Biology Notes:

Chapter 1: The Cell

1) The Cell Theory: all living things composed of cells, cell is basic
functional unit of life, cells come from preexisting cells, cells carry
genetic info in the form of DNA and it is passed on from parent to
daughter cell
2) Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus or any membrane bound
organelles, but Eukaryotes do. Organelles are suspended in cytosol,
cell membranes are composed of phospholipid bilayer.
3) Eukaryote Organelles:
i) Nucleus: contains all genetic info, surrounded by porous
nuclear double membrane, pores allow for 2-way selective
transport between cytoplasm and nucleus. Linear DNA winds
around histones, then chromosomes, purpose of DNA in
nucleus is to separate DNA transcription from RNA translation.
Nucleolus makes rRNA
ii) Mitochondria: has outer membrane that separates ext
environment from inner membrane, inner membrane contains
enzymes for ETC and has cristae which increase surface area
for these enzymes, deep inside inner membrane is matrix and
between outer and inner membrane is the intermembrane
space. Mitochondria contain a few of their own genes and can
replicate without nucleus via binary fission, called
extranuclear inheritance.
iii) Lysosomes: release hydrolytic enzymes that break down
substrates, releases enzymes by autolysis which results in
apoptosis
iv) ER: double membrane with invaginations that create a central
lumen, Rough ER has ribosomes which allow for translation of
protein that go into lumen, and SER lack ribosomes and used
for lipid synthesis, detox, protein transport from RER to golgi
v) Golgi Apparatus: stuff from RER is sent to golgi in vesicles,
golgi modifies them with carbs, phosphates etc, then they get
repackaged into vesicles and are destined to a specific
location. If product will be secreted then it will merge with cell
membrane and release by exocytosis
vi) Peroxisome: contain H2O2, breakdown long fatty acid chain
by beta-oxidation, make phospholipid
4) Cytoskeleton: microfilaments are made of actin and resistant to
fracture and compression, involved in cytokinesis because it forms
the cleavage furrow which arranges like a ring between 2 newly
formed daughter cells, as the filaments within the ring contract the
rings gets smaller and then pinches the connection between the 2
new cells. Microtubules are hollow rods of tublin, provide pathways
for motor proteins kinesin and dynein- cilia and flagella are made of
microtubules, have a 9+2 structure, 9 MT form outer ring and 2 MT

5)

6)

7)

8)

in the center (only eukaryotes have 9+2), centrioles have 9 triplets

of MT with hollow center, during mitosis centrioles go to opposite
poles and mitotic spindle forms, MT from centrioles attach to
chromosomes via kinetochores and pull the sister chromatids apart.
Intermediate Filaments: keratin, desmin, etc, involved in cell-cell
adhesion, maintain overall cell integrity, withstand lots of tension,
anchor organelles,
Tissue Formation: Epithelial Tissue: cover the body, line body
cavities, involved in absorption, secretion, etc, cells are tightly
arranged next to eachother and have an underlying layer of CT
called basement membrane, epithelial cells make up the
parenchyma (functional organ), they are polarized one side faces
the lumen, other side faces vessels. Connective Tissue gives body
support (stroma), includes bone, blood, tendons, ligaments,
adipose, and secrete material to form extracellular matrix.
Prokaryotic Domains: archaea: look like bacteria but function more
like eukaryotes, considered to be extremophiles, start translation
with methionine like we do, but have one circular chromosome like
bacteria. Bacteria have a cell membrane & cytoplasm, we share
several different relationships with dfferent bacteria. Spirilli-spiral
shapes, cocci-spherical, bacilli-rod.
Aerobe-bacteria needs oxygen, anaerobe: doesnt need oxygen, can
use fermentation, obligate anaerobes: can not survive in presence
of oxygen, leads to oxygen radicals and death, facultative anaerobe:
use oxygen if present and can use other methods if absent,
aerotolerant anaerobe: unable to use oxygen but not harmed by its
presence
Prokaryotes: cell membrane and cell wall make up the envelope, cell
membrane made of phospholipids, and cell wall provides structure
and controls permeability. Gram(+)cell wall absorbs crystal violet
stain and appears purple, Gram(-) cell wall absorb safranin, and
appears pinkish reddish
i) Gram(+) have thick layer of peptidoglycan which protect from
host immune system, and lipotechoic acid
ii) Gram(-) have think cell wall, thin layer of peptidoglycan, and
an outer membrane made of phospholipid and
lipopolysaccharides which trigger immune response in human
iii) Flagella: used for propulsion, chemotaxis: move away or
towards stuff, flagella has filament, basal body which anchors
flagellum to membrane, and moves it and the hook moves it
forward.
iv) Plasmids is the circular DNA structure
v) Use cell membrane for energy production via ETC and ATP
production, and contain ribosomes

