Plant Nutrition Basics: Understanding the

Principles to Optimize the Practices.

Patrick Brown
University of California, Davis

How, Why, When, Where and What

of Tree Nutrition

Principles:

How are nutrients acquired by plants

Why are they needed, what is their

function and how do they move in the
plant.

How much, when and where are they

required.

Soil Supply Processes

Nutrients move to the root in soil moisture

Nutrient supply from a soil depends on:

The size of the nutrient pool (bank balance),

The solubility of nutrients in the pool (ATM limit)

Solubility is determined by soil minerals, pH, CEC,

lime, organic matter content.
Soils must allow root penetration, provide adequate
water and oxygen for root growth.

Soil pH and Minerology determines Nutrient

Solubility
(knowledge of solubility characteristics of your soils is important.)

Mass Flow (soluble nutrients) versus

Dissolution/Diffusion (insoluble elements)
Mass Flow

Diffusion

Zn

Fe

N, Ca

Mn
Fe

Mn

K
B

Zn

Micronutrients (excluding B and Cl) are immobile in the soil

and can only be obtained from soil in close proximity to the root surface.
Root growth and root patterns (fineness, depth etc) influence uptake.

Nitrate

Ammonium

pH

pH
Corn
Corn

Plant roots interact

dynamically with
soil chemistry and
microbiology.

Chick Pea

The uptake of micro-nutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn)

depends greatly on root health.
Up to 50% of all
photosynthesis is
exuded into root
zone to access Zn, Fe,
P.
In soils that fix
these elements root
health, soil
amendments or
fertilizer sources may
ore important than
amount of fertilizer.

Summary 1:
Soil Science and Plant Nutrient Uptake

Nutrients are taken up in water only by active roots.

Knowledge of the solubility of critical nutrients in your soil is essential

N, S, Mg, Ca, B are mobile and soluble in most soils

Water movement delivers these nutrients to roots

Nutrients can be leached or displaced.

Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Fe, P have restricted solubility and movement in soils, hence:

Active root growth is required.

Water and oxygen are required for uptake
Leaves are required for nutrient uptake by roots

Root exploration and soil health is critical

Nutrients and roots must be in the same place
Soils that limit root growth can cause Zn, Fe, Cu deficiencies

K is mobile/available in some soils but not others

Soil tests to determine K-fixation are essential to K management.

Nutrient Mobility in
Plants
Mobility = Once in the plant, can the nutrient
move from place to place in the shoot and can it
be stored for later use. This has a critical
effect on fertilization strategy.

Water Pipes

DHL Delivery

Driven by leaf water

evaporation

Movement toward
growing organs

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis

The movement of sugar

from source leaves to
sink leaves, determines
the direction of movement
of nutrients.

Growth
Growth
Growth

Freely Mobile

Low Mobility

Immobile

(nutrient moves from

mature leaves to all plant
parts)

(a very small amount of

nutrient moves from mature
leaves to other plant parts)

(No movement.)

Nitrogen

Zinc

Manganese

Potassium

Molybdenum

Iron

Sulphur

Copper

Calcium

Magnesium

Boron (Pistachio, Walnut)

Boron (all Prunus and Pyrus)

The mobility of an element determines how fertilizers should be managed, where and when
symptoms of deficiency and toxicity will appear.

Boron is the only element that varies in mobility between species. B is highly mobile in Almond,
Apricot, Olive, Apple, Pear (and related species) and immobile in all others (Pistachio, Walnut, Citrus
etc)

Immobile or Poorly mobile Elements

(Ca, Zn, Mn, Fe, B) move exclusively
or mostly in the Xylem.
Delivered by one-way flow of water in xylem.
Driving force is the transport of water
limitation in water flow can cause deficiencies
tissues that dont lose water are most sensitive.
Management Implications:
Supply required throughout all stages of growth
and reproduction.
Fertilizers have limited long term effectiveness.
Foliar fertilizers benefit only the tissues sprayed
and cannot benefit tissues developed after
application.
Nutrients cannot be stored for later use.

Mobile Elements (N, P, K, Mg,

S, B) move in both the Xylem
(one way) and Phloem (two
way).
Movement is driven by demand for growth.
Fertilization can have longer term benefits
and nutrients can be stored.
Foliar fertilizers can effectively supply
current and developing tissues.
Older plant parts develop deficiencies first.
Photosynthesis and growth drives
movement.

Phloem mobility determines longevity and efficacy of

foliar fertilizers.
Mobile

Application of mobile element (N,

K, P, S, Mg, B) will supply roots,
fruits and shoot tips.

Immobile

Application of immobile element

(Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Ca) will supply
only the sprayed leaf.

No Foliar Zn-Sulphate

Foliar Zn-Sulphate
40 lbs acre x 5 yrs

Zinc foliar applications have only a local

effect on sprayed leaves

Immobile nutrients
can be deficient even
when most of the
plant has sufficient
nutrient.

