Refractory Materials Overview

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Overview of Refractory Materials

Course Content
Refractories are heat resistant materials that can withstand high temperature without rapid physical &
chemical deterioration.
Refractories are expensive, and any failure in the refractories results in a great loss of production time,
equipment, and sometimes the product itself. The various type of refractories influence energy
consumption and product quality. Therefore, the problem of obtaining refractories best suited to each
application is of supreme importance. Refractories are also vital for the safe operation of the
processes and must not expose personnel to hazardous conditions during their manufacture,
installation, and use or during disposal following their use.
This course reviews the above criteria together with the types, characteristics and properties of various
refractories. There is an outline of energy conservation and therefore the cost savings.
What is Refractory?
Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic and heat resistant materials that can withstand the action of
abrasive or corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of
conditions in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of refractory
materials with different properties.
The refractory range incorporates fired, chemically and carbon bonded materials that are made in
varying combinations and shapes for diverse applications.
Phase Constitution of Refractory Materials

Refractories are porous, multi-components and heterogeneous materials composed of thermally stable
mineral aggregates, a binder phase and additives.
Refractory materials are quasi brittle at low temperature and have a viscous behavior at high
temperature. They are subject to considerable variability in strength, resulting from local variations in
their microstructure and their lack of ductility. They are characterized by high-temperature creep or
plastic deformation. Their brittleness and their high elastic modulus make them sensible to failure
under thermal stresses and shocks.
What are Refractories used for?

Refractories are the primary materials used by the metallurgy industry in the internal linings of
furnaces for melting, in vessels for holding and transporting metal and slag, in furnaces for heating
before further processing, and in the flues or stacks through which hot gases are conducted.
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Depending upon the application, refractories must resist destructive influences such as abrasion,
pressure, chemical attack, thermal shock, physical impact, catalytic heat; and similar adverse
condition, generally at high temperatures.
Since the metallurgical processes require very high operating temperatures, the refractory materials
are needed to withstand temperatures over and above these temperatures. Table below provide the
melting point of key metallurgical elements. The melting point of iron is 2800F indicating that the
suitable refractory selection must able to resist such high temperatures.
MELTING POINT CHART
KEY MATERIALS
MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)
Iron
2800 F
Nickel
2650 F
Copper
1980 F
Aluminum
1220 F
Zinc
780 F
Lead
620 F
Tin
450 F
Requirements of Refractories
The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as:
1) Its ability to withstand high temperatures
2) Its ability to withstand sudden changes of temperatures
3) Its ability to withstand action of molten metal, hot gasses and slag erosion etc
4) Its ability to withstand load at service conditions
5) Its ability to withstand load and abrasive forces
6) Low coefficient of thermal expansion
7) Its ability to conserve heat
8) Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact
What are Refractories made off?

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The principal raw materials used in the production of basic refractories are magnesites, dolomite,
chrome ore, spinel and carbon. Basic refractory bricks such as Magnesia-chrome and MagnesiaSpinel are made up of synthetic magnesia clinker or dead burned natural magnesite in combination
with chrome ore and pre-reacted spinel clinker or with an alumina containing material; that forms
spinel during firing of the brick.
Chronological Developments
Year 1950s: The evolution and use of magnesia refractories in combination with carbon started over
forty years ago in the early 1950s with pitch bonded dolomite refractories, developed primarily for the
basic oxygen furnace. In these early days some of these linings in the basic oxygen furnace lasted
only 100 heats, often not giving sufficient time to reline the second vessel in a two-furnace shop.
The 1970s: In the 1970s the burned and impregnated magnesia brick with finite pore size became the
standard for the charge pad and other high wear areas, starting the beginning of the zoned lining for
basic oxygen furnaces. About that time magnesia purity became a factor and a special low boron 96%
magnesia grain having a lime to silica ratio of 2 to 3:1 was used extensively.
The 1980s: The 1980s saw the development of resin bonded magnesia-graphite, first with higher
carbon content and then with the addition of antioxidants to preserve the carbon content.
In recent years, the trend has shifted to developing engineered refractories to address the specific
wear mechanisms. Additives such as pure iron oxide and fused magnesite are added in small
amounts to promote specific properties in the brick. These additives generally constitute less than 6%
of the total mix. More recently fused magnesia grain; magnesia sinter with larger crystallite size and
very high purity magnesia sinter were introduced to further improve the corrosion resistance.
The melting point of refractory materials in the pure state varies from 1815 3315C (3300 6000F).
The table below shows the melting point of few elements that constitute refractory composition.
MELTING POINT CHART OF PURE COMPOUNDS
REFRACTORY ELEMENT
Graphite C Pure
6300 F
Thoria, ThO2 Pure Sintered
5430 F
Magnesia, MgO, Pure Sintered
5070 F
Zirconia, ZrO2, Pure Sintered
4890 F
Lime, CaO
4660 F
Beryllia, BeO, Pure Sintered
4620 F
Silicon Carbide, SiC, Pure
4080 F
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Magnesia, 90-95%
3980 F
Chromite, FeO-Cr2O3
3960 F
Chromium Oxide
3880 F
Alumina, Al2O3, Pure Sintered
3720 F
Chromite, 38%, Cr2O3
3580 F
Alumina Fused Bauxite
3400 F
Silicon Carbide, 80-90%
3400 F
Fireclay
3400 F
Titania, TiO2
3360 F
Kaolin, Al2O3 -, SiO2
3300 F
Silica, SiO2
3120 F
Refractories in service can tolerate only small amounts of melting (15%) without loss of their
important structural characteristics. Subsequent discussion will show, however, that the use of many
such materials is limited by factors such as cost or instability in certain atmospheres. Also, fluxes
present in the initial impure refractory and/or encountered in service can seriously reduce these
melting points.
Properties of Refractories
Important properties of refractories, which can be, determined most readily are chemical composition,
bulk density, apparent porosity, apparent specific gravity and strength at atmospheric temperatures.
These properties are often among those, which are used as controls in the manufacturing and quality
control process. The chemical composition serves as a basic for classification of refractories. The
density, porosity and strengths of fired products are influenced by many factors. Among these are type
and quality of the raw materials, the size and "fit" of the particles, moisture content at the time of
pressing, pressure of pressing, temperature and duration of firing, kiln atmosphere and the rate of
cooling.
Some of the important properties of refractories are:
1) Melting Point:
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Pure substances melt sharply at a definite temperature. Most refractory materials consist of high
melting particles bonded together. At high temperature, glass fuses and as the temperature rises,
the resulting slag increases in quantity by partial solution of the refractory particles. The
temperature at which this action results in failure of a test pyramid (cone) to support its own weight
is called, for convenience, the melting point of the refractory. The table above shows the melting
point of some pure compounds uses as refractories.
2) Size:
The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design feature. It is an important feature in
design since it affects the stability of any structure. Accuracy and size is extremely important to
enable proper fitting of the refractory shape and to minimize the thickness and joints in
construction.
3) Bulk Density:
A useful property for refractories is bulk density, which defines the material present in a given
volume. An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases its volume stability, its heat
capacity, as well as resistance to slag penetration.
4) Porosity:
The apparent porosity is a measure of the volume of the open pores, into which a liquid can
penetrate, as a percentage of the total volume. This is an important property in cases where the
refractory is in contact with molten charge and slags. A low apparent porosity is desirable since it
would prevent easy penetration of the refractory size and continuity of pores will have important
influences or refractory behavior. A large number of small pores is generally preferable to an
equivalent number of large pores. However, a measure of the true porosity, which also takes into
account the volume of closed, pores, gives a reasonable idea of the texture of the material, as well
as sintering characteristics. In fact, porosity, bulk density and apparent solid density have been
termed rightly as Vital Statistics of refractory shapes.
5) Cold Crushing Strength:

