GEOGRAPHY PEEL

PARAGRAPHS
1.Housing Shortage
Causes
Rapid population growth
Migration
High birth rates
Competing land use
Limited land supply
Impacts
Homelessness
Environmental pollution
Low level of health due to poor living
conditions
Vulnerability
Solutions/Strategies
Slum upgrading
In Singapore
Provision of public housing
Inclusive housing (Affordable housing,
Facilities and amenities for all ages,
Strong sense of place and belonging)

 CAUSES OF HOUSING SHORTAGE

Rapid population growth causes housing shortage. The
rapid population growth will lead to an increase in the
demand for housing. The government/real estate companies
may not be able to build enough houses to meet the demand
and thus, housing shortage occurs. In 1950, one third of the
worlds population lived in urban areas. Then, 2007, there
were more people living in urban areas than rural areas for
the first time. In 2030, there is projected to be 5 billion
people living in urban areas. The largest increase in urban
population is projected to be in Asia and Africa with 14.3%
and 12.4% respectively.
One cause of housing shortage is competing land use.
Land dedicated for one use will not be available for another.
There are many uses for land, such as residential,
commercial, industrial and recreational use. With the many
competing uses for land in cities, there may not be enough
land being set aside for housing. One example is Singapore.
To cater to the growing population, the government has
committed 17% of land supply for housing and some of the
golf courses will be removed. Thus, competing land use can
contribute to housing shortage.
Migration contributes to housing shortage. One of the
reasons why the urban population is increasing so rapidly is
due to rural-urban migration. There are certain undesirable
qualities or push factors, for example lack of job
opportunities, poor educational facilities, famine, war etc,
that makes a person want to leave the rural areas. There are
certain attractive factors, or pull factors, that makes
someone want to come to urban areas, for example promise
of work, better schooling and further education, political

stability etc. The combination of the push and pull factors

influences the decision of a person who wants to migrate
from rural to urban areas. One such example is Brazil. The
people who live in the rural areas of Brazil are attracted by
the promises of work in So Paulo. However, there are
insufficient jobs to cater to the huge number of migrants.
The migrants may also lack the skills required for the jobs
available in the city. Thus, the migrants have difficulty
getting jobs and are not able to afford housing. As a result,
housing shortage occurs.

Housing shortage occurs partly because of high birth rates

and declining death rates. Cities have a large population of
people who are in their 20s to 30s who are likely to start
families. This leads to an above-average fertility rate, which
causes cities to experience a natural increase in population.
One such example is London. Londons population increased
rapidly by 104,000 in 2012-2013 and recorded 86,000 more
births than deaths in this period. To cater to the increase in
population, the city would need to allocate more resources to
housing. The city might not be able to build houses fast
enough to cater to the large increase in population, thus
housing shortage may occur.
One cause of housing shortage is competing land use.
Land dedicated for one use will not be available for another.
There are many uses for land, such as residential,
commercial, industrial and recreational use. With the many
competing uses for land in cities, there may not be enough
land being set aside for housing. One example is Singapore.
To cater to the growing population, the government has
committed 17% of land supply for housing and some of the
golf courses will be removed. Thus, competing land use can
contribute to housing shortage.
One of the reasons of why housing shortage is happening is
because limited land supply. The presence of physical
features like seas, rivers and mountains limit the land

available for housing development. Flat land is also preferred

for development as the cost of construction will be cheaper
and there may also be landslides on slopes. Some cities have
very small land areas. An example is Singapore and Hong
Kong which are 716 square kilometres and 1104 square
kilometres respectively. There is a limit to how much land
can be reclaimed from the seas.