vi) Reproduce by Binary fission where the plasmid attaches to

cell wall and replicates while cell continues to grow,
invagination occurs then split into 2 new cells,
vii) Transformation: other bacteria lyse and integrate their
genome into the bacteria, common in gram(-) bacilli
viii) Conjugation: bacterial sex, 2 cells form conjugation bridge,
transfer of genetic info in unidirectional from donor male (+)
to recipient female (-), bridge is made from male pili, and
requires plasmids that have specific sex factors, like F factor.
Bridge breaks quickly
ix) Transduction: requires a vector which is a virus that carries
genetic info from one bacterium to another aka Bacteriphages
which are virus that infect bacteria
x) Transposons: genetic elements that can insert and remove
themselves from genome, eukaryotes have this too.
xi) Growth: lag phase: bacteria new to area, getting used to it,
exponential phase: they adapt and increase in size, stationary
phase: increased pop. Competes for resources, death phase:
no more resources available to support bacteria
9) Viruses: can have DNA, or RNA, plasmids, or linear genetic info, has
protein coat called capsid, and envelope which is sensitive to many
factors, virions are released to infect additional cells,
bacteriophages infect bacteria by injecting viral genetic info into
them via their tail sheaths, tail fibers helps recognize host cell
i) ssRNA virues can be + sense or sense, (+) means genome
can be directly translated to protein by host ribosomes, (-)
means that complementary RNA strand must be made for the
ssRNA strand, which requires RNA replicase, to drive protein
synthesis
ii) Retroviruses are envolved ssRNA virus that carry reverse
transcriptase, which make DNA from ssRNA.
iii) Release virions by lysing, or extrusion in which virus fuses to
cell membrane
iv) Lytic cycle: bacteriophage makes maximal use of host cell
doesnt care about it, virions are made, cell lyses and other
bacteria can be infected. Called virulent
v) Lysogenic cycle: virus integrates into host bacteria as
prophage, replicates as bacterium reproduces, allows for
transduction
vi) Prions: infectious proteins that misfold other proteins, and
convert alpha helix to beta pleated sheet, degrades proteins
vii) Viriods: pathogens that infect plants by binding to RNA
sequence to silence genes in plant genome, thus proteins
cant be made
Chapter 2: Reproduction

