General

Human development

Endocrine system

Personal idea
General psychology is very important in our life. General psychology studies our mind and soul.
Psychology studies people who and what they are. It looks into why we act and think like this.
Therefore, everything a person does is connected to psychology. Our brain perform so many
functions that make a person sometimes become confused. There are times that we think about
our personal thoughts, feelings, ideas, solutions, and memories.
In psychology our emotions are crucial in our abiliyyto adapt the challenges of our daily life.
When we feel good, we are very happy even a burden problem you can solve it. But if, you are
sad even a very simple problem you can't do it your own. Why? That's why psychology plays a
big role in our life because, how can we understand our feelings or emotions without the help of
psychology. According to the psychologist we six basic emotions like happiness, sadness,
surprise, anger, fear and disgust. Those are the basic emotions that we feel. We call it basic
because,it is our common feeling that we expose.
Moreover, the study of psychology help to treat person's who have mental problems.
Psychology study the abnormal behavior like depression and obsession. General psychology is
an important discipline because, it focuses on understanding, explaining and predicting, human
behavior, emotions and mental processes. The principles of general psychology can help solve
issues such as bullying, recovering from emotional, mental and physical trauma or stress. As a
student we need to understand the role of general psychology in our life because, it is the
foundation of discipline. General psychology helps us to describe other persons behavior. It also
help us to understand the causes of all behaviors. For example: when you ask someone but his
answer is not in a proper way you will become angry. Furthermore, without psychology other
people wouldn't know how to deal their behavior. Psychology is also use in developing
knowledge to enhance the human welfare. Psychology explain human have creative minds
because, human explore many things and we cannot live in a modern world like today. For
example, we use different gadgets today because, of new technology. Psychology also study
our faith and beliefs that's why religions makes large importance in our society.
As a person we cannot identify our feelings and behavior if we don't understand what is
psychology. How can we identify pride, shame, and discomfort if we don't know the study of
psychology. Emotions plays large impact in our behavior. According to psychologist, culture
highly affects human behavior. For example, the beliefs that has been taught to children from
such at young age that they are greatly affected as they grow up. These beliefs are taken into
consederation throughout daily life, wich leads to people from different cultures acting differently.
Psychology explains about different attitudes of a person. Attitudes have a lot to do with the
mind which highly relates to human behavior. Positive attitudes are better than negative ones.
As negativity can bring on negative emotions that most of the time can be avoided. It's up to
humans to make sure their attitudes positively reflects the behavior they want to show. Even if
we don't study psychology we know what a better attitudes to show, because for me
psychology is only a guide on how things made better.

What happen?

What did I feel?

While watching t.v I'm

searching in enternet the wide
definition of general
psychology, human
development, and endocrine
system.

I feel nervous I don't know if I

can finish this project. I feel
cramming.
What did I learn?
I learn my greatest mistake,
because, my instructor give us
enough time to do this project
but I never do it earlier.

What did I learn

Reflection

Psychoanalytic

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound,
and smell.
7

Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything
around us.

Sight or vision is the capability of the eye (s) to focus and

detec t images of vis ible light on photore ce ptors in the retina of
ea ch e ye that ge ne rates electrica l nerve impuls es for varying
c olors, hues, a nd brightness.

Hearing or audition is the se nse of sound perce ption.

Hearing is a ll about vibration. Me cha noreceptors turn motion into
e le ctric al nerve puls es, which a re loca te d in the inner ea r.

Taste ( or, the more formal te rm, gusta tion ; a djectiva l form:
"gusta tory") is one of the traditiona l fi ve se nses. It re fers to the
ca pability to de tect the tas te of substa nces such as food, certa in
m inerals, a nd pois ons, etc.

Smell or olfaction is the othe r "chemical" se nse . Unlike

tas te , the re are hundre ds of olfactory receptors, each binding to
a pa rtic ula r molecula r feature .

Touch or somatosensory , also ca lled tactition or

m ec hanore ce ptor, is a pe rception re sulting from activation of
neura l receptors, ge ne ra lly in the skin including hair follicle s,
but als o in the tongue , throa t, and mucosa .

Nervous system
The nervous system helps all the parts of the body to communicate with
each other. It also reacts to changes both outside and inside the body. The
nervous system uses both electrical and chemical means to send and receive
messages.
Neurons are shaped differently depending on where they are in the body
and what role they play. All neurons have finger-like projections called
dendrites and a long fiber called an axon.

Central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system. They are
wrapped in a thin lining called meninges and bathed with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).

The brain

The brain is the powerhouse of the body, even though it only makes up
two per cent of the bodys weight.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is connected to the brain and runs the length of the body.