IMPACTS OF HOUSING SHORTAGE

One consequence of housing shortage is homelessness.
Homeless people lack shelter for sleep and are unable to
carry out basic activities such as bathing. The lack of access
to basic necessities and proper shelter can have a negative
impact on an individuals health. Homeless people can suffer
illnesses such as skin infections, respiratory problems and
stress disorders due to exposure to the cold or rain, extreme
hunger or the lack of sleep. For example, the US Department
of Housing and Urban Development estimates that there
were 610,042 homeless people in the United States of
America on a single night in January 2013. Therefore,
housing shortage can cause homelessness.
SLUMS AND SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS

 One consequence of housing shortage is environmental

pollution due to the poor living environment in slums and
squatter settlements. Water pollution is caused by people
using rivers near slum areas for washing, garbage and
sewage disposal all at once; thus badly polluting the river.
Water pollution can lead to contaminants seeping into the
groundwater and polluting nearby water sources. Land
pollution is caused by the lack of a garbage disposal system;
thus resulting in the dumping of garbage into open drains
and areas outside the house. Land pollution sees garbage
heaps generating a foul smell and becoming an eyesore. For
example, Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro experiences water
pollution caused by the disposal of untreated sewage into
the bay from nearby slums and squatter settlements. The
bay is now filled with floating rubbish and polluted waters. in
Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya; open lands and drains in front of
houses are choked with waste, due to the lack of a proper
garbage disposal system in the slum. Therefore, housing
shortage can cause environmental pollution.
One consequence of housing shortage is the low level of
health in slums and squatter settlements due to poor living
conditions. The lack of basic services makes the people
vulnerable to diseases. Due to the lacking access to safe
drinking water in slums and squatter settlements, people
turn to using water from sources such as polluted rivers and
contaminated wells. The water may contain disease-causing
bacteria, such as cholera and dysentery. The lack of waste
management facilities in slums also leads to improper
disposal of rubbish; causing drains and sewers to be blocked.
The stagnant water will provide breeding grounds for
mosquitoes and cause the spread of malaria and dengue
fever. In addition, the close proximity between the people
due to overcrowding facilitates the rapid spread of diseases
within the community. For instance, water next to a slum in
Delhi, India, is filled with garbage while rubbish is
accumulated next to a slum in Mumbai, India. Therefore,
housing shortage can cause people to have a low level of
health due to poor living conditions.

o Vulnerability
One consequence of housing shortage is the risk of fires
and landslides. Slums are closely spaced, thus encouraging
the rapid spread of fire from house to house. Slums built on
steep slopes face the danger of landslides. In a landslide,
earth and rocks will rush downhill, destroy the slum and
injure people. For example, in January 2013, a fire in a slum
in Mumbai destroyed about 150 houses, while 256 people
were killed after a house collapsed down a hill slope in a
favela in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in April 2010.. Therefore,
housing shortage poses the risk of fires and landslides
occurring.

One consequence of housing shortage is the threat of

eviction. Slums and squatter settlements may be built on
land without permission from authorities; thus resulting in
residents facing the threat of eviction. These people lack a
sense of security because they may be forced to leave their
homes anytime. For instance, in 2012, about 40,000 people
who lived in Korail slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh, were evicted
when a court order to clear the land was issued. The incident
resulted in social tension between the authorities and
residents. Therefore, housing shortage results in people
living in slums and squatter settlements facing the threat of
eviction.

 SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE HOUSING SHORTAGE

o Slum upgrading

One solution to housing shortage is slum upgrading. This

means to improve the quality of housing and basic services
such as water, electricity as well as sewerage. One form of
slum upgrading is self-help schemes. This involves the
participation of low-income households to improve the
conditions of their current homes. The government does not
directly provide the housing, but instead provide
construction materials, basic services as well as training to
equip the residents with skills to build their houses. This
reduces construction costs, as the people build the houses
themselves. One example is the Rocinha Project in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. This has improved the quality of housing in
Rocinha as wooden houses are replaced with concrete
houses. Services such as piped water systems, rooftop water
tanks, toilets and sewers were also built. Furthermore, 75%
of homes now have electricity compared to 30% previously.
Therefore, slum upgrading is one solution to housing
shortage.
o Provision of Public Housing
A solution to housing shortage is the provision of public
housing. This refers to provide housing units with basic
services to low income households and other needy people
such as the elderly and disabled. This is quite reasonably
priced compared to private housing and may be subsidised
by the government. Old flats may also be rented at lower
prices, abandoned buildings may be converted into
residential use and new apartments may be built. One
example is Singapore. In the 1960s and 1970s, slums and
squatter settlements had to be cleared to provide higher
quality housing, thus the Housing Development Board (HDB)
was set up in 1960 to provide public housing for Singapores
increasing population. It was quite successful, addresses the
diverse needs of of all residents and more than 80% of
Singapores population live in HDB flats as of 2013.