1) Cell Cycle has stages G1, S, G2 and Mitosis, followed by

cytokinesis, first three stages are the Interphase, cells that arent
dividing are in G0. During interphase the chromosomes are in
chromatin form to make the DNA available to RNA polymerase.
i) Interphase: G1: cells create organelles needed to energy and
protein production like mitochondria, ribosomes, ER and it
grows in size, before passing onto S stage it must pass a
restriction point, S: synthesis of DNA, genetic material is
replicated giving each chromosome two identical chromatids
that meet at the centromere, G2: cells pass through another
checkpoint to make sure there is enough cytoplasm and
organelles for new daughter cell, also makes sure DNA rep.
was done correctly
ii) P53: protein that controls restriction points, mutation in the
gene that produces it is TP53, can result in rapid cell divisons
and cancer
iii) Molecules responsible for cell cycle are cyclins and Cyclin
Dependent Kinases, cyclins bind to CDK created an activated
complex which can then phosphorylate transcription factors,
transcripton factors then promote transcription of genes
iv) Mitosis: occurs in somatic cells: Prophase: condense
chromatin into chromosome, centriole pairs separate and
move to opposite poles of cell, spindle fibers form, nuclear
membrane dissolves, kinetochores appear, nucleoli disappear.
Metaphase: chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids split and go to opposite poles.
Telophase: spindle apparatus disappears, nuclear membrane
present, nucleoli reappear. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm and
organelles separate for each new cell
2) Meiosis: occurs in sex cells, Meiosis II resembles Mitosis
i) Meiosis I: Prophase 1: chromatin condenses to chromosome,
spindle apparatus form, nucleoli and nuclear membrane
disappear, homologous chromosomes intertwine by synapsis
forming a tetrad which is held together by synpatonmal
complex, chromosomes can break at chiasma to exchange
info by crossing over. Metaphase 1: tetrads align at
metaphase plate and are held by a spindle fiber, Anaphase1:
homologous pairs separate and go to opposite poles, called
DISJUNCTION-maternal and paternal chromosomes separate
and can randomly end in daughter cell. Telophase1: nuclear
membrane forms. Cells are no haploid, cytokinesis occurs,
some cells can rest during interkinesis
ii) Meiosis II: ProphaseII: nuclear envelope and nucleoli
disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite poles, spindle
apparatus forms. MetaphaseII: chromosomes line up at
metaphase plate. AnaphaseII: centromeres divide and sister

chromatids split and go to opposite poles. TelophaseII: nuclear

membrane forms, then cytokinesis happens, results in 4
haploid daughter cells per gametocyte
3) Reproduction: biological sex is determined by 23rd pair of
chromosomes, XX is female, XY is male, X carries most genetic info
mutations here are sex linked, Y chromosome has little genetic info
but has SRY which has transcription factor for testis differentiation,
so if you have Y you are male, if not, female
4) Male Reproduction: Testes have seminiferous tubules and Interstitial
(Leydig) cells. Sperm is made in Seminiferous tubules and Leydig
cells secrete testosterone.
i) Pathway of Sperm to outside: seminiferous tubules,
epididymis, then ejaculation occurs and they go to Vas
Deferens, Ejaculatory Ducts which fuse into the Urethra, then
Penis, then outside
ii) Sperm mixes with seminal fluid which is made by seminal
vesicles, bulbourethral gland and prostate. Seminal vesicles
add fructose and with the prostate, it gives sperm alkalinity to
survive acid female reproductive tract. Bulbourethral gland
creates liquid that cleans remnants of urine and lubricates
urethra, all of these combine with sperm to create SEMEN
iii) Spermatogenesis: occurs in seminiferous tubules, after S
stage diploid primary spermatocytes are made then first
meiotic division occurs and haploid secondary spermatocytes
form, then Meiosis II makes haploid spermatids, then they
mature into Spermatozoa. 4 functional sperm for each
spermatogonium
iv) Sperm have a head which has genetic info, a midpiece which
makes ATP from fructose and has mitochondria to let sperm
swim, head is covered by acrosome which penetrates the
ovum
5) Female Reproduction: ovaries make estrogen and progesterone,
located in pelvic cavity and have many follicles which protect the
ova (eggs). Egg goes into fallopian tube, then uterus, then cervix
then vaginal canal, external vagina is the vulva
i) Oogensis: production of female gametes, all oogonia are
formed during fetal development and by birth all of them have
done DNA replication are are primary oocytes 2n in prophaseI.
At menarche one primary oocyte per month will complete
meiosisI producing secondary oocyte and a polar body due to
unequal cytokinesis, the polar body is useless but secondary
oocyte arrests in metaphaseII and doesnt complete meiosis II
until fertilization. Oocytes have zona pellucida and corona
radiate, zona pelucida protect oocyte and has compounds for
sperm binding, MeiosisII occurs when sperm cell penetrates
these layers by using acrosomal enzymes, secondary oocyte