The peripheral nervous system

Nerves connect the brain and spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system, which is
what nerve tissue outside of the central nervous system, is called. It is made up of
two main parts: the autonomic and the somatic nervous systems.

Personal Idea

10

Reflection
What happen?
While cleaning our house I am
holding my tablet because, I'm
reading the topic about the
psychoanalytic theory of
Sigmund Freud, sensation
and perception.

What did I learn?

What did I feel?
I feel nervous again, still I
don't know if I can finish this
on time.

I learn that making a project

within a short period of time is
not good. Don't be more
comfortable even in your mind
it is easy because; sometimes
comfortable makes your life
miserable.

11

Learning & memory

Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the
acquisition of skill or knowledge, while memory is the expression of what
youve acquired. Another difference is the speed with which the two things
happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge slowly and laboriously,
thats learning. If acquisition occurs instantly, thats making a memory.

Short term memory has three key aspects:

1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time
2. Limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with
distraction or passage of time)
3. Encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).
Long Term Memory- the capacity of long term memory could be unlimited, the main
constraint on recall being accessibility rather than availability.
Procedural memory- is a part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing
how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills
Semantic memory- is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing
information about the world.
Episodic memory- is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing
information about events that we have experienced in our lives.
Stages of memory
1. Memory Encoding-when information comes into our memory system (from
sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so
that it can be stored.
2. Memory Storage-this concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e. where the
information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be
stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.
3. Memory Retrieval-this refers to getting information out storage.

12

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation is a force that energizes, activates and directs behavior.
A.)Motivation-

is the result of biological, genetic programming.

B) Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) - the study of genetic and evolutionary
bases of behavior in all organisms, including human.
C) Drive Theories - an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to
engage in activities that should (hopefully) reduce this tension.
D) Incentive Theory- defined as an external goal that has the capacity to motivate
behavior.
E) Maslows Need Hierarchy- a systematic arrangement of needs according to
priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are
aroused.
Level of needs:
1) Physiological - these include the need for food, water, and other vital components
of life.
2) Safety and security - these needs refer more to the long term survival than day to
day needs.
3) Belongingness and love - after obtaining a safe environment to live and
establishing some long term plans, people seek out love and affection from family
members, friends, and lovers.
4) Esteem - at this level, people become concerned with self-esteem which may be
based on achievements that they earn, recognition from others for jobs they do, etc.
5) Cognitive - needs at this level are based on acquiring knowledge and
understanding of the world, people, behavior, etc.
6) Aesthetic - aesthetic needs include beauty and order in life.
7) Self-actualization - this is the highest and most difficult level to reach.
Emotion refers to the conscious and subjective experience that is characterized by mental states,
biological reactions and psychological or physiologic expressions.

A. Cognitive Level (this is the label or name associated with the emotion.)

B. Physiological Level
C. Behavioral Level: Nonverbal Expression

13

Personal Idea

14

What happen?

What did I feel?

What did I learn?

While waiting my instructor in

NSTP, I slowly make my
personal idea about
psychosocial development of
erik erikson, human relations,
and cognitive development of
jean piaget.

I feel tired and sleepy but I

need to do my project. I need
to work triple time

I learn that when the teacher

told you to make a project
earlier do it now. Don't wait for
the deadline of passing your
project.

15

Erikson's Stages of Human Development

(Approx. ages) Stage

Significant Psychosoci Psychosoci Maladaptation

& Psychosocial crisis

relations

al

al virtues

& malignancies

hope,
faith

sensory
distortion
withdrawal

modalities
(0-1)
Infant
Trust vs mistrust

Mother

(2-3)
Parents
Toddler
Autonomy vs shame and
doubt

to get,
to give in
return
to hold on,
to let go

will,
impulsivity
determinati compulsion
on

(3-6)
Preschooler
Initiative vs guilt

Family

to go after,
to play

purpose,
courage

ruthlessness
inhibition

(7-12)
School-age child
Industry vs inferiority

Neighborh
ood and
school

to
complete,
to make
things
together

competenc
e

narrow virtuosity
inertia

(12-18)
Adolescent
Ego-identity vs roleconfusion

Peer
groups,
role
models

to be
oneself,
to share
oneself

fidelity,
loyalty

fanaticism
repudiation

(20-45)
Young adult
Intimacy vs isolation

Partners,
friends

to lose and love

find oneself
in a
another

(30-65)
Middle aged adult

Household, to make be, care

co-workers to take care

promiscuity
exclusivity

overextension
rejectivity
16

Generativity vs selfabsorption
(50+)
Old adult
Integrity vs. despair

of
Mankind or to be,
"my kind"
through
having
been, to
face not
being

wisdom

presumption
despair

Piaget's Theory: The Four

Stages of Cognitive
Development

The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but
still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people.
The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to
think more logically,
but their thinking can also be very rigid.
The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an
increase in logic,
17

ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of

abstract ideas.