The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be doubtful relevance as a useful
property, other than it reveals little more than the ability to withstand the rigorous of transport, can
be used as a useful indicator to the adequacy of firing and abrasion resistance in consonance with
other properties such as bulk density and porosity.
6) Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which a refractory will deform under its own weight is known as its softening
temperature, which is indicated by Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE). Refractories, due to their
chemical complexity, melt progressively over a range of temperature. Hence refractoriness or
fusion point is ideally assessed by the cone fusion method. The equivalent standard cone, which
melts to the same extent as the test cone is known as the pyrometric cone equivalent.
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The pyrometric cone equivalent indicates only the softening temperature. But, in service the
refractory is subjected to load, which would deform the refractory at a much lower temperature
than that indicated, by PCE. With change in the environmental conditions, such as reducing
atmosphere, the PCE value changes drastically.
7) Refractoriness under load:

The refractoriness under load test (RUL test) gives an indication of the temperature at which the
bricks will collapse, in service conditions with similar load.
However, under actual service where the bricks are heated only on one face, the relatively cooler
rigid portion of the bricks carries most of the load. Hence the RUL, test gives only an index of the
refractory quality, rather than a figure, which can be used in a refractory design. Under service
conditions, where the refractory used is heating from all sides such as checkers, partition walls,
etc. the RUL test data is quite significant.
8) Creep at high temperature:

Creep is a time dependent property, which determines the deformation in a given time and at a
given temperature by a material under stress. The criterion of acceptance usually adopted is; that
compressive creep under the required conditions of load and temperature shall not exceed 0.3%
in the first 50 hours of the test. This figure has been found to indicate that the creep rate falls by a
negligible amount at the end of the stipulated period, and therefore the refractory can be
considered safe to use for a much longer time.
9) Volume stability, expansion and shrinkage at high temperature:

The contraction or expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such permanent
changes in dimensions may be due to:
i.
The changes in the allotropic forms which cause a change in specific gravity
ii.
A chemical reaction, which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.
iii.
The formation of liquid phase
iv.
Sintering reactions
v.
It may also happen on account of fluxing with dust and slag or by the action of alkalies on
fireclay refractories, to form alkali-alumina silicates, causing expansion and disruption. This is
an example, which is generally observed in blast furnaces.
While it is desirable that all these changes are effected during manufacturing, it is not possible due
to economic reasons, as the process is time dependent. Permanent Linear Change (PLC) on
reheating and cooling of the bricks give an indication on the volume stability of the product as well
as the adequacy of the processing parameters during manufacture. It is particularly significant as a
measure of the degree of conversion achieved in the manufacture of silica bricks.
10)
Reversible Thermal Expansion:
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Any material when heated expands, and contracts on cooling. The reversible thermal expansion is
a reflection on the phase transformations that occur during heating and cooling. The PLC and the
reversible thermal expansion are followed in the design of refractory linings for provision of
expansion joints. As a general rule, those with a lower thermal expansion co-efficient are less
susceptible to thermal spalling.
11)
Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity depends upon the chemical and mineralogical compositions as well as the
glassy phase contained in the refractory and the application temperature. Although it is one of the
least important properties as far as service performance is concerned, it evidently determines the
thickness of brickwork.
The conductivity usually changes with rise in temperature. In cases where heat transfer is required
through the brickwork, for example in recuperators, regenerators, muffles etc. the refractory should
have high conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is desirable for conservation of heat by providing
adequate insulation.
The provisions for back up insulation, conserves heat but at the same time it increases the hot
face temperature and hence the demand on the refractory quality increases. Accordingly,
insulation on the roof in open-hearth furnaces is normally not provided, otherwise it would cause
failure due to severe dripping. Depending on the characteristic of the refractory used in the hot
face, such as the high temperature load bearing capacity, it may be required that the quality of the
brick be increased to the rise in temperature caused by over insulation.
Lightweight refractories of low thermal conductivity find wider application in the moderately low
temperature heat treatment furnaces, where its primary function is usually conservation of energy.
It is more so in case of batch type furnaces where the low heat capacity of the refractory structure
would minimize the heat storage during the intermittent heating and cooling cycles.
How are Refractories Classified?

Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical composition and the methods of manufacture
or physical form. Another category Classifications by use, such as blast furnace refractories or
refractories for oxygen steel making, is generally too broad and is constantly subject of revision.
For our purposes, refractories will be classified with reference to the raw materials used in their
preparation and to the minerals predominating after processing for use.
Classification Based on Chemical Composition

From the chemical standpoint, refractory substances are of three classes; namely, acid, basic, and
neutral.
Acid Refractories:
These are used in areas where slag and atmosphere are acidic, stable to acids but attacked by alkalis.
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Their main raw material belong to RO2 group e.g. Silica (SiO2), Zirconia (ZrO2), and Alumino-Silicate
clay (Al2O32SiO22H2O).
Neutral Refractories:
These are used in areas where slag and atmosphere are either basic or acidic and are chemically
stable to both acids and bases. Their main raw materials belong to, but not confined to, R2O3 group.
The common examples of these materials are Alumina (Al2O3), chrome (Cr2O3) and carbon (C).
Basic Refractories:
Basic refractories are used in areas where slag and atmosphere are basic, stable to alkaline materials
but reacts with acids. Their main raw materials belong to RO group to which Magnesia (MgO) is a very
common example. Other example includes Dolomite and Chrome-Magnesite.
Basic refractories were so named because they exhibit resistance to corrosive reactions with
chemically basic slags, dusts and fumes at elevated temperatures. Some classes of basic refractories
have been developed that exhibit excellent resistance to rather acidic slags.
Basic refractories are produced from a composition of dead-burned Magnesite, dolomite, chrome ore
or compatible mixture of Magnesite, dolomite, and chrome ore.
a. Magnesium Oxide (MgO) is the primary metallic oxide in Magnesite, is highly refractory in its pure
form; its mineral name is periclase. Impurities both in natural Magnesite and chrome ores lead to
the formation of low melting compounds, which greatly diminish refractoriness.
b. Magnesite-chrome combinations have good mechanical strength and volume stability at high
temperatures. The magnesite-chrome refractories provide resistance to corrosion by chemically
basic slags in the steel and copper industries.
c.
Chrome-Magnesite combination exhibit less thermal expansion than high magnesia compositions.
d. Chrome-free compositions of high purity seawater or brine magnesia or high purity natural
magnesia provides maximum refractoriness and resistance to iron oxides.
e. Magnesite-carbon composition contains 5-35% carbon. The carbon addition is provided by
additions of natural flake graphite. Magnesite carbon has outstanding resistance to corrosion by
steel making slags.
Theoretically, acid refractories should not be used in contact with basic slags, gases or fumes whereas
basic refractories can be best used in contact with a basic chemical environment. Actually, for various
reasons, these rules are often violated. Hence, the time honored chemical classification is largely
academic, and of little value as a guide to actual application. Also, the existence of a truly neutral
refractory may be doubted.
Classification Based on Method of Manufacture

The refractories can be manufactured in either of the following methods:
a. Dry Press Process
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b. Fused Cast
c. Hand Molded
d. Formed (Normal, Fired or chemical bonded)
e. Unformed (Monolithic Plastics, Ramming mass, Gunning, Cast able, Spraying
Classification Based on Physical Form