then divides again to make mature ovum which contributes

nearly everything to the zygote, sperm only give half of the
DNA, then zygote forms
6) Sexual Development: Before puberty hypothalamus restricts GnRH
production but when puberty starts it is released which triggers
Anterior Pituitary to release FSH and LH
i) Males: at puberty testosterone increases bc FSH stimulates
sertoli cells and triggers sperm maturation, LH causes leydig
cells to make testosterone, all of this maintains main reprod.
System and secondary sex characteristics, testosterone uses
negative feedback to regulate FSH and LH
ii) Females: FSH leads to estrogen which maintains female
reprod. System and secondary sex characteristic, as well as
leading to thickening of endometrium each month, corpus
luteum secretes progesterone in response to LH
7) Menstrual Cycle: Follicular Phase: begins with menstrual flow which
sheds uterine lining from last cycle, GnRH secretion increases bc
estrogen and prog. Levels are low at the end of each cycle, GnRH
increase, thus FSH and LH increase, estrogen is made which then
has neg. feedback causing GnRH, LH and FSH to level off, estogen
rebuilds entrometrial lining. Ovulation: estrogen levels high, exerts
positive feedback, GnRH, LH and FSH increase. LH spike induces
ovulation which releases ovum into peritoneal cavity. Luteal Phase:
LH leads to formation of corpus luteum which secretes
progesterone, maintains endometrium, prog lvls rise but GnRH, FSH
and LH get neg feedback to prevent ovulation of multiple eggs.
Menstruation: if implantation doesnt occur corpus luteum loses LH
stimulation prog decline and uterine lining sheds
8) Pregnancy: High HcG which keeps uterine lining in place
9) Menopause: ovaries less sensitive to LH and FSH endometrium gets
weak, LH and FSH rise bc no neg feedback in place
Chapter 3: Embryogenesis and Development
1) Fertilization occurs in ampulla, widest part of fallopian tube, when
sperm meets cell membrane of secondary oocyte it forms the
acrosomal apparatus, penetration occurs which leads to cortical
reaction: release of Calcium ions which depolarize the ovum
membrane to prevent fertilization by many sperm and to increase
the metabolic rate of new diploid zygote.
2) Dizygotic Twins are fraternal, fertilization of 2 different eggs, have
separate features in uterus. Monozygotic: identical, zygote split into
two, share some features in uterus
3) Cleavage: rapid mitotic cell divisions, two ratios increase: nuclear to
cytoplasmic ratio, and surface area to volume ratio, important for
gas and nutrient exchange. Indeterminate cleavage can develop
into complete organisms and determinate cleavage have
determined cellular fates

i) embryo becomes solid cell mass called morula, then

blastulation makes blastula which has a blastocoel which
trophoblast and inner cell mass, trophoblast cells surround
blastocoel and make placenta and chorion, inner cell mass
give rise to the actual organisms
ii) Then blastula moves to fallopian tube, chorion from
trophoblast provide for gas exchange and the embryo is
connected to placenta by umbilical cord which has arteries
and one vein. Vein carries oxygenated blood to placenta and
umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood away from
embryo to placenta for exchange
iii) Embryo is supported by yolk sac, allantois and amnion, the
allantois is involved with fluid exchange, amnion is like a
shock absorber for embryo
iv) Gastrulation: after implantation 3 germ layers are made by
invagination of the blastula resulting in gastrula, invagination
makes the archenteron which becomes the gut and the
opening of it is the blastopore, in dueterostomes like us the
blastopore is the anus, protostomes its the mouth
4) Germ Layers: ectoderm: outermost layer, epidermis, skin, hair,
nails, nose, mouth, lower anal canal epithelia, lens and nervous
system. Mesoderm: middle layer, muscuolskeletary, circulatory,
excretory, connective tissue, digestive system. Endoderm: epithelial
lining of digestive and resp tracts, line internal organs like pancreas,
thyroid, bladder
5) Differentiation: accomplished by selective transcription of genes
needed for a certain cell type, induction also helps by influencing
fate of nearby ells
6) Neurulation: Mesodermal cells make the notochord which forms a
spine, ectodermal cells slide in to make neural folds which surround
neural groove which fuse to make neural tube which makes CNS.
Neural crest cells migrate to form PNS
7) Teratogens: interfere with development
8) Determination: commitment of a cell to a particular function in the
future
9) Differentiation: cell takes on the function of that cell type. Stem
cells have different potencies. Greatest potency is totipotent which
can differentiate into any cell type in fetal or placental structures,
these germ layers are formed and the cells are pluripotent which
can differentiate into all except placental structures, then they are
multipotent which can be multiple cell types within a specific group
10) Cell-Cell: autocrine signal act on the same cell that secreted the
signal, paracrine act on local cells, juxtacrine stimulate receptors on
adjacent cell, endocrine travel thru blood to target tissue