Human Relation

18

Personal Idea

19

Reflection

20

Ancient Philosopher

Aristotle famous for the classification of living things

384322 BC
Ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, is often not considered when it comes to great
biological discoveries but his work on the classification of living things was revolutionary
at the time. Referred to as the 'Ladder of Life', Aristotle's classification system was still
in use up until the 19th century that's a long time. Aristotle was the first to person to
recognize the relationships between species and organize accordingly.
Aristotle Biography

Childhood & Early Life

Aristotle was born in Stagira, Chalcidice, which is approximately 55km east of
Thessaloniki, in 384 B.C. His father Nicomachus named him Aristotle, which means the
best purpose. His father served as a personal physician to King Amentias of Macedon.
21

Though not much information is available about his childhood, sources throw
light on the fact that he spent time in the Macedonian palace and from here he
connected with the Macedonian monarchy.
Being a physicians son, he was inspired to his fathers scientific work but didnt
show much interest in medicine.
When he turned 18, he shifted to Athens to pursue his education at Platos
Academy. He left Athens somewhere in 348-347 B.C, spending almost 20 years in the
city.
The traditional stories say that he left Athens as he was displeased with the
Academys direction when Plato's nephew Speusippus took over the control of the academy
after Platos death but it is also said that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and
must have left before the death of Plato.
Thereafter, he moved to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor
along with his friend Xenocrates. He then travelled to the island of Lesbos accompanied
by Theophrastus where they did in-depth analysis of zoology and botany of the island.
In 343 B.C after the death of Hermias, Philip II of Macedon invited him to become
tutor of his son, Alexander.

Ancient

Hippocrates
He was born on the island of Kos in 460 BC.
His father was the physician Heraclites and his mother's name was Praxiteles.
As a child Hippocrates began learning medicine from his father and grandfather who
were also physicians.
He went on to study medicine at the Asklepieion of Kos a healing temple of the gods.
He also is thought to have taken lessons with Herodicus of Selymbria, a physician from
Thrace.
After finishing his studies at an unknown age, Hippocrates began to practice medicine.
He gained great renown and practiced medicine all throughout Greece traveling at the
very least to Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. Some accounts say he traveled much
further but these are probably legends.
Sometime after he had gained renown he founded the Hippocratic School of Medicine
on Kos. He taught at this school when he was not traveling to cure patients or give lectures.
22

Accounts of his death vary. It is mostly agreed upon that he died in Larissa at an age of
somewhere between 83 and 90, but some accounts have him living to well over a hundred.
Biography
Hippocrates was a physician that lived during the classical Greek period. That much is certain of
his past, the rest is subject to scrutiny because of conflicting accounts. Most of the information
about him was written long after his death. The accounts that are taken to be the most valid are
those of Aristotle who wrote in the 4th century BC around the time Hippocrates would have been
alive. Most of Aristotle's writings of Hippocrates were brief. The first real biography of his life did
not come out until the 2nd century AD when Soranus of Ephesus wrote about him. This
biography has provided the most information on Hippocrates and to this day is seen as that
leading source despite its late writing. Other biographies were also written later and sometimes
provide valid information but tend to err on the side of legend. He is known to have actually
existed because of brief mentions from his contemporaries like Plato who called him
'Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiads" in his dialogue Protagoras. These are accounts of
Hippocrates that may or may not be true, but there is reason to believe that they are either false
or embellished.

He was the direct decedent of the healing god Asclepius on his father's side
Helped heal Athenians during the Plague of Athens by lighting huge fires filled with
purifying material
He rejected a formal request to help heal the king of Persia.
Is said to have set fire to a healing temple that belonged to the Knidians.
When a statue of him was raised in Rome Augustus's nephew was resurrected