Therefore, provision of public housing is a solution to housing

shortage.

GEOGRAPHY PEEL
PARAGRAPHS
2.Water Shortage
Causes
Population growth
Affluence
Seasonal rainfall
Water pollution
Impacts
Increased difficulty in collecting water
Water rationing
Reduced agricultural yields
Increased cost of industrial production
Conflict over water supply
Solutions/Strategies
Pricing of water
Public education
Local catchment water
Imported water

 NEWater
Desalinated water
Protection of water resources

CAUSES OF WATER SHORTAGE

DEMAND FACTORS
Water shortage occurs because of population growth. The
worlds population grew from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7 billion in
2011. As the population increases, the need for food
increases, water consumption for agriculture also increases.
The production of animal products such as chicken and beef
are also very water intensive as the animals themselves also
require food. One such example is North Africa, which
population was about 200 million in 2014. As the North Africa
is a group of less developed countries, it cannot afford many
ways to increase the water supply. As such, the supply of
water cannot meet the water demand and many people face
water shortage. Thus, rising populations cause a great strain
on water resources and results in water shortage.
Water shortage occurs because of peoples affluent
lifestyles. People may consume goods that are produced
using more water and live a lifestyle that consumes more
water. Affluent countries are usually developed countries,
such as United States of America, Europe, Japan, Australia
etc. Affluent lifestyles can include more meat consumed,
more water-intensive appliances used, more goods
purchased, piped water and water used for ornamental and
leisure purposes. Between 2007 and 2015, water

consumption is expected to increase by 50% in the less

developed countries and 18% in developed countries. The
people thus leave behind a greater water footprint and
causes water shortage.

SUPPLY FACTORS
Water shortage may happen due to seasonal rainfall.
Rainfall for some countries may vary greatly from month to
month, which affects the supply of fresh water available for
use. One such example is India. It has over 1200mm of
rainfall annually, but it is unevenly distributed throughout
the year. The rainy season is from June to September, while
the rest of the year is quite dry. Half of India are engaged in
farming, thus the timing of the rainfall is crucial for the
harvesting of crops. In 2009, the monsoon rains did not
come on time, which lead to a widespread drought. The
drought caused the sugar production to be very low. In 2012,
monsoon rains were below average at first, which caused
large parts of the country to experience drought and face
water shortage as well as heavily impact rain-dependent
farms. Thus, seasonal rainfall may lead to droughts during
the dry seasons and cause countries to face water shortage.
Water shortage may happen due to water pollution. Water
pollution is introducing new substances to water that has
harmful effects to the environment and human health. These
may include garbage, chemicals and sewage. These can

come from agricultural, industrial and other human

activities. Because of these pollutants, the water quality will
drop and be unsuitable for people to drink or use. One such
example is the Ganges River. More than 400 million people
live by the river and use the water to drink, bathe, for
irrigation plus it also holds spiritual significance as it is seen
as a sacred river. Nearby industries and factories near the
river have inadequate waste treatment/management
facilities and dump their waste directly into the river. People
living nearby also discharge waste into the river. As a result,
the water has turned brown and many people cannot use the
water due to its uncleanliness. Therefore, water pollution
makes water unsuitable to use which causes countries to
face water shortage.

IMPACTS OF WATER SHORTAGE

DOMESTIC IMPACTS
One domestic impact is increased difficulty in collecting
water. 1.1 billion people globally do have access to safe
drinking water. This usually occurs in less developed
countries. This is because 90% of water in less developed
countries are used for agriculture, leaving very little water
left for domestic use. On average, some women in Asia and
Africa have to walk about 6 km to collect water, and they can
only bring back as much water as they can carry. Moreover,
the water they carry back may be dirty and can cause waterborne diseases such as cholera. In Gujarat, India, where a