11) Complete regeneration: stem cells migrate to damaged area for

regrowth. Incomplete regeneration: newly formed tissue is not
identical or same function to the injured tissue
12) Senesce and Aging: shortened telomeres, telomeres reduce loss
of genetic info from chromosome ends, they shorten after each
replication, some have telomerase which is a reverse transcriptase
that can prevent aging
13) Fetal Circulation: Gas exchange done by diffusion, fetal blood
contains HbF (fetal hemoglobin), which has high affinity for oxygen.
Placenta offers immune protection, antibody transfer, Lungs and
Liver not completely functional so mom deals with detox and
metabolism. Foramen ovale: one way valve that sends blood from
right atrium to left atrium, right side has a high pressure that
pushes blood through. Ductus arteriosis: shunts leftover blood from
pulmonary artery to aorta. Ductus Venosus: shunts blood form
placenta via umbilical vein to inferior vena cava
14) First Trimester: major organs develop, skeleton harders from
cartilage to bone, embryo becomes fetus. Second Trimester: fetus
grows a lot, face looks human, starts moving. Third Trimester: rapid
growth, brain development, antibodies are transported, growth rate
slows towards the end fetus less active because not enough room
15) Birth: Vaginal childbirth by rhythmic contractions of uterine
smooth muscle coordinated by prostaglandins, birth starts with
cervix thinning, amniotic sac ruptures called water breaking, strong
uterine contractions, then placenta and umbilical cord are expelled:
called AFTERBIRTH
Chapter 4: The Nervous System
1) Neuron: nerve cell: soma has ER and ribosomes, dendrites receive
messages from other cells sends it to soma, axon hillock integrates
signals making them to be either excitatory or inhibitory by adding
the signals up each time, axon has myelin sheath which makes
conduction faster, nodes of ranvier allow for salutatory conduction,
end of the axon is axon terminal, releases NT
2) CNS axons bundle together to form tracts which carry only one
type of info, neurons bundle together to form nerves in the PNS
(sensory, motor, mixed)
3) Glial Cells:
i) Astrocytes: nourish neurons, form blood brain barrier
ii) Ependymal cells: line brain ventricles and make cerebrospinal
fluid which supports the brain, and does shock absorb
function
iii) Microglia: phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste
products and pathogens in the CNS
iv) Oligodendrites (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS) make myelin
2) Action Potential:
i) All or nothing

ii) Resting potential: electrical potential difference between

inside of neuron and extracellular space, to maintain this
gradient selective permeability, and the Na/K ATPase pump
iii) Inside has high K and Na is low, and Na is high outside and K
is low outside
iv) Na/K ATPase 3 Na is transported out for every 2 K that goes in,
at the expense of one ATP, ATP moves both ions against their
gradients
v) Excitatory leads to depolarization, and action potential,
inhibitory input causes hyperpolarization, summation is the
additive effects of multiple signals to make action potential:
temporal summation: multiple signals integrated over short
period of time. Spatial summation: additive effects are based
on number and location of incoming signals
vi) Sodium channels open and close in response to membrane
potential and get inactivated by them as well. When Vm gets
to +35 it is inactivated, when they get back to resting
potential they are deactivated: closed: before cell reaches
threshold, open: threshold to +35mV, inactive: +35mV to
resting potential
vii) Positive potential inside cell triggers voltage gated sodium
channels to inactivated but also triggers voltage gated
potassium channels to open, K leaves and cell gets negative
again, REPOLARIZATION, overshoot occurs due to K efflux and
HYPERPOLARIZATION occurs, makes neuron refractory:
absolute: no amt of stimulation can cause AP to occur.
Relativee refractory period: requires greater than normal
stimulation to cause AP
viii) AP flow is unidirectional, one depolarizing segment leads to
the next and each one before gets refractory as the AP passes
it.
ix) Speed: increased length has higher resistance and slower
conduction, but greater cross sectional areas has less
resistance, FASTER, myelin insulates and increases SPEED
3) Synapse: NT are stored in vesicles, AP reaches terminal, calcium
channels open, calcium flows into cell, caused vesicles to fuse to
cell membrane causing exocytosis of NT, then the NT molecules
diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptor on postsynaptic
membrane, NT must be removed from cleft by enzymatic reactions,
reupatake carriers,
4) Sensory Neurons: transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal
cord and brain. Motor Neurons: transmit motor info from brain and
spinal cord to muscles and glands. Interneurons: found in brain and
spinal cord, linked to reflexes
5) Reflexes do not require brain, uses supraspinal circuits