Plato
Plato Biography
Born: c. 427 B.C.E.
Athens, Greece
Died: c. 347 B.C.E.
Athens, Greece
Plato was born in Athens, Greece, the son of Ariston and Perictione, both of Athenian
noble backgrounds. He lived his whole life in Athens, although he traveled to Sicily and
southern Italy on several occasions. One story says he traveled to Egypt. Little is known
of his early years, but he was given the finest education Athens had to offer noble
23

families, and he devoted his considerable talents to politics and the writing of tragedy
(works that end with death and sadness) and other forms of poetry. His acquaintance
with Socrates (c. 469c. 399 B.C.E.) altered the course of his life. The power that
Socrates's methods and arguments had over the minds of the youth of Athens gripped
Plato as firmly as it did many others, and he became a close associate of Socrates.
The end of the Peloponnesian War (43104 B.C.E. ), which caused the destruction of
Athens by the Spartans, left Plato in a terrible position. His uncle, Critias (c. 480
403 B.C.E.), was the leader of the Thirty Tyrants (a group of ruthless Athenian rulers)
who were installed in power by the victorious Spartans. One means of holding onto
power was to connect as many Athenians as possible with terrible acts committed
during the war. Thus Socrates, as we learn in Plato's Apology, was ordered to arrest a
man and bring him to Athens from Salamis for execution (to be put to death). When the
great teacher refused, his life was threatened, and he was probably saved only by the
overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants and the reestablishment of the democracy (a system of
government in which government officials are elected by the people).

Pythagoras
Born
Approximately 569 BC, Samos Greece
Died
Approximately 500 - 475 BC, Metapontum Italy
Pythagoras is often referred to as the first pure mathematician. He was born on the
island of Samos, Greece in 569 BC. Various writings place his death between 500 BC
and 475 BC in Metapontum, Luciana, Italy. His father, Mnesarchus, was a gem
merchant. His mother's name was Pythais. Pythagoras had two or three brothers.
Some historians say that Pythagoras was married to a woman named Theano and had
a daughter Damo, and a son named Telauges, who succeeded Pythagoras as a teacher
and possibly taught Empedocles. Others say that Theano was one of his students, not
his wife, and say that Pythagoras never married and had no children.

24

Pythagoras was well educated, and he played the lyre throughout his lifetime, knew
poetry and recited Homer. He was interested in mathematics, philosophy, astronomy
and music, and was greatly influenced by Pherekydes
(philosophy), Thales (mathematics and astronomy) and Anaximander (philosophy,
geometry).
Pythagoras left Samos for Egypt in about 535 B.C. to study with the priests in the
temples. Many of the practices of the society he created later in Italy can be traced to
the beliefs of Egyptian priests, such as the codes of secrecy, striving for purity, and
refusal to eat beans or to wear animal skins as clothing.
Ten years later, when Persia invaded Egypt, Pythagoras was taken prisoner and sent to
Babylon (in what is now Iraq), where he met the Magoi, priests who taught him sacred
rites. Iamblichus (250-330 AD), a Syrian philosopher, wrote about Pythagoras, "He also
reached the acme of perfection in arithmetic and music and the other mathematical
sciences taught by the Babylonians..."
In 520 BC, Pythagoras, now a free man, left Babylon and returned to Samos, and
sometime later began a school called The Semicircle. His methods of teaching were not
popular with the leaders of Samos, and their desire for him to become involved in
politics did not appeal to him, so he left.
Ancient

Socrates Biography
Philosopher (c. 470 BCEc. 399 BCE)
Socrates was born circa 470 BC, in Athens, Greece. We know of his life through the
writings of his students, including Plato and Xenophon. His "Socratic method," laid the
groundwork for Western systems of logic and philosophy. When the political climate
of Greece turned, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 BC.
He accepted this judgment rather than fleeing into exile. Socrates was the son of
Sophroniscus, an Athenian stone mason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife.
Because he wasn't from a noble family, he probably received a basic Greek education
25

and learned his father's craft at a young age. It is believed Socrates worked as mason
for many years before he devoted his life to philosophy. Contemporaries differ in their
account of how Socrates supported himself as a philosopher. Both Xenophon and
Aristophanes state Socrates received payment for teaching, while Plato writes Socrates
explicitly denied accepting payment, citing his poverty as proof.
Socrates married Xantippe, a younger woman, who bore him three sonsLamprocles,
Sophroniscus and Menexenus. There is little known about her except for Xenophon's
characterization of Xantippe as "undesirable." He writes she was not happy with
Socrates's second profession and complained that he wasnt supporting family as a
philosopher. By his own words, Socrates had little to do with his sons' upbringing and
expressed far more interest in the intellectual development of Athens' young boys.
Execution
The jury was not swayed by Socrates's defense and convicted him by a vote of 280 to
221. Possibly the defiant tone of his defense contributed to the verdict and he made
things worse during the deliberation over his punishment. Athenian law allowed a
convicted citizen to propose an alternative punishment to the one called for by the
prosecution and the jury would decide.