drought caused wells and ponds to dry up. Water was scarce
and people had to travel long distances to obtain water.
A domestic impact of water shortage is water rationing.
This means making water available at certain times of the
day. People would have to wake up very early or stay up very
late to avoid water rationing hours. This would badly affect
the livelihood of farmers and people would have to pay more
for the goods that they buy. During the 1960s, Singapore
faced a severe drought, causing the water levels in
reservoirs to reach a dangerously low level and placing
Singapores water supply under a lot of stress. To save water,
the government imposed water rationing, making people
queue up for their daily usage of water, which
inconvenienced many people.
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
An economic impact of water shortage is agriculture yields.
Agriculture yields will be reduced as water is essential in
the growing of crops. If the water supply decreases, crop
yield will decrease and some people may die cause
starvation. For example, in Punjab, India, the rice yields have
decreased as the groundwater stocks are becoming depleted
at a faster rate than they can be replenished. Drilling deeper
wells will only yield salty underground water which poisons
the crops. Hence, one impact of water shortage is reduced
agricultural yields.

Another economic impact of water shortage is that the cost

of industrial production will increase. The cost of
production will increase as water is used in many industrial
process. For example, in the beverage industry, water is
used as the main ingredient as well as other process like
washing, rinsing and cleaning. One litre of soft drink require

at least 2.43 litres of water to produce. Hence, an increase in

water prices will lead to a higher production cost
POLITICAL IMPACTS
One political impact is conflicts between countries. Conflicts
may arise between countries over water especially where
there is not enough water to meet the countrys water
demand. For example, with increasing demand for water,
conflicts arise among some of the countries that share the
Mekong River. Lao PDR's proposal to build the Xayaburi dam
met with many objections from the neighbouring countries
as this will affect the livelihoods of many living downstream
and rely on the river to maintain their fisheries and farmland.
Hence, water shortage may cause conflicts between
countries.

SOLUTIONS TO MANAGE WATER SHORTAGE

REDUCING DEMAND

 One solution for water shortage is to reduce water

consumption by increasing the price of water. Increasing
the price of water encourages people to reduce their water
consumption as the more water you use, the higher the tax
rate. This results in the water being priced higher when more
water is consumed. This also helps in allowing people to be
more mindful about their water consumption. One such
example is the Water Conservation Tax imposed by the
Public Utilities Board (PUB). This is a pricing system where an
additional amount of water is charged based on total water
consumption. This reflects the cost of producing clean water,
thus people can appreciate the value of clean water and
reduce their water consumption.
Another solution for water shortage is to reduce water
consumption through public education. An example is the
Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme (WELS). The PUB initiated
this in 2009 to educate the public on water conservation
through using water efficient products. WELS is a grading
system that labels the appliances by its water efficiency
level. This allows households to make informed decisions by
purchasing water efficient products such as washing
machines, dishwashers etc. This also helps the public to be
more aware about their water consumption. Thus, public
education is a solution to water shortage as it can teach
many people about the importance of clean water in their
lives.

INCREASING WATER SUPPLY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

name of strategy
how it is processed
example
advantage
percentage it provides for Singaporeans

One solution to water shortage is to increase water supply by

local catchment water. Rainwater is collected in rivers,
streams, drains, canals and stormwater collection ponds.
This water is then channelled to reservoirs where they are
stored. Local catchment level contributes to almost half of
our countrys water demand. The surface catchment area
now takes up about two-thirds of the countrys land area of
Singapore. By 2060, PUB plans to harness water from the
remaining streams near the coastline which will boost
Singapores surface catchment area to 90%. Thus, local
catchment water is one solution to water supply where we
can increase our water supply.
One solution to increase water supply is by NEWater. Used
water is treated to become drinking water through a water
treatment process which involves conventional water
treatment, microfiltration, reverse osmosis and UV
disinfection. NEWater enables fresh water to be used more
than once and allows used water to become a new source of
water. a NEWater plant can be found at the NEWater Visitor
Centre. Advantages of NEWater are that NEWater is that it is
ultra-pure and independent on rainfall as it is produced from
used water. NEWater meets 30% of Singapores water
demand and with plans of expanding the existing plants,
NEWater is expected to meet 40% of the demand by 2020
and 50% of the demand by 2060.