6) CNS: has white matter and grey matter, white matter has axons
with myelin sheaths, grey matter has unmylenated cell bodies and
dendrites, white matter is beneath grey matter
7) Spinal cord: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, all protected by
vertebral column, spine has grey and white matter also, white
matter outside and grey matter is within it. Axons of motor and
sensory neurons are inside spinal cord, sensory neurons bring info
from peripherary and enter on the dorsal side of the spine, cell
bodies of these sensory neurons are found in dorsal root ganglia,
motor neurons exit the cord ventrally
8) PNS outside brain and spinal cord: somatic NS which has sensory
and motor neurons throughout the skin, joints and muscles.
Autonomic NS: has preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron
9) Parasympathetic: rest and digest, Ach released by both pre and
postganglionic neurons, and vagus nerve does most of the work.
10) Sympathetic: activated by stress, fight or flight, pregang release
Ach and postgang release norepinephrine
11) Reflexes: something happens, sensory neurons gets pain signal
in spinal cord, sensory neuron connect to interneuron which send
info to muscles
i) Monosynaptic: single synapse between sensory neuron and
motor neuron, KNEE JERK REFLEX
ii) Polysynaptic: at least on interneuron between sensory and
motor neurons
Chapter 5:The Endocrine System
1) Peptide Hormones: made up of Amino Acids, all derived from
polypeptides that are cleaved during posttranslational modification,
they are sent to Golgi Apparatus for further modification. They are
charged and bind to extracellular receptor, peptide is the first
messenger, binds to the receptor and triggers the transmission of a
second messenger. The signaling cascade can be amplified at every
step, cAMP, IP3 and calcium are second messengers. When GPCR is
activated the receptor activates or inhibits adenylate cyclase which
raises or lowers cAMP which can brind intracellularly like Protein
Kinases which phosporlyates transcription factors. Peptide
hormones are rapid but short lived
2) Steroid Hormones: derived from cholesterol produced by gonads
and adrenal cortex, cross cell membrane bc theyre nonpolar, have
intracellular and intranuclear receptors, binding causes a
conformational changes, can bind to DNA to increase or decrease
transcription of certain genes, one change is the dimerization which
is the pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes. Steroid hormones
are slower but long lived bc they cause alternations in mRNA
i) Must attach to protein, then when it detaches it activates
3) Amino-Acid Derivatives: epinephrine, NE, thyroxine,
catecholamines(epi and NE) bind to GPCR