Medieval Philosopher
Saint Albertus Magnus, English Saint Albert The Great, German Sankt
Albert Der Grosse, byname Albert Of Cologne, or Of Lauingen,
or Doctor Universals (Latin: Universal
Doctor) (born. 1200, Lauingen van der Don au,
Swabia [Germany]died November 15, 1280,
Cologne; canonized Dec. 16, 1931; feast day
November 15) Dominican bishop and philosopher
best known as a teacher of St. Thomas Aquinas
and as a proponent ofAristotelianism at the
University of Paris. He established the study of
nature as a legitimate science within the Christian tradition. By papal decree
in 1941, he was declared the patron saint of all who cultivate the natural
sciences. He was the most prolific writer of his century and was the only
,

26

scholar of his age to be called the Great; this title was used even before his
death.

Albertus was the eldest son of a wealthy German lord. After his early
schooling, he went to theUniversity of Padua, where he studied the liberal arts. He
joined theDominican order at Padua in 1223. He continued his studies at Padua
and Bolognaand in Germany and then taught theology at several convents
throughout Germany, lastly atCologne.
Sometime before 1245 he was sent to the Dominican convent of Saint-Jacques at
the University of Paris, where he came into contact with the works of Aristotle,
newly translated from Greek and Arabic, and with the commentaries on Aristotles
works by Averroes, a 12th-century Spanish-Arabian philosopher. At Saint-Jacques he
lectured on the Bible for two years and then for another two years on Peter
LombardsSentences, the theological textbook of the medieval universities. In 1245
he was graduated master in the theological faculty and obtained the Dominican
chair for foreigners.
It was probably at Paris that Albertus began working on a monumental presentation
of the entire body of knowledge of his time. He wrote commentaries on the Bible
and on the Sentences; he alone among medieval scholars made commentaries on
all the known works of Aristotle, both genuine and spurious, paraphrasing the
originals but frequently adding digressions in which he expressed his own
observations, experiments, and speculations. The term experiment for Albertus
indicates a careful process of observing, describing, and classifying. His
speculations were open to Neoplatonic thought. Apparently in response to a request
that he explain Aristotles Physics, Albertus undertookas he states at the
beginning of his Physicalto make . . . intelligible to the Latins all the branches of
natural science, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, ethics, economics, politics,
and metaphysics.

St. Thomas Aquinas Biography

Theologian, Philosopher, Priest, Saint (c. 12251274)

27

Synopsis
Philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas was born circa 1225 in Roccasecca, Italy.
Combining the theological principles of faith with the philosophical principles of reason, he
ranked among the most influential thinkers of medieval Scholasticism. An authority of the
Roman Catholic Church and a prolific writer, Aquinas died on March 7, 1274, at the
Cistercian monastery of Fossa nova, near Terracing, Latium, Papal States, and Italy.
Early Life
The son of Landulph, count of Aquino, St. Thomas Aquinas was born circa 1225 in
Roccasecca, Italy, near Aquino, Terra di Lavoro, in the Kingdom of Sicily. Thomas had eight
siblings, and was the youngest child. His mother, Theodora, was countess of Teano. Though
Thomas's family members were descendants of Emperors Frederick I and Henry VI, they
were considered to be of lower nobility.
Later Life and Death
During the Feast of St. Nicolas in 1273, St. Thomas Aquinas had a mystical vision that made
writing seem unimportant to him. At mass, he reportedly heard a voice coming from a
crucifix that said, "Thou hast written well of me, Thomas; what reward wilt thou have?" to
which St. Thomas Aquinas replied, "None other than thyself, Lord."
In January 1274, St. Thomas Aquinas embarked on a trip to Lyon, France, on foot to serve on
the Second Council, but never made it there. Along the way, he fell ill at the Cistercian
monastery of Fossa nova, Italy. The monks wanted St. Thomas Aquinas to stay at the castle,
but, sensing that his death was near, Thomas preferred to remain at the monastery, saying,
"If the Lord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in a religious house than in
the dwelling of a layperson. On his deathbed, St. Thomas Aquinas uttered his last words to
the Cistercian monks who had so graciously attended him: "This is my rest forever and ever:
Here will I dwell for I have chosen it." (Psalm 131:14) Often called "The Universal Teacher,"
St. Thomas Aquinas died at the monastery of Fossa nova on March 7, 1274. He was
canonized by Pope John XXII in 13

Roger Bacon (1214-1294)