 Another solution to increase water supply is by desalinated

water. Desalination is the process of removing dissolved
salts and other minerals from the water. At the plant,
suspended particles are removed and reverse osmosis would
be employed to produce high-quality water for consumption.
One plant can be found in Tuas. Advantages of desalination
are that it is independent of rainfall and can be used to
supply water during dry spells and desalination is useful,
especially when Singapore is surrounded by limitless supply
of seawater. Singapore aims to use desalinated water to
meet 30% of the demand by 2060.

GEOGRAPHY PEEL
PARAGRAPHS
3.Floods
Causes
Rainfall
Snowmelt
Storm Surge
Failure of man-made structures

Impacts
Injuries, spread of diseases and loss of
lives
Homelessness
Disruption to clean water supply
Damage to machinery and equipment
Damage to transport infrastructure
Disruption to energy supply

 Mitigation measures
Zoning
Elevated properties
Levees and floodwalls
Channel improvement
Forecasting and warning system
Evacuation drills

CAUSES OF FLOODS
Rainfall is one of the causes of floods. Rainfall refers to the
droplets of water that fall on the ground condensation of
atmosphere. Water vapour leads to the formation of water
droplets which form clouds. if the water droplets become too
heavy, they fall as rain. Rainfall intensity, duration and
frequency are the characteristics of Rainfall. Rainfall
intensity refers to the rate at which the rain falls. Rainfall
duration refers to the duration of which the rain falls. Rainfall
frequency refers to the probability of occurrence of a certain
amount of rain falling within a certain period of time. An
example of a storm with high intensity and prolonged rainfall
is a tropical storm. Such storms bring heavy rain and strong
winds. Tropical storms may develop into tropical cyclones
also known as hurricane and typhoons. A roller coaster on a
pier in New Jersey, United States of America, was destroyed
by hurricane Sandy. Thus, this shows that Rainfall causes
floods.

 Another factor that causes flood is snowmelt. Snowmelt

refers to the surface runoff than results from melting snow.
Snowmelt is common in temperate countries during the
spring season when temperatures increase. Volcanic
eruptions can also cause snowmelt. During winter, ice and
snow form on the ground and on the mountains. When
spring arrives and the temperature rises, the ice and snow
will melt. The snowmelt flows over the land into rivers. The
snowmelt increases the amount of water in the river, causing
river flood. For example, rapid snowmelt and continuous rain
results in high water in the cities of Hagen and Schwerte,
Germany in 2011. Hence snowmelt can cause flash flood and
river floods, leading to flooding.

Storm surge can cause flooding to occur. Storm surge is the

sudden rise of the sea level in which water is piled up
against a coastline beyond normal high- tide conditions.
During a storm, strong winds push water towards the coast
and create huge waves, giving rise to storm surge. For
example, there is a storm surge during the 2013 Typhoon
Usagi. Hence, the storm surge leads to coastal flooding.
Failure of man-made structure can cause flooding.
Failure of man-made structure refers to dams and levees. A
dam is a barrier built across a river to retain and store water.
BEsides generating hydropower, a dam also helps to
regulate the amount of water plowing in a river. For example,

the Banqiao dam failure in august 1975 in China was one of

the biggest catastrophes because of the high death toll.
Almost 26,000 people died when villages downstream were
flooded. Another 204,000 people died from the disease and
famine caused by the flood. Hence, the failure of man-made
structure causes flooding to occur.

IMPACTS OF FLOODS
SOCIAL IMPACTS
Floods can cause homelessness. Fast-moving floodwaters
cause damage to property leading to loss of homes, houses
to be swept away causing people having to stay in
emergency shelters for long periods of time after the flood
while trying to rebuild their houses. for example, nearly 1.5
million people in new orleans were displaced or left homeless

by Hurricane Katrina. Emergency shelters and trailer parks

had to be set up for flood victims. Thus, this shows that flood
can cause homelessness.
Floods can result in the spreading of diseases. Chemical
spills from factories and sewage cause water to be
contaminated, people are exposed to contaminated drinking
water leading to the spread of diseases such as cholera and
dysentery. Stagnant pools of flood water cause mosquitoes
that thrived on the swollen river banks. Thus, this shows that
floods can result in the spreading of diseases.
Floods can cause injuries and the loss of lives. Fast
moving flood waters cause people to be injured by objects
and debris and buildings to collapse and injure or kill people.
The 1931 Yellow river flood is one of the most devastating
natural disasters ever recorded- almost a million people
drowned, and even more were left homeless. This shows that
floods can cause injuries and loss of lives.

ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Floods can cause damage to machinery and equipment.
Floodwaters can cause machinery and equipment such as
drilling machines, cranes and computers to be submerged in

water resulting in the inability for factories to operate at full

capacity. This will lead to economic losses and loss of jobs for
the people. for instance, the 2011 thailand floods caused
extensive damage to the manufacturing industry. This shows
that floods can cause damage to machinery and equipment.
Floods can cause damage to transport infrastructure.
Fast-moving floodwaters cause roads to be blocked. This can
also impede rescue and relief work as rescue personnel
cannot reach affected areas. The government has to spend a
lot of time and money to repair damaged infrastructure.
Business/Industry may not be able to resume operation and
leading to a loss of profit and a reduction in employment
rate. In August 2014, heavy rainfall in parts of Serbia and
Bosnia resulted massive floods that damage infrastructureroads and bridges were destroyed, slowing down rescue
work and relief work. 1.6 million people were affected and
billions of euros were loss in damages, Thus, this shows that
floods can cause damage to transport infrastructure

MITIGATION MEASURES TO PREVENT FLOODS

REGULATION

One solution for floods is zoning. Zoning is a way in which

the government plans the physical development and its
uses. Flood-prone areas are often zoned as low value
developments for recreational activities. A low-value
development, does not cause much to develop and thus
cities are suffer fewer economic losses.
For example, in the flood zones of Eagon City in Minnesota,
United States of America. Areas near the Minnesota River
which are prone to floods are used for low-value
development such as the Minnesota Valley National Valley
Reserve. Residential areas are located furthest away from
the river so that houses may be safe from floods.

One solution for flood can be to elevate properties to a

certain height. In Singapore, there is a minimum ground
level for development ___ known as the minimum platform
level (HDL). For
areas that do not have flood history, the MPL is 300mm
above the ground level. For areas that have flood history, the
MPL is 600mm above the ground level. MPL is revised when
there are changes to the highest recorded flood level. For
example, the steps leading up to a shopping mall in
Singapore shows that the development is above MPL.

INVESTMENT IN INFRASTRUCTURE

One solution to reduce the impact of flood is by building

levees and floodwalls. Levees are raised river banks
and floodwalls are made of concrete. Both levees and
floodwalls are built higher than the floodplains and rivers
so that they can keep out floodwater. For example, several
metres of levees have been built along the Sacramento
River to prevent surrounding land from flood.

A solution to reduce the flood impact is channel

improvement. Channel improvement refers to changes
made to the river channels or canal to increase its

capacity to enable the water to flow quickly. RIver

channels can be widened and deepened to carry more
storm water away. They can also be straightened so that
channels or canals can carry the water away quickly. This
will help to prevent water in the river channels and canals
from overflowing. For example, a flood mitigation project
in Shanghai, China, in November 2011 deepened the river
bed. Hence by improving the channel, it will allow the
water to be brought away faster.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

For forecasting to be accurate, there needs to be

monitoring. Monitoring is the systematic process of
collecting information. Based on the information collected,
a forecast is made. If the situation is serious, a warning
has to be given. For example, in Singapore, water level
sensors are placed in canal to gather data about the
changing water levels. Monitoring of the tides and
weather conditions is also carried out daily with the aid of
equipment. Hence by forecasting and warning system, it
will reduce the flood risks.

Evacuation drills allows the people to be prepared for

the flood. Cities have large populations. During
emergencies, cities need to have a plan to evacuate a
large number of people in the shortest period of time.
Evacuation drills are a form of preparedness measure
where people practise the steps to leave a place in a safe
and orderly way during an emergency. Such evacuation
drills helps to create awareness among the people moving
to safer locations, following instructions given by a trained
personnel and practising first aid. For example, PUB,
Singapores national agency, has provided public advisory
on what pedestrians, motorists, residents and business
owners can do in the event of a flash flood. Hence by
implementing evacuation drills, it can save lives and
reduce damages to property during a flood