Refractories are classified according to their physical form. These are the shaped and unshaped
refractories. The former is commonly known as refractory bricks and the latter as monolithic
refractories.
Shaped Refractories:
Shaped refractories are those, which have fixed shaped when delivered to the user. These are what
we call bricks.
Brick shapes maybe divided into two: standard shapes and special shapes. Standards shapes have
dimension that are conformed to by most refractory manufacturers and are generally applicable to
kilns and furnaces of the same type.
Special shapes are specifically made for particular kilns and furnaces. This may not be applicable to
another furnaces or kiln of the same type.
Shaped refractories are almost always machine-pressed, thus, high uniformity in properties is
expected. Special shapes are most often hand-molded and are expected to exhibit slight variations in
properties.
Unshaped Refractories:
Unshaped refractories are without definite form and are only given shape upon application. These
types are better known as monolithic refractories. These are categorized as follows:
1) Plastic Refractories: Plastic refractory is mixtures that is prepared in stiff plastic condition and
are delivered in blocks wrapped in polyethylene. During application, the blocks are sliced into
pieces and without further preparation, are rammed or poured into place with pneumatic rammer.
Plastic are easily rammed to any shape or contour.
2) Ramming Mixes: Ramming refractory materials are those whose particle sizes are carefully
graded to make it workable. These are usually delivered dry and then mixed with a little amount of
water just before application. Other ramming mixes are delivered in wet form and are ready for use
immediately upon opening. Application is done with pneumatic rammer.
3) Castables: Castable by name implies a material of hydraulic setting in nature. These are the
materials that contain cement binder usually aluminate cement, which imparts hydraulic setting
properties when mixed with water. Calcium aluminate binder material needs to be stored properly
to prevent moisture absorption. Further its strength starts deteriorating after a period of 6 to 12
months. These materials are installed by casting and are also known as refractory concretes.
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4) Gunning Mixes: Gunning mixes are granular refractory materials sprayed on application area
using a variety of air placement guns. These are heat setting and are used for patching and
maintenance works for kilns and furnaces.
5) Fettling Mixes: Fetting mixes are also granular refractory materials, similar to gunning mix
function, but are applied by shoveling into the furnace needing patching.
6) Mortars: Mortars are generally neither classified under refractory brick nor monolithic refractories.
These are finely ground refractory materials, which become plastic when mixed with water. These
are used to bond the brickwork into solid unit, to provide cushion between the slightly irregular
surfaces of the brick, to fill up spaces created by a deformed shell, and to make a wall gas-tight to
prevent penetration of slag into the joints.
TYPICAL REFRACTORIES IN INDUSTRIAL USE
Fireclay Refractories
Fireclay refractories such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories consist of
aluminus silicates with various amounts of silica adding up SiO2 content of less than 78% and
containing less than 44% of Al2 O3. Fireclay refractories consist essentially of hydrated aluminum
silicates with minor proportions of other minerals.
Owning to its relative cheapness, this material finds uses in most furnaces, kilns and stoves. Firebrick
is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron and steel industry,
non-ferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry and by many others.
There are 4 standard classes of fireclay brick: super duty, high-duty, medium-duty, low-duty, and also
semi-silica. These classes cover the range from approximately 18% to 44% alumina, and from about
50% to 80% silica.
1) Super-duty: These bricks have good strength and stability of volume at high temperatures and
an alumina content of 40% to 44%. Some super-duty brick have superior resistance to cracking or
spalling when subjected to rapid changes of temperature.
2) High-duty: These bricks are used in large quantities and for a wide range of applications.
Because of their greater resistance to thermal shock, high-duty fireclay brick can often be used
with better economy than medium-duty brick for the linings of furnaces operated at moderate
temperatures over long periods of time but subject to frequent shutdowns.
3) Medium-duty: These bricks are appropriate in applications where they are exposed to conditions
of moderate severity. Medium-duty brick, within their serviceable temperature ranges, can
withstand abrasion better than many brick of the high-duty class.
4) Low-duty: These brick find applications as backing for brick with higher refractoriness and for
other service where relatively moderate temperatures prevail.
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Table below shows that as the quantity of impurities increases and the amount of Al2 O3 decreases,
the melting point of fireclay brick decreases.
Brick
%age SiO2
%age Al2 O3
Other
PCE C
Constituents
Super Duty
49-53
40-44
5-7
1745-1760
High Duty
50-80
35-40
5-9
1690-1745
Medium Duty
60-70
26-36
5-9
1640-1680
Siliceous
65-80
18-30
3-8
1620-1680
Low Duty
60-70
23-33
6-10
1520-1595
High Alumina Refractories

The term high-alumina brick refers to refractory brick having an alumina content of 47.5% or higher.
The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100%. The refractoriness of high alumina refractories
increases with increase of alumina percentage. The 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% alumina classes contain
their respective alumina contents with an allowable range of plus or minus 2.5%. High-alumina brick
are classified by their alumina content according to the following ASTM convention.
a. Mullite brick - predominantly contains the mineral phase mullite.
b. Chemically-bonded brick - usually phosphate-bonded brick in the 75% to 85% alumina range.
An aluminum orthophosphate bond can be formed at relatively low temperatures.
c.
Alumina-chrome brick - typically formed from very high purity, high-alumina materials and
chromic oxide. At high temperatures, alumina and chromia form a solid solution, which is highly
refractory.
d. Alumina-carbon brick - high-alumina brick (usually bonded by a resin) containing a

carbonaceous ingredient such as graphite.
The application of high alumina refractories includes the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic
kilns, glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.
Silica Brick
Silica Brick (or Dinas) is a refractory material containing at least 93% SiO2. The raw material is quality
rocks. Various grades of silica brick have found extensive use in the iron and steel melting furnaces. In
addition to high fusion point, the other important properties are their high resistance to thermal shock
(spalling) and their high refractoriness. It finds use in glass making and steel industry.
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The outstanding property of silica brick is that it does not begin to soften under high loads until its
fusion point is approached. This behavior contrasts with that of many other refractories, for example
alumino silicate materials, which begin to fuse and creep at temperatures considerably lower than their
fusion points.
Silica refractories are well adapted to high-temperature service because of their high refractoriness,
high mechanical strength and rigidity at temperatures almost up to their melting points, as well as their
ability to resist the action of dusts, fumes, and acid slags. Silica brick are divided into Type A and Type
B based on the brick's flux factor.
Other advantages are flux and slag resistance, volume stability and high spalling resistance.
Magnesite
Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials, containing at least 85% magnesium oxide. They
are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO3). The properties of magnesite refractories
depend on the concentration of silicate bond at the operating temperatures. Good quality magnesite
usually results from a CaO-SiO2 ratio of less than 2 with a minimum ferrite concentration, particularly if
the furnaces lined with the refractory operate in oxidizing and reducing conditions. The slag resistance
is very high particularly to lime and iron rich slags. These constitute the most important group of
refractories for the basic steel making processes.
Raw Magnesite (MgCO3) is generally used in its calcined or dead burned forms. Caustic Calcined
Magnesite is used in effluent treatment, blended fertilizers and as feedstock for the chemical industry.
Dead burned Magnesite is a raw material used widely by the refractory industry. More recently fused
magnesia grain; magnesia sinter with larger crystallite size and very high purity magnesia sinter were
introduced to further improve the corrosion resistance.
The comparison table for different variety of Magnesite is shown in table below:
Calcined Magnesite
Dead Burned Magnesite
Fused Magnesite
Reactive MgO
Unreactive MgO
Highly unreactive MgO
Source of Alkaline
Magnesium
Refractory raw material
Higher Temperature
Stability
Available in a range of
purities
Available in a range of purities
purities
particle sizes
Available in lump or graded

forms
Available in lump form
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How is Magnesia Produced?