Roger Bacon was an English scholastic philosopher who was also
considered a scientist because he insisted on observing things for
himself instead of relying on what other people had written. Bacon
was born into a wealthy family in 1214 and died in 1294. He was
trained in the classics, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy
28

and was a student at the University of Paris as a young man where he received the degree of Doctor
of Theology. Bacon spent forty years studying and lecturing on the natural sciences at Oxford
University in England. For these efforts, he is considered to be the most important cultivator of the
natural sciences during the middle Ages.
Bacon's writings included treatises on optics (then called perspective), mathematics, chemistry,
arithmetic, astronomy, the tides, and the reformation of the calendar. His skill in the use of optical
and mechanical instruments caused him to be regarded by many as a sorcerer. Bacon was
acquainted with the properties of mirrors, knew the powers of steam and gunpowder, had a working
knowledge in microscopy, and possessed an instrument very much like a modern telescope. He
claimed that his telescope could make the most distant object appear near, that it could make stars
appear at will, and even further, that it had the power of visualizing future events.
In 1266, Bacon sent a letter to Pope Clement IV suggesting improvements in the scientific curricula
and installing laboratory experimentation in the educational system. He made the bold claim that the
entire educational system needed to be rebuilt, and that the foundations for this revitalization could
be found in his work. Bacon gave to the pope a proposal for a universal encyclopedia of knowledge
and asked for a team of collaborators to be coordinated by a body in the Church to build the
encyclopedia. Unfortunately, Pope Clement was unaccustomed to receiving proposals such as
Bacon's and misunderstood his request. Thinking that Bacon's encyclopedia of science already
existed, the Pope demanded to see the documents. In the confusion, Pope Clement bound Bacon
by a papal oath of secrecy to reveal all of his beliefs and philosophies. Because Bacon revered the
pope and could not disobey, he quickly composed a three-volume encyclopedia on the sciences.
These works consisted of the Opus Majus (Great Work), the Opus Minus(Lesser Work) and
the Opus Tertium (Third Work), explaining to the pope the rightful role of the sciences in the
university curriculum and the interdependence of all disciplines.
In 1277, The Minister General of the Franciscans condemned Bacon's work because of the "suspect
novelties" it contained. In response, the loyal Brothers of the Order had him imprisoned. Bacon had
always submitted his writings to the judgment of the Church, and now appealed to the new Pope.
The appeal was lost and Bacon was imprisoned, but the exact amount of time he served is
unknown. Some sources say two years, others much longer. His last work, published the year of his
death, was a stinging reproach of a corrupted Church. Although largely incomplete, Bacon's last
contribution found him just as determined as any time in his life to expose ignore.

29

St. Thomas
Becket Biography
Archbishop, Saint (11181170)

St. Thomas Becket, England's archbishop of Canterbury,

refused to give King Henry II power over the Church. He was
murdered in 1170 and became a saint in 1173.
Synopsis
St. Thomas Becket, born in London, England, on December 21, 1118,
was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in
1170 by King Henry IIs knights. The king had ordered his murder for
refusing to give the monarchy power over the church. Beckets
death made him into a martyr to followers of the Catholic Church,
and Pope Alexander canonized him in 1173.

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Thomas More Biography

Philosopher, Journalist, Saint, Lawyer (14781535)
Thomas More is known for his 1516 book Utopia and for his untimely death in 1535,
after refusing to acknowledge King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England. He
was canonized by the Catholic Church as a saint in 1935.
The king's good servant, but God's first.

Thomas More

Synopsis
Thomas More wrote Utopia in 1516, which was the forerunner of the utopian literary genre.
More served as an important counsellor to King Henry VIII of England, serving as his key
counsellor in the early 1500s, but after he refused to accept the king as head of the Church of
England, he was tried for treason and beheaded (he died in London, England, in 1535). More is
noted for coining the word "Utopia," in reference to an ideal political system in which policies is
governed by reason. He was canonized by the Catholic Church as a saint in 1935, and has been
commemorated by the Church of England as a "Reformation martyr."

The Legal Profession and the Monastery

Around 1494, his father, a prominent attorney, brought More back to London to study
common law. And in February 1496, More was admitted to Lincoln's Inn, one of
England's four legal societies, to prepare for admission to the bar, and in 1501 he
became a full member of the profession. More managed to keep up with his literary and
spiritual interests while practicing law, and he read devotedly from both Holy Scripture
and the classics.

Modern philosopher

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Wilhelm Wundt Biography (1832-1920)

Wilhelm Wundt was a German psychologist who is generally referred to as the founder
of modern psychology. He established the very first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany in 1879, widely recognized as the formal establishment of psychology as a
science distinct from biology and philosopher.
Wundt was the very first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. He is often
associated with the school of thought known as structuralism, although it was his
student Edward B.Titchener who was truly responsible for the formation of that school of
psychology. Wundt also developed a research technique known as introspection, in
which highly trained observers would study and report the content of their own thoughts.