Boron deficient flowers

Boron sufficient leaves

Tobacco grown in zero B hydroponics

with foliar B applied to oldest leaves

Summary 2:

Nutrient Mobility Influences Nutrient Management

and The Efficacy of Foliar Fertilizers
Immobile elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, Ca, Zn) require a consistent supply
throughout plant growth. Uptake, movement and distribution in the plant
is directly related to water movement in the plant.
symptoms appear rapidly in young tissues
consistent supply during growth is required (soil or foliar)
foliar fertilizers will only have a short term benefit
Mobile elements (N, K, Mg, S, P, B, Cl) can be stored and remobilized within
the plant. Movement is driven by photosynthesis and plant growth (demand).

symptoms appear in old tissues

foliar and soil fertilizers can have a long term benefit

Nutrient Function

The Law of Minimum

Justus Von Leibig, 1863

If any nutrient is inadequate Yield is lost AND response

to other elements cannot
occur.
If any nutrient is oversupplied
- Money is wasted

Effect of K on Yield in Almond

The Law of Minimum illustrated
180

) -1

2000 Yield (lbs/plot)

170

Control
240 lbs K2O/acre
600 lbs K2O/acre
960 lbs K2O/acre

160

150

140

130

2000 yield (lbs plot

120

Response to K is now limited by secondary deficiencies

110
0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1999 Leaf K (%)

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

Update on Critical Values: Nitrogen

99th Percentile

2.45 %

(January in Australia)

Nitrogen, Potassium, Sulfur, Phosphorus, Magnesium

Uptake, Function, Mobility, Management
Uptake and Soil Reactions
N, S, Mg are generally soluble and mobile in the soil (N can be leached)
K and P mobility is highly soil specific
Uptake driven by growth and yield. Root exploration is essential for P uptake,
less critical for N, K, S, Mg.

More on Nitrogen and Potassium in the

Function
second talk.

N, K, S, P, Mg are structural and metabolic elements required at all stages of

growth.

Mobility
N, K, S, P, Mg are mobile in plants and hence can be stored.

Management
Fertilizer source is not especially critical (cost, solubility, ease of use, secondary
elements)
Replacement of exported nutrient (amount and timing) is goal
Foliar fertilizers can be effective and may have some longevity.

Micronutrients
Copper, Zinc, Boron, Iron,
Manganese, Chlorine, Nickel,
Molybdenum

Zinc Deficiency is an Important

Production Constraint
Little leaf and rosetting occurring
during rapid growth

Consequence of specific function of Zn

in growth stage and limited mobilization
of Zn in plants.
Zn is essential for protein formation

Zinc
Deficiency

February 22, 2005

Zn Deficient
Zn Sufficient

Zinc
(Managing Fertilization)
Uptake and Soil Reactions
Immobile in soil and prone to binding.
Uptake is highly dependent on root exploration and soil health.
Knowledge of soil characteristics (pH, fixation, solubility ) is essential

Function
The key role of Zn is during reproductive growth.

Mobility
Generally immobile or slightly mobile in plants in the spring but otherwise very immobile
and not easily absorbed by leaves.

Fertilization Strategy
Maintaining solubility of fertilizers is key (formulation/application/amendment)
Ensuring roots and fertilizers are closely collocated (fertigation)
Ensuring spring and reproductive adequacy

SOIL OR FOLIAR FERTILIZATION?

The Role of Foliar Fertilizers

Foliar Fertilizers are indicated:
To overcome soil limitations that restrict element solubility (pH,
Alkalinity, Structural Problems etc.)
To overcome root growth limitations and environmental limitations
that prevent adequate root uptake.

May be needed to correct Transient Nutrient Deficiencies

During times of High Nutrient Demand (eg. fruit
growth) - Demand exceeds Supply

Due to Phenology and Environmental Interactions (eg.

cold weather at flowering) - Phenology Enhanced
Deficiency
Due to limitations in within plant nutrient transport (eg.
B, Ca, Zn, Fe)- Transport Induced Deficiency

Soil pH and Minerology determines Nutrient

Solubility
(knowledge of solubility characteristics of your soils is important.)

Micronutrient Deficiencies are

Highly Variable in Occurrence

Zinc deficiency

Demand
exceeds Supply
Even under situations of
abundant soil supply,
deficiencies can still occur.
K deficiency in prune
N, K deficiency in Pistachio
K deficiency in Almond
A contributing factor in alternate
bearing?

Localized Nutrient Demand

Can Exceed Uptake and Transport
Capacity, even in a Well fertilized
Soil.