4) Hypothalamus: regulate the pituitary gland by paracrine release,

regulated by negative feedback which prevents wasted energy
5) Interaction with Anterior Pituitary: hypothalamus secretes stuff into
hypophyseal portal system which is a blood vessel system that
connects hypothalamus with anterior pituitary, hormones bind to
anterior pituitary to stimulate release of other hormones
6) Tropic Hormones:
i) GnRH to FSH and LH
ii) GHRH to GH
iii) TRH to TSH
iv) CRF to ACTH
7) Posterior Pit does not get any tropic hormones thru hypophyseal
portal system, neurons send axons down stalk into post pit to
release oxytocin and ADH which increases water reabsorprtion when
solutes are high in blood
8) Anterior Pit:
i) Tropic Hormones: cause release of another hormone at organ
level: GnRH triggers FSH and LH which acts on reproductive
organs, CRF triggers ACTH which acts on adrenal cortex, and
TRH triggers TSH which acts on thyroid.
ii) Direct Hormones: Prolactin stimulates milk production in
mammary glands, secreted by ant. Pit, dopamine release from
hypothalamus decreases prolactin, estrogen, prog and
dopamine must all drop to begin lactation, nipple stimulation
releases oxytocin from post pit, and hypothalamus decrease
dopamine to lactation can be maintained
iii) Endorphins: decrease pain perception
iv) GH: growth hormone prevents glucose reuptake and breaks
down fatty acids, goal is to increase glucose availability so
muscle and bone can use it, stimulated by GHRH
9) Post. Pit: ADH secreted if blood volume or low or blood osmolarity is
high, works at the collecting duct to increase permeability of the
duct to water, increase water reapsortion from filtrate in the
nephron, raises BP. Oxytocin released during childbirth allows for
uterine smooth muscle contraction, and milk ejection from breasts,
works with positive feedback
10) Thyroid: controlled by TSH from ant pit, sets basal metabolic rate
by T3 and T4 and calcium homeostasis by calcitonin
i) T3 and T4 made by idonination of tyrosine in follicular cells of
thyroid, set metabolic rate and alter how we use energy
sources works with negative feedback to decrease TSH and
TRH if T3 and T4 is too much
ii) Hypothyroidism is caused by inflammation or iodine
deficiency: decreased body temp, lethargy, weight gain etc,
deficiency in children causes cretinism
iii) Hyperthyroidism: overstimulation

iv) Calcitonin: C cells from follicular cells make calcitonin,

decreases plasma calcium levels in 3 ways: increase calcium
excretion from kidneys, decreased calcium absorption from
the gut, increase calcium storage in bone
11) Parathyroid Gland: produces PTH, antagonistic hormone to
calcitonin, raises Calcium levels in blood, decreases excretion of
calcium, increases calcium absorption, increase bone reabsorption
to free up calcium, as calcium levels rise, PTH decreases, also
regulated phosphorus homeostasis by resorbing phosphate from
bone and reducing it from kidney, also activated Vitamin D
12) Adrenal Cortex: secretes on corticosterioids,
i) Glucocorticoids: steroid hormones that regulate glucose
levels: cortisol-stress hormone increases blood sugar and
cortisone also increase glucose for body to use as fuel in
stressful situation
ii) Mineralocorticoids: used in salt and water homeostasis,
ALDOSTERONE increases sodium reabsorption in distal
convolute tubules and collecting duct of nephron, water
follows sodium into bloodstream increasing BP, but plasma
osmolarity remains unchanged, potassium, and hydrogen
reabsorption decreases promoting their excretion in the urine
iii) Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system controls aldosterone,
decreased BP causes juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney to
secrete renin which cleaves inactive plasma protein
angiotensinogen to its active form angiotensin I. AngiotensinI
ocnverts to angiotensin II by ACE in the lungs, Angiotensin II
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, negative
feedback
iv) Cortical Sex Hormones: adrenal glands make cortical sex
hormones and estrogens
13) Adrenal Medulla: make epinephrine and norephinephrine and
they get secreted into circulatory system. CATECHOLAMINES. Epi
causes increase the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in liver and
muscle increasing metabolic rate, increase HR, dilate bronchi,
14) Pancreas: both exocrine and endocrine functions, islets of
Langerhans thoughout the pancreas contain 3 types of cells: alpha,
beta, delta. Alpha secretes glucagon, beta secretes insulin, delta
cells secrete somatostatin
i) Glucagon: secreted during times of fasting, when glucose runs
low, secretion of glucagon degrades protein and fat, glycogen
converts to glucose, when glucose is too high glucagon
release is inhibited
ii) Insulin: antagonistic to glucagon and secreted when blood
glucose levels are high, induced muscle and liver cells to take
up glucose and stores it as glycogen. Insulin excess causes
hypoglycemia which is low blood glucose concentration insulin