Best Known For:

The establishment of the first psychology lab

His influence on the school of thought known as structuralism
Introspection
Birth and Death:

Wilhelm Wundt was born August 16, 1832

He died August 31, 1920
Wilhelm Wundt's Career in Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt graduated from the University of Heidelberg with a degree in medicine.
He went on to study briefly with Johannes Muller and later with the physicist Hermann
von Helmholtz. Wundt's work with these two individuals is thought to have heavily
influenced his later work in experimental psychology.

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Wundt later wrote the Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874), which helped
establish experimental procedures in psychological research.
After taking a position at the University of Leipzig, Wundt founded the first of only two
experimental psychology labs in existence at that time existed -

Sigmund Freud Biography Psychiatrist (18561939)

Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, which is now known as the Czech Republic, on
May 6, 1856. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst
unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of
the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were
some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century.
Freud's many theoriesincluding those about "psychic energy," the Oedipus complex
and the importance of dreamswere no doubt influenced by other scientific discoveries
of his day. Charles Darwin's understanding of humankind as a progressive element of
the animal kingdom certainly informed Freud's investigation of human behavior.
Additionally, the formulation of a new principle by Helmholtz, stating that energy in any
given physical system is always constant, informed Freud's scientific inquiries into the
human mind. Freud's work has been both rapturously praised and hotly critiqued, but no
one has influenced the science of psychology as intensely as Sigmund Freud.
Freud fled Austria to escape the Nazis in 1938. He died in England on September 23,
1939 at age 83 by suicide, after requesting a lethal dose of morphine from his doctor,
following a long and painful battle with oral cancer.

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Anton van Leeuwenhoek Facts

The Dutch naturalist and microscopies Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), using simple
microscopes of his own making, discovered bacteria, protozoa, spermatozoa, rotifers, Hydra
and Volvox, and also parthenogenesis in aphids.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was born on Oct. 24, 1632, at Delft. His schooling was informal,
probably including some mathematics and physical sciences but no languages. At the age of 16
he was sent to Amsterdam to become an apprentice at a linen drapers shop where he
remained for about 6 years.
In 1654 Van Leeuwenhoek returned to Delft and married Barbara de Mey, who was to bear him
five children. He bought a house and shop and set up in business as a draper. He remained
there for the rest of his life. His wife died in 1666 and in 1671 he remarried; his second wife bore
him one child.
In 1660 Van Leeuwenhoek was appointed chamberlain to the sheriffs of Delft, an office which he
held for 39 years. Little is known of his activities for the next 13 years; however, in his spare
time he must have begun to grind lenses to make simple microscopes. As early as 1668 he took
one of his microscopes on a visit to England and used it to examine chalk from the cliffs in Kent.
In 1673 Rangier de Graff, a brilliant young physician of Delft wrote a letter about Van
Leeuwenhoek's work to Henry Oldenburg, Secretary of the Royal Society in London. This letter
was published in Philosophical Transactions, and Oldenburg wrote to the author requesting
further communications. Thus began a correspondence with the Royal Society which was to
continue until Van Leeuwenhoek's death. He never wrote a scientific paper or a book. His letters
are full of random observations, with little coherence, and were written in a conversational style.
Despite the casual way in which he described his observations, he never confused the facts
with his speculations, and so it is possible to identify easily many of the organisms he studied
from his detailed descriptions.

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The Royal Society elected him a fellow in 1680, an honor which pleased him although he never
found time to visit London to sign the register. His discoveries soon made him famous, and
many came to visit him in Delft. His enthusiasm for the study of nature never waned even in old
age, and despite his infirmities he still continued to make observations and send letters to the
Royal Society. After his death on Aug. 26, 1723, his daughter Maria sent a cabinet to the Royal
Society which her father had prepared 22 years previously, containing 26 of his microscopes
made from silver.

William James

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST AND PHILOSOPHER

William James was a 19th century philosopher and psychologist who is widely regarded as the founder of
American psychology.

Professional Life
William James was born on January 11, 1842, at the Astor House in New York City. He was born into an
extremely intellectually gifted family and was educated in Europe and the United States. He expressed an

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early interest in art and wanted to pursue a career in painting. Against his father's wishes, he studied with
William Morris Hunt for a year, before he abandoned art in favour of science.
James began the study of chemistry at Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University in 1861. After a
few years, he elected to study medicine at Harvard Medical School, where he continued to study off and
on over several years, between sabbaticals and illnesses, including a bout of major depression. James
completed his medical degree in 1869. Eventually, James decided to pursue a career in psychology and
philosophy.

Contribution to Psychology
James's book, Principles of Psychology, has had far reaching impacts on the field of psychology. The
massive 1200 page book was published in two separate volumes, and took more than a decade to
complete. Two years after its publication, an abridged version, Psychology: The Briefer Course, was
released. In these books, James defined beliefs as those ideals that serve a purpose to the believer.