High-purity magnesia is produced in well-controlled processes. The principal sources of magnesia are
brines (often deep well type) and seawater. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg (OH) 2 is precipitated from
these sources by reaction with calcined dolomite or limestone; one source uses a novel reactor
process. The resultant magnesium hydroxide slurry is filtered to increase its solids content.
The filter cake can then be fed directly to a rotary kiln to produce refractory grade magnesia, but more
commonly, the filter cake is calcined at about 9001000C (1650 1830F), usually in multiple- hearth
furnaces, to convert the magnesium hydroxide to active magnesia. This calcined magnesia is then
briquetted or palletized for firing into dense refractory-grade magnesia, usually in shaft kilns which
reach temperatures around 2000C (3630F). The end product is sintered magnesia.
Fused magnesia is produced by melting refractory grade magnesia or other magnesia precursor in an
electric arc furnace. The molten mass is then removed from the furnace, cooled, and broken up to
begin its path for use in refractories.
The impurities in magnesia are controlled by the composition of the original source of the magnesia
(brine or seawater), the composition of the calcined dolomite or limestone, and the processing
techniques. In particular, the amounts and ratio of CaO and SiO2 are rigorously controlled. The end
results are high-grade refractory magnesia, which is ready for processing into refractory products.
The general specifications for Dead Burned Magnesite and Fused Magnesite refractory compounds
are indicated below, which should be verified with manufacturers data.
Generic Specification - Dead Burned Magnesite
Compound
MgO 90%
MgO 95%
min 2:1
Lime: Silica
MgO
90.0% min
95.0% min
97.0% min
SiO2
4.5 % max
2.2 % max
0.8 %
CaO
2.0 % max
1.6 % max
Al2 O3
0.7% max
Fe2 O3
1.6 % max
0.9 % max
LOI
0.5 % max
0.5 % max
Bulk Density
3.15 g/cm
3.2 g/cm
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min 2:1
MgO 95%
Lime: Silica
Size
0.60mm
80% min
0.5-5mm
10% max
> 5mm
10% max
< 0.5 mm
Generic Specification Fused Magnesite
Compound
MgO 96%
MgO 97%
MgO
96.0% min
97.0% min
SiO2
1 % max
0.6 % max
CaO
2 % max
1.2 % max
Al2 O3
0.2 % max
0.8 % max
Fe2 O3
1 % max
0.2 % max
LOI
0.3% max
0.2% max
Bulk Density
3.4 g/cm
Size
0-5 mm
3.5 g/cm
0-5 mm
Basic refractory of magnesia constitute the most important group of refractories for the steel making
processes. The conventional magnesite refractory may be pitch bonded; resin bonded, burned and
impregnated magnesia brick. Other than these following three types of magnesia-carbon refractory
bricks are available in the market.
1) The first series contains regular sintered magnesia (97% MgO) with medium quality graphite (95%
C)
2) The second contains high purity sintered magnesia (99% MgO) with high purity graphite (99% C)
3) The third contains high purity sintered magnesia with high purity graphite plus antioxidants.
Magnesia-carbon brick were originally designed for water-cooled electric furnaces but later with
improvement these are widely used in basic oxygen converter, ladle slag lines, degassers, etc.
Refer to Appendix A to view the generic physical properties of the conventional pitch and resin
bonded magnesite brick and the magnesia-carbon refractory with 15% graphite content.
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Dolomite
The natural double carbonate dolomite (CaCO3 MgCO3) can be converted to refractory dolomite
(CaO-MgO) by high temperature firing. A limited number of dolomite deposits exist in the world with
satisfactory uniformity, purity, and calcining behavior to be processed into high purity, refractory
dolomite at a reasonable cost. High purity dolomite is greater than 97% CaO + MgO. Dolomite
refractories is found to be the most compatible material with the cement kiln clinker as it provides
excellent coating stability, has very good resistance to thermal shock & alkali attack in varying kiln
operating conditions. These refractories with Zirconia enrichment are used for crack arresting.
Chromite Refractories
Here, a distinction must be made between chrome-magnesite refractories and magnesite-chromerefractories. Chrome-magnesite material usually contains 15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO whereas
magnesite-chromite refractories contain at least 60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3.
Chrome- magnesite refractories are made in a wide range of qualities and are used for building the
critical paths of high temperature furnaces. These materials can withstand corrosive slags and gasses
and have high refractoriness. The magnesite-chromite products are suitable for service at the highest
temperatures and in contact with the most basic slags used in steel melting. Magnesite-chromite
usually has a better spalling resistance than chrome-magnesite.
Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a polymorphic material. There are certain difficulties in its usage and
fabrication as a refractory material. It is essential to stabilize it before application as a refractory. This
is achieved by incorporating small quantities of calcium, magnesium and cerium oxide, etc. Its
properties depend mainly on degree of stabilization and quantity of stabilizer as well as the quality of
original raw material. Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at room temperature, which is
maintained up to temperatures as high as 1500C. They are, therefore, useful as high temperature
construction materials for furnaces and kilns. The thermal conductivity of zirconium dioxide is found to
be much lower than that of most other refractories and the material is therefore used as a high
temperature insulating refractory. Since Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react
readily with liquid metals, it is particularly useful for making refractory crucibles and other vessels for
metallurgical purposes. Zirconia is useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily since it is not
easily wetted by molten glass and because of its low reaction with them.
Oxide Refractories
Alumina refractory materials, which consist of aluminum oxide with little traces of impurities, are often
known as pure alumina.
Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides known. It is mechanically very strong, insoluble in
water and super heated steam, and in most inorganic acids and alkalis. Its properties make it suitable
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for the shaping of crucibles for fusing sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium peroxide. It
has a high resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere. Alumina is extensively used in heat
processing industries. Highly porous alumina is used for lining furnace operating up to 1850C.
Monolithic Refractories
Monolithic or monolith-forming refractories are special mixes or blends of dry granular or cohesive
plastic materials used to form virtually joint-free linings. The monolithic type includes plastic
refractories, ramming mixes, gunning mixes and castables.
Monolithic refractories are replacing the conventional type fired refractories at a much faster rate in
many applications including those of industrial furnaces. The main advantages being:
1) It eliminates joints, which is an inherent weakness.
2) Method of application is faster and skilled measures in large number are not required.
3) Properties can be better than pressed bricks.
4) Transportation and handling are simple
5) Offers better scope to reduce downtime for repairs
6) Offers considerable scope to reduce inventory and eliminate special shapes
7) It is a heat saver
8) Has better spalling resistance
9) Has greater volume stability
10) Installation methods have been improved
11) Ability to install in Hot Standby mode
12) New applications are frequent
Various means are employed in the placement of monolithic refractories like ramming casting,
gunniting, spraying, sand slinging etc. Ramming masses are used mostly in cold applications where
proper consolidation of the material is important. The same practice can be adopted with both air
setting and heat setting materials. Proper ramming tools need to be selected.
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials greatly reduce the heat losses through walls. Insulation is effected by providing a
layer of material having al low heat conductivity between the internal hot surface of a furnace and the
external surface, thus causing the temperature of the external surface reduced.
Insulating materials owe their low conductivity to their pores while their heat capacity depends on the
bulk density and specific heat. Structure of air insulating material consists of minute pores filled with air
which have in themselves very low thermal conductivity, excessive heat affects all insulation material
adversely, but the temperatures to which the various materials can be heated before this adverse
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effect occurs differ widely. Clearly, therefore, the choice of an insulating material must depend upon its
effectiveness to resist heat conductivity and upon the temperature that it will withstand.
One of the most widely used insulating material is diatomite, also known as kiesel guhr which is made
up form a mass of skeletons of minute aquatic plants deposited thousand of years ago in the beds of
seas and lakes. Chemically this consists of silica contaminated with clay and organic matter. A wide
range of insulating refractories with wide combinations of properties is now available. The important
physical properties of some insulating refractories are shown in the table below:
Type
Thermal
Max. Safe
Cold
Porosity
Bulk
Conductivity at
Temperature
Crushing
%age
Density
400C mean
Strength
Kg/cm2
Kcal/m/C
Diatomite
Kg/m3
.025
1000
270
52
1090
.014
800
110
77
540
Clay
.030
1500
260
68
560
High Aluminia
.028
1500-1600
300
66
910
Silica
.040
1400
400
65
830
Solid Grade
Diatomite
Porous Grade
Attaching Insulation
The method of attaching insulation bricks is illustrated in figure below:
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115 m m Red Brick