diffencies cause diabetes mellitus characterized by

hyperglycemia. Diabetes Type I: autoimmune destruction of
beta cells of pancreas, barely or no insulin made, requires
injections of insulin. Diabetes Type II: environmental factors,
OBESITY ETC
iii) Somatostatin: inhibits insulin and glucagon, high blood
glucose and amino acid conc stimulate secretion
15) Pineal Gland: circadian rhythm, melatonin
The Respiratory System: (lungs located in thoracic cavity)
1) Air enters resp. tract through external nares of the nose and then
passes thru nasal cavity to be filtered by mucosal structures called
vibrissae, then air passes into pharynx and larynx, pharynx is air
pathway and sends food to esophagus, the larynx only deals with
air , opening of larynx is the glottis and during swallowing it is
covered by epiglottis to prevent food from resp tract. Larynx has
vocal cords, from larynx air goes to trachea and them into one of
two bronchi they contain ciliated cells to catch material mucosal
membranes missed
2) Bronchi branch into bronchioles and alveoli are at the end, each
alveolus covered with surfactant which lowers surface tension and
prevent alveoli from collapsing, has capillaries for oxygen and CO2
exchange
3) Pleurae surround each, outer part is parietal pleura, and the visceral
pleura is the closest to the lung
4) Skeletal muscle generate negative pressure for expansion:
diaphragm divides thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity,
diaphragm under somatic control
5) Intrapleural space is between pleuras and has lubricating fluid and
creates pressure differentials across the pleura which drive
breathing
6) Inhalation: requires diaphragm and external intercostal muslces to
expand thor.cavity, diaphragm flattens and cavity expands
outwards intrathoracic volume increases, intrapleual space volume
increases first causing decrease in intraplerual pressure. Gas in
lungs at atm pressure which is higher than that in intrapleural space
causing lungs to expand into intrapleural spce and pressure in lungs
to drop, called negative pressure breathing bc the intrapleural space
pressure is lower compared to lungs
7) Exhalation: relaxation of external intercostal muscles, chest cavity
decreases in volume, pressure in intraplerual space is higher than in
the lungs, air will thus be pushed out, during exercise we use
internal intercostal musles and abdominal muscles which pull the rib
cage down to decrease volume of the thoracic cavity
8) TLC: max volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely
9) Residual Volume RV: min volume of air in lungs when one exhales
completely

10) Vital Capacity (VC): TLC-RV

11) Tidal Volume TV: volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal
breath
12) Expiratory Reserve Volume: vol of additional air that can be
forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation
13) Inspiratory Reserve Volume: vol of additional air that can be
forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
14) Regulation of Breathing: thru medulla oblongata , have
chemoreceptors tht are sensitive to CO2, partial pressure of CO2
rises (hypercapnia) the RR inreases so exhalation of CO2 increases
15)
Pulmonary arteries bring deoxygenated blood which come from
right ventricle of the heart, oxygenated blood returns to left atrium
of heart via pulmonary veins, driving force for gas exchange is
pressure difference between gases, when oxygen arrives at alveoli
partial pressure is low and CO2 pp is high allowing for each to flow
down their own concentration gradients
16) Nasal cavity has immune functions to trap pathogens, and also
has lysozyme which attack peptidoglycan walls of gram+ bacteria,
mucus traps invaders, and then propels cilia up the resp tract to oral
cavity to be expelled- called mucocilliary escalator, lungs also have
macrophages and mast cells
17) Control pH uses bicarbonate buffer, academia causes shift left in
H ion conc, leading to more CO2, chemoreceptors detect this and it
leads to increase in RR to blow off CO2, when RR increases a shift to
the left removes CO2, and H conc drops back to normal. Alkalemia
makes the body want to be more acidic bc it is in very basic state so
RR is slowed, CO2 is retained shifting everything to right, producing
more H and bicarb ions, results in lower pH