B.F. Skinner Biography

Psychologist (19041990)
Early Life
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in the small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania,
where he also grew up. His father was a lawyer and his mother stayed home to care for Skinner and his

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younger brother. At an early age, Skinner showed an interest in building different gadgets and
contraptions.

As a student at Hamilton College, B.F. Skinner developed a passion for writing. He tried to become a
professional writer after graduating in 1926, but with little success. Two years later, Skinner decided to
pursue a new direction for his life. He enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology.Final Years

In his later years, B.F. Skinner took to chronicling his life and research in a series of autobiographies. He
also continued to be active in the field of behavioural psychologyfield he helped popularize. In 1989,
Skinner was diagnosed with leukaemia. He succumbed to the disease the following year, dying at his
home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 18, 1990.

While many of his behavioural theories have fallen out of favour, Skinner's identification of the importance
of reinforcement remains a critical discovery. He believed that positive reinforcement was a great tool for
shaping behaviour, an idea still valued in numerous settings including schools today. Skinner's beliefs are
still being promoted by the B.F. Skinner Foundation, which is headed by his daughter, Julie S. Vargas.

Louis Pasteur: Biography

Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist whose work changed
medicine. He proved that germs cause disease; he developed vaccines for
anthrax and rabies; and he created the process of pasteurization.
Family and education
Louis Pasteur was born on Dec. 27, 1822, in Dole, France. Pasteurs father
was a tanner and the family was not wealthy, but they were determined to
provide a good education for their son. At 9 years old, he was admitted to
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the local secondary school where he was known as an average student with
a talent for art.
When he was 16, Pasteur traveled to Paris to continue his education, but
returned home after becoming very homesick. He entered the Royal College
at Besanon where he earned a Bachelor of Arts. He stayed to study
mathematics, but failed his final examinations. He moved to Dijon to finish
his Bachelor of Science. In 1842, he applied to the Ecole Normale in Paris,
but he failed the entrance exam. He reapplied and was admitted in the fall of
1844 where he became graduate assistant to Antoine Ballard, a chemist and
one of the discoverers of bromine.

Crystallography
Working with Balard, Louis became interested in the physical geometry of
crystals. He began working with two acids. Tartaric acid and Para tartaric acid
had the same chemical composition, but appeared different when the
crystals were viewed under a microscope. How could chemically identical
substances look different? Louis found that, when placed in solution, the two
substances rotate polarized light differently.
Louis then used his microscope and a dissecting needle to painstakingly
separate crystals of the two acids. He discovered that two types of crystals
were mirror images of each other. This was the first evidence of the chirality
of chemical compounds. His thesis on this work earned him a double
doctorate in physics and chemistry in 1847. In 1848, he was offered a post at
the University of Strasbourg, where he met and married Marie Laurent. They
had five children, three of whom died of typhus, an event that later
influenced Pasteurs interest in infectious disease.
In 1873, Pasteur was named a fellow in the French Institute of Medicine. In
1888, the French government allocated funds for the establishment of the
Pasteur Institute in Paris, where he continued his research and served as
dean of science. In 1895, while still working part time at his lab, he suffered
the first of a final series of strokes. Louis Pasteur died on Sept. 28, 1895. His
last words were, One must work; one must work, I have done what I could.

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal
The one-celled organism transforms into a human baby with remarkable capacities to
adjust to like outside the womb

Infancy and toddlerhood

dramatic changes in the body and brain support the emergence of a wide array of motor,
perceptual, and intellectual capacities and first intimate ties to others.

Early Childhood
During the "Play years", motor skills are refined, thought and language expand at an
astounding pace, a sense of morality is evident, and children establish ties with peers.

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middle childhood
the school years are marked by improved athletic abilities; more logical thought
processes; mastery of basic literary skills; advances in self-understanding, morality, and
friendship; and the beginnings of peer-group membership

adolescence
puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. thought becomes abstract and
idealistic and school achievements more serious. Adolescents begin to establish
autonomy from the family and to define personal values and goals

Early adulthood
most young people leave home, complete their education, and begin full time work. Major
concerns are developing a career, forming an intimate partnership, and marrying, rearing
children, or establishing other lifestyles

middle adulthood
many people are at the height of their careers and attain leadership positions. They must
also help their children begin independent lives and their parents adapt to aging. they
become more aware of their own mortality

late adulthood
people adjust to retirement, to decreased physical strength and health, and often the
death of a spouse. they reflect on the meaning of their lives.

Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at

conception and continuous through the lifespan.

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