February 22, 2005

Courtesy of Scott Johnson

Soil Zn Application:
Zn Deficient

Foliar Zn Application:
Zn Sufficient

Phenological Deficiency
Response of Pistachio to Foliar B

Boron deficiency induced flower abortion

Molybdenum Foliar Sprays and Other Nutrient

Strategies to Improve Fruit Set and Reduce Berry
Asynchrony (hen and chickens or millerandage)
Summary of Australian Grape and Wine Research Development
Corporation Project :
Dr Christopher Williams
SARDI 2003-7

Peach Seedlings - 68ZnSO4 Rate

68Zn Taken Up by Plant as % of Applied
2-4% in Walnut, 1-3% in Pistachio (Zhang and Brown, 1999)
3
a

b
b

Uptake

1
c
d

UTC

100

200

400

1000

Treatment - ppm Zinc

5000

The Leaf is Well Designed to Prevent the

Movement of Ions or Water
Trying to get a hydrophilic ion through a hydrophobic surface.

Adaxial

Leaf Surface
Composition and
Structure are Highly
Varied.

Cherry leaf

-Species
-Leaf Surface
-Age
-Environment
-Nutrient Status

Abaxial

Cherry leaf

Epicuticular wax in Apple

leaves varies with
environment (Hellman and
Stosser, 1992)

Growth Chamber
= 10 g cm-2

Rose leaf

Field Grown
= 280 g cm-2

Rose leaf

Epicuticular wax in Walnut

varies with leaf age (Zhang
and Brown, 1994)

40 Days Old
=38 g cm-2
120 Days Old
= 430 g cm-1

Quercus leaf

Quercus leaf

No Foliar Zn-Sulphate

Foliar Zn-Sulphate
40 lb acre-1

Almond & Pistachio Industry Survey:

>90% of 1.0 million acres use foliar Zn and B
How often do you use foliar fertilizers to apply each of the following
nutrients?
100%

Never
50%

Once/year
Multiple times/year

25%

Zin
c

Su
lfur

Po
tas
siu
m

Ph
osp
ho
rus

Nit
rog
en

Ma
ng
Mu
an
lti-e
ese
lem
en
tm
ixe
s

Co
pp
er

Ca
lciu
m

0%

Bo
ron

% Respondents

75%

Micronutrient Formulations Available

in the US Marketplace.
Inorganic
Water Soluble
Nitrates
Chlorides
Sulfates
Sodium Salts
Potassium Salts
Ammonium Salts
Not Water Soluble
Carbonates
Phosphates
Silicates
Hydroxides
Oxides

Organic

Complexing Agents
Sugar Alcohols
Low Molecular
Weight Acids
Citric
Oxalic
Tartaric

Low Molecular Weight

Na Glucoheptonate
Lignin Compounds
Fulvic Acids
Humic Acid
Amino Acids

Chelating Agents

EDTA
DTPA
HEEDTA
HEDTA
Citric Acid
NTA

High
Molecular Weight

Cost of Zinc Materials - October 2007

$ per unit Zn

Zn Metalosate

6.8%

Zn Fulvic

10%

N Zn
Zn Leonardite
Zn EDTA

$33.51
$17.01

5%

$16.51

6.5%

$15.19

9%

$12.88

Zn Ligno-Sulfonate 7%

ZnO Suspension

40%

Neutral Zn

52%

Zn Sulfate

36%

Zn Oxide

80%

$9.15
$7.55
$4.12
$2.22

$1.15

0
Courtesy Scott Johnson

10

20

30

40

Testing the efficacy of Zinc Foliars

Model Systems (15 individual experiments)
Arabidopsis
Peach
Field Trials (3 years, 5 indivdual experiments)
Tomato
Almond
Cellular Elemental Distribution
Almond
Pistachio
Wheat
Sunflower
Approach: Always analyze tissues that have not been directly sprayed
to avoid contamination. Contrast multiple commercial and
experimental formulations.

Model System to Test Efficacy of

Commercial Zn formulations: Arabidopsis

Courtesy Scott Johnson

Model System to Test Efficacy of

Commercial Zn formulations: Peach

Meta analysis of 8 Arabidopsis Foliar Trials.

Peach Model
System: Zn
4 Foliar Trails

Courtesy Scott Johnson

Tomato Field Experiment.

RBCD, 4 replicates each 30 feet row. Applied 06/16, new tissue sampled 07/15

*
*

Field Trial: Almonds

CBD 15 tree plots, 4 replicate plots
Application three times in 2009, twice in 2010
Leaf analysis May and June 2011.
Product

Spray
Concentration
(ppm)

Leaf Zn
May
(ppm)

Leaf Zn
June
(ppm)

Control

20c

15c

Zn Amino

400

22b,c

16b,c

Zn CHO

400

22b,c

17a,b,c

Zn (UCD B
Nitrate/Sulfate/C
hloride)

1000

27c

18b,c

Zn (UCD A
Nitrate/Sulfate)

1000

25b,c

18b,c

Zn Sulfate

1860

27c

19c

Peach,
Almond, Lab
and Field
Tests:

Analysis of 5
independent
model and
field trials.

