brief (100-200 words) description of a well-known public figure (politician, actor,
singer, etc.). You can do this as a set piece or use simultaneous development, showing
the person performing some sort of action. Dont tell us the character's name. Bring your
exercise to class and read it to us; we'll all try to guess whose portrait it is.