External Wall
Existing Flue Wall
Tie Bar
600 mm
Tie Bar
76m m InsulatingBrick
METHOD OF ATTACHING INSULATION TO AN

EXISTING FLUE WALL
In figure above, a 115mm brick is built outside the existing one, leaving a suitable gap of 76mm
between the old and new walls into which the insulating brick may be inserted as the wall is being built.
To keep the wall rigid, it is necessary to incorporate one or two buttresses and further strengthening is
possible with a number of T- bars about 600 mm apart.
Ceramic Fibers
Ceramic fibers are yet another class of material of recent origin. Cement fibers, which are
manufactured by blowing either a high velocity gas or high velocity gases on to a molten stream of
alumino-silicate material with a controlled composition that takes care of devitrification and shrinkage.
The resulting fluffy, white cotton like fiber can be spun and fabricated into textiles, blankets, felts,
boards, blocks, etc.
These products have low thermal conductivity, very low heat storage, extremely light weight, immunity
to thermal shocks and are chemically stable as well as neutral exceptionally resistance to wetting by
non-ferrous metals like aluminum, zinc and their alloys. Ceramic fibers are composed of high purity
silica in various percentages. A 52-48 combination can be applied as a hot face insulation material up
to 1420C. Whereas a 62-38 combination imparts greater refractoriness to fiber, 42% Al2O3, 52% SiO2
and 6% ZrO2 produces extra long staple fiber of 10 or so and are used for manufacturing ceramic
fiber textiles and ropes.
The advantages of ceramic modules are:
1) Better fuel economy (savings as high as 60% are feasible in the case of certain intermittent
furnaces)
2) Higher productivity capacity of furnaces, due to reduced heat storage capacity
3) Higher service life of the furnace and reduced maintenance costs due to longer refractory life
4) Ease of installation
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Selection of refractories
Major factors affecting refractory performance are temperature, coal ash composition, gas
composition, slag velocity and turbulence, and thermo mechanical stresses. Further, the choice of a
refractory material for a given application will be determined by the type of furnace or heating unit and
the prevailing conditions e.g. the gaseous atmosphere, the presence of slags, the type metal charge
etc. Operating temperature is probably the most important factor but definitely not the only criterion for
selection of refractories.
The selection of refractories for any particular application is made to achieve the best performance of
the process equipment under certain properties of the refractories. Any furnace designer or industry
should have a clear idea about the service conditions which the refractory is required to face. The
designers and the users have to consider the following points, before selecting a refractory:
1) Area of application
2) Working temperature
3) Extent of abrasion and impact
4) Structural load of the furnace
5) Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and temperature fluctuations
6) Chemical compatibility to the furnace environment
7) Heat transfer and fuel conservation
8) Cost considerations
It is therefore, essential to have an objective evaluation of the above conditions. The proper
assessment of the desired properties shall provide guidelines for selection of the proper refractory
materials.
It would be important to mention here that the furnace manufacturer or a user is also concerned with
the conservation of energy. Fuel can be saved in two ways; either by insulation or by faster working.
Both these methods give low energy cost per ton of product.
Selected Refractory Facts:
a. Reaction/wear increases exponentially with increasing temperature
b. Temperature cycling will cause cracks, loss of strength, and spalling of material
c.
Tradeoffs are common in refractories
d. Stronger is not always better

