CH 1 Summary

Understanding How and Why

o The study of human development is a science that seeks to understand
how people change or remain the same over time. A scientist begins
with curiosity and questions, refines them into hypotheses, then
gathers empirical data, and finally draws conclusions that are shared
(usually published) with other scientists. A crucial step before the
conclusions are accepted is that the research be replicated, to confirm,
modify, or refute the conclusions.
o Nature and nurture always interact. Each human characteristic is
affected by the interaction of both genes (nature) and environment
(nurture). Gene expression is affected by the environment, beginning
at the moment of conception, in a process called epigenesist.
The Life-span Perspective
o Development is multidirectional: gains and losses are apparent
throughout life, and change can be rapid, slow or imperceptible.
o A multi-contextual approach is ecological. That means it takes into
account immediate contexts (family, school) as well as broader
contexts (historical conditions, socioeconomic status). When a person
is born determines their cohort, which influences development lifelong.
Poverty also affects development at every age.
o As the multicultural aspect of the life-span perspective stresses, each
culture embraces values and assumptions about human life. Culture,
ethnicity, and race are social constructions, that is, concepts created
by society. Culture includes beliefs about life and patterns of behavior.
Some social scientists want to abandon concerns about race and
national origin, while others want to use those concepts to combat
racism and cultural prejudice.
o As emphasized by multidisciplinary concerns, development needs to be
understood using the methods and viewpoints of many areas of study.
For example, to understand the cause of psychological depression, at
least a dozen factors from a dozen disciplines are helpful. Always
genes, past history and current age of the person are relevant, so a
particular person may be better understood via the perspective of one
discipline more than another.
o Development is plastic, which means that, although inborn traits and
childhood experiences affect later development, patterns and
possibilities can change throughout life. Further, in differential
sensitivity, some people are particularly vulnerable, for better and for
worse, to particular genes or experiences.
Using the Scientific Method
o Several specific research designs help scientists understand human
development. Scientific observation, the experiment, and the survey
each provide insights and discoveries that were not apparent before
the research. Each also has liabilities; before conclusions are accepted
by the scientific community, several methods are typically used.

Statistics, and research on dozens, sometimes hundreds, of individuals

are useful in reaching objective conclusions.
o An additional challenge for developmentalists is to study change over
time. Two traditional research designs are often used: cross-sequential
research (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal
research (studying the same people over time). A third method, crosssequential research (combining the two other methods) is more
complicated, expensive, and time-consuming, but many
developmentalists believe it allows more reliable conclusions.
Cautions and Challenges from Science
o A correlation shows that two variables are related. However, it does not
prove that one variable causes the other: The variable thought to be
the cause may actually be the consequence, or both variables may be
the result of a third variable.
o Ethical behavior is crucial in all the sciences. Not only must
participants be protected and data be kept confidential, but results
must be fairly reported, honestly interpreted, and replicated. Scientists
must be especially mindful of the implications of their research.
o Appropriate application of scientific research depends partly on the
training and integrity of the scientists. One very important ethical
question is whether scientists are designing, conducting, analyzing,
publishing, and applying the research needed to help the entire human
family develop well.

Ch. 2 Summary

What theories Do
o A theory provides a framework of general principles to guide research
and to explain observations. Each of the five major developmental
theoriespsychoanalytic, behaviorist, cognitive, sociocultural, and
universalinterprets human development from a distinct perspective,
together interpreting human experience and behavior.
o Theories are neither true nor false. They are not facts; they suggest
hypotheses to be tested. Good theories are practical: They aid inquiry,
interpretation, and daily life.
o A norm is a usual standard of behavior. Norms are not theories,
although they may result from theories if a theory suggests that a
certain behavior is proper. Norms are not necessarily good or bad,
although sometimes differences from the norm are falsely considered
deficits.
Grand Theories
o Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes that human actions and thoughts
originate from unconscious impulses and childhood conflicts. Freud
theorized that sexual urges arise during three stages of childhood
developmentoral, anal, and phallicand continue, after latency, in
the genital stage.

Erikson described psychosocial, not psychosexual, stages. He

described eight successive stages of development, each involving a
crisis as people mature within their context. Societies, cultures, and
family members shape each persons development.
o All psychoanalytic theories stress the legacy of childhood. Conflicts
associated with childrens erotic impulses have a lasting impact on
adult personality, according to Freud. Erikson thought that the
resolution of each crisis affects adult development.
o Behaviorists, or learning theorists, believe that scientists should study
observable and measurable behavior. Behaviorism emphasizes
conditioninga lifelong learning process, in which an association
between one stimulus and another (classical conditioning) or the
consequences of reinforcement and punishment (operant conditioning)
guide behavior.
o Social learning theory recognizes that people learn by observing
others. Children are particularly susceptible to social learning, but all
humans are affected by other people.
o Cognitive theorists believe that thoughts and beliefs powerfully affect
attitudes, actions, and perceptions. Piaget proposed four age-related
periods of cognition, propelled by an active search for cognitive
equilibrium. Information processing focuses on each aspect of
cognitive input, processing, and output.
Newer Theories
o Sociocultural theory explains human development in terms of the
guidance, support, and structure provided by knowledgeable members
of the society through culture and mentoring. Vygotsky described how
learning occurs through social interactions, when mentors guide
learners though their zone of proximal development.
o The universal perspective focuses on the shared impulses and common
needs of all humanity. One universal theory is humanism. Maslow
believed that humans have five basic needs, which he arranged in
sequence beginning with survival and ending with self-actualization.
Rogers believed that each person merits respect and appreciation, with
unconditional positive regard.
o Evolutionary theory contends that contemporary humans inherit
genetic tendencies that have fostered survival and reproduction of the
human species for tens of thousands of years. Many hypotheses arising
from this theory are intriguing but controversial.
What Theories Contribute
o Psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, sociocultural, and universal
theories have each aided our understanding of human development,
yet no single theory describes the full complexity and diversity of
human experience. Most developmentalists are eclectic, drawing upon
many theories.
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