Use and Efficacy of Foliar Zn Fertilizers:

Model Systems, Field Trials, Cellular Imaging

Zn Chloride > Zn Nitrate > Zn Sulfate are generally

superior to other commercial Zn forms

Following entry into the leaf a small percentage of Zn

can be remobilized and reutilized in subsequent
years.

HOWEVER..

THERE IS A DIRECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

EFFICACY AND TOXICITY POTENTIAL

Zinc Nitrate

- Efficacy is proportional to toxicity.

-There are Zn products on the
market that are entirely safe AND
largely ineffective.

Zinc Sulfate
-High efficacy products can be
used at lower rates with more
frequent applications.
-Greater attention to prevailing
environmental conditions.

Boron

The Biology of Boron

Agricultural effects of B, proposed
roles, uptake and movement in the
plant.
Management practices and
challenges.

Boron
Nutrient Uptake and Assimilation
Uncharged element, not fixed in soils. Also stored in organic residue
Water is frequently the most important source. Deficiency can occur in all
soils supplied with low B irrigation water..

Function
Cell Wall Construction
Pollen formation and fertilization

Mobility
Mobile in Almond, Apple, Pear, Olive and related species.
Lack of mobility and high demand for reproduction can result in critical
deficiencies that are hard to detect.

Boron

Boron Deficiency in Pistachio

Cell
Boron walls are made of fibers, held together with carbohydrates.
5

Boron Function

Extensins

Xyloglucans

Ca-Pectins
RG1, RGII

Cellulose

Boron5 deficiency induced flower abortion

or deformation in Pistachio and Olive

Boron

Boron

Boron

Boron5 deficiency induced flower abortion in Walnut

Control

B-Deficient

Boron strongly influences pollen tube

germination, growth and reproduction.

Role of Foliar Boron in Yield of

Almond
Monterrey

0, 200, 400, 800 ppm

B in solution)

Nonpareil

Boron is Essential for Flowering and

Fruit Set
Foliar B applied immediately prior to
flowering is uniquely effective at
correcting this problem. Soil
applications are inconsistent.

Boron deficiency induced flower abortion

Effect of Application Time on

Response to Foliar Boron
Species
Pistachio
Walnut
Fig
Avocado
Almond
Peach
Olive
Grape

Optimal Application Time

Pre-flowering

Pre-flowering or early Post Harvest

(Brown, Perica, Nyomora, Hu)

Boron
Managing Fertilization
Nutrient Uptake and Assimilation
Uncharged and mobile in soil, therefore fertilization and fertigation are generally
effective and formulation does not make a big difference (providing it is soluble)

Function
Role in growth (vegetative and reproductive) means that spring fertilization is
essential as is fertilization during rapid growth (fruits, flowers, meristems)

Mobility
Highly immobile in most species, mobile in Almond, Apple, Pear, Olive and
related species.

Fertilization Strategy
Critical requirement in flowering
Foliars can have short term (immobile species) or long term (mobile species) effectiveness

Plant Nutrient Uptake and

Crop Response to Fertilizer
Diffusion versus Mass
Flow

Soil pH and Minerology determines

Nutrient Solubility

(knowledge of solubility characteristics of your

soils is important.)

Roots, water and growth are required

for nutrient uptake.
Nutrient Mobility/Solubility in Soil

N, Mg, Ca, S, B are soluble and mobile

in most soils

Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, P are not soluble and

mobile in many soils.

Nutrient Mobility Defines Symptoms And Response

Generally predictable response to fertilization,

formulations are less relevant

Less predictable response, greater dependence

on source.

Nutrient Mobility in Plant

Mobility influences symptoms.

N, P, K, S, Mg, Cl, (B) are mobile and
have more predictable and long lasting
response to soil and foliar fertilization
Zn, Mn, Fe, Fe, (B) are immobile,
nutrients cannot be stored and fertilizer
response is shorter and less predictable.

Plant Nutrient Function and

Fertilizer Management
Macronutrient Demand and Timing
is Driven by Growth

Micronutrient Demand is
Development Specific

Demand for N, P, K, S, Mg is
directly determined by growth
and yield.

Nutrient Demand and Seasonal

Dynamics
in Almond

Micronutrient Deficiencies
are Highly Variable in
Occurrence

Replace what will be removed

Balance applications
Time applications to match
demand.

Demand for B, Zn, Cu (Fe, Mn)

varies with development and
environment.

Difficult to predict, more variable

and difficult to correct.
Prevention is better than cure
Timing and choice of product
matters.

Plant Nutrient Function and

Fertilizer Management
Next

How to sample the orchard effectively and

interpret the results

How to estimate orchard N, and K demand

How to deliver nutrients efficiently