e. Lining life is controlled by the weakest link
f.
Shorter service life can be more cost effective
g. Refractory manufacture should use high purity, ultra fine materials
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h. Microstructure engineering control of aggregate shape
Components of the Refractory Lining

Refractory-lined vessels are composed of an outside steel shell and layers of refractory linings. The
linings may be made of monolithic castables, blocks or bricks jointed together using (or not) some
mortar material.
In most cases, the lining consists of several layers refractories of varying qualities:
The interior layer of the refractory lining that is exposed to the process (molten metal, slag,
corrosive gases)
The linings between the shell and working lining are often referred to as the safety or insulating
linings. Insulating linings are used to limit heat loss and to maintain the vessel shell temperatures
at reasonable levels.
Refractories show significant expansion upon heating. In service, under given thermal and mechanical
boundary conditions, the refractory linings are exposed primarily to through-thickness temperature
gradients and to thermal expansion loading. The free thermal expansion of linings is controlled by the
external structural steel shell. In most cases, the thermal stresses due to the restraint are considerably
greater than the gravity weight stresses (gravity load stresses typically are in the range of 0.2 to 1
MPa, while the thermal expansion stresses can be in the range of 15 to 100 MPa).
Of all the various shapes of industrial vessels, the cylindrical and the flat refractory structures appear
to be the most predominant geometries. Refractory-lined vessels are generally composed of two parts:
a cylindrical lining and a flat lining:
The cylindrical lining remains in full contact with the outside steel shell due to the thermal
expansion and the hydrostatic pressure (due to molten metal). Therefore, both loads develop a
uniform pressure loading around the cylindrical shell.
The behavior of the refractory flat lining differs considerably from that of the cylindrical lining. The
refractory flat linings are subjected to unstable and undesirable inward and outward displacements
(with a risk of buckling) when subjected to cyclic pressure and expansion loadings.
In a refractory lining design process steps to prevent substantial failure and damage of a refractory
lining under thermal load may involve:
Selection of compatible lining refractory materials
Rational thermo mechanical analysis and design toward developing acceptable stress and strain
distributions
Determination of optimal operating conditions (specially heating scheme)
Refractories in Furnaces and Kilns
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Furnaces & Kilns particularly depending on heat treatment or melting applications operate at very high
temperatures. Refractory bricks are used for internal lining of furnace. When a furnace is heated up
from cold, the first stage involves bringing the brickwork up to temperature. The heat energy required
for initial heat up depends to a great extent upon the time cycle of the furnace. In a furnace with a
weekly cycle when the furnace is not used at weekends it will be considerable. With a daily cycle
shutting down over night it will still be considerable. Finally in furnaces operating on a heating and
cooling cycle in which the furnace is heated up with each charge of goods, the heat consumed by the
brickwork may assume quite surprising proportions in relation to the heat usefully used.
The heat stored in the body of the furnace depends on the weight of each component, its specific heat
and its average rise in temperature.
There are two broad categories of furnaces viz. continuous furnaces and intermittent batch type
furnaces.
Whichever category of furnace is used, the heat losses result from
1. The loss through the furnace walls due to conduction, radiation and convection.
2. The loss due to the thermal mass of the furnace storing unnecessary heat
There is however a difference. In furnaces, operated continuously at full working temperature, the heat
loss through the walls is far greater than the heat required to heat up the mass of the furnace. In
furnaces heated and cooled intermittently, the loss thorough heat stored in the mass of the furnace
(and dissipated each time the furnace is cooled) may be much greater.
The external insulation is used sometimes to reduce the heat losses. In continuous or long time cycle
furnaces the insulating problem is to prevent heat loss through the walls and roof. In intermittent or
short time cycle furnaces, it is to reduce the heat storage loss whilst still not neglecting the external
surface loss.
The striking benefits of the application of insulation to a furnace can be seen from the following
example:
A refractory brick walled furnace with walls of a nominal 9 thickness and an internal wall temperature
of 2000F will lose 145 BTUs per square feet. With a nominal 4 of insulation the heat loss will be
reduced to 32 BTUs per square feet and with nominal 8 insulation to 18 BTUs per square feet.
Heat losses can also be reduced to certain extent by increasing the thickness of the refractory brick
but this is not very effective as this method adds significant cost to the furnace structure. It is much
better to use insulation.
But a word of caution:
The insulation of furnaces should not be adopted without careful consideration of the consequences
and the changes in refractory temperatures that may result. .
Effect of insulation on refractory temperatures:
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If the outer wall of a furnace is insulted, heat losses shall reduce or more heat is retained within the
system. This means that in practice, the average temperature of the refractory walls increases even
when the fuel consumption is reduced to maintain the same internal furnace temperature. This can
result in the refractory or insulation becoming overheated so that:
a. The refractory may melt and the furnace collapse
b. The insulation may be spoiled or made ineffective
The effect of insulation on our example furnace would be as follows:
The interface temperature that is the temperature of the face between the refractory brick and the
insulation would increase considerably. With no insulation the refractory external temperature would
be 500F. With nominal 4 insulation it would be 1650F and with nominal 8 insulation it would be
1800F.
Whilst a refractory built into a wall or roof can be operated with its face above the safe temperature as
long as the bulk of the brick is at a temperature low enough to stand up to conditions, evening up the
temperature over the thickness of the brick by applying insulation to the outside may set up very
dangerous conditions.
For this reason it is recommended that furnace builders or the manufactures of insulating bricks should
always be consulted before the insulation of high temperature furnace is undertaken.
As a rule of thumb, putting 4 of insulation on the exterior surface shall increase heat storage by about
60%. Although the reduction in heat losses through the walls is more than enough to compensate for
the additional stored heat, it would save more energy overall on a short cycle furnace, if we could stop
that heat getting into the walls in the first place. Especially since increased thermal storage
exacerbates the problem of cooling the furnace at the end of each cycle.
Shorter the time cycle of the furnace, the greater is the heat stored in the wall in comparison with the
heat lost through the wall.
The solution of the difficulty lies in reducing to a minimum the weight of refractory that must be heated
and cooled each cycle. At one time this solution was rendered impossible by the high temperature of
the insulation/refractory interface. Hot face insulation is now a common solution. The development of
bricks with both high refractoriness and good insulation properties has been followed by the use of
low-density ceramic fibers and micro porous insulation. The great advantage of ceramic fiber and
micro porous insulation is their low thermal conductivity, low thermal mass and resistance to thermal
shock. For intermittent furnaces the use of these materials as internal insulation should drastically
reduce the energy used. In cases where the new types of insulation may be subject to chemical attack
or where more mechanical strength may be required it is possible to provide added protection by
treating it with suitable coating.
Intermittent furnaces where the furnace must be cooled to a considerable extent as part of the process
will lose their heat much more slowly, if externally insulated. In cases where there is a need to reduce
the internal temperature as quickly as possible, the level of insulation should not be reduced just to
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further this aim. Cooling can be carried out by drawing volumes of cold air or gases through the
furnace with the provision that good quality non-spalling brickwork forms the internal surface of the
furnace.
Heat losses from furnace walls

In furnaces and kilns, heat losses from furnace walls affect the fuel economy substantially. The extent
of wall losses depends on:
1) Emissivity of walls
2) Conductivity of refractories
3) Wall thickness
4) Whether furnace or kiln is operated continuously or intermittently
Different materials have different radiation power (emissivity). The emissivity of walls coated with
aluminum paint is lower than that of bricks. Figure below shows the coefficient of heat dissipation for
the following conditions:
a. Rough vertical plane surface
Coefficient
of Heat Transfer
( Kcal / m 2 hr C )
Coefficient
b. Vertical aluminum painted walls
32
24
Rough
Vertical
Plane
Surface
16
Vertical
Aluminum
Paint
Surface
0
40
100
150
200
250 300 350 400
Temperature Difference Between Surface &
Air
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN STILL AIR AT 40 DEG C
The variation of thermal conductivity for typical refractory materials (silica brick, fireclay brick and
insulation brick) with temperature is depicted in figure below:
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Conductivity ( Kcal / m hr C )
2.0
1.5
Silica Brick
1.0
Fireclay (Clay bonded Silica)
0.5
Insulation
100
300
500
700
900
1000
Temperature 0 C
AVERAGE CONDUCTIVITY
OF REFRACTORY MATERIAL
Thus at a mean temperature of 600C, conductivity of the insulation brick is only 20% of that for
fireclay brick.
Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the wall thickness, or through the application of insulating
bricks. Outside wall temperature and heat losses for a composite wall of a certain thickness of firebrick
and insulation brick are much lower due to lesser conductivity of insulating brick as compared to a
refractory brick.
115 mm Brick
310
230 mm Brick
280
0
Outside Wall Temperature C
250
350 mm Brick
220
450 mm Brick
190
115 mm Brick + 65 mm Insulation
160

130
100
70
650
750
850
950
1050 1150 1250 1350
Inside Wall Temperature 0 C

TEMPERATURE RELATION OF
INSIDE / OUTSIDE FACES OF FURNACE WALL
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The heat loss from a furnace wall increases with low thickness non-insulating brick. This is depicted by
curves below. Thus heat losses from a furnace wall 115mm thick at 650C amounting to 2650
2
Kcal/m /hr can be cut down to 850 Kcal/m /hr by using 65mm insulation on a 115 mm wall.
115 mm Brick
4000
230 mm Brick
3500
3000
C
350 mm Brick
Heat Loss (Kcal /m
/hr
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
650
750
850
950
1050 1150 1250 1350
Inside Wall Temperature 0 C

HEAT LOSSES THROUGH FURNACE WALLS
The heat losses discussed in the preceding section are those incurred during steady, uninterrupted
operation. In actual practice, operating period -ON alternate with idle periods-OFF. During the off
period, the heat stored in the refractories in the ON-period is gradually dissipated, mainly through
radiation and convection from the cold face. In addition, some heat is abstracted by air flowing through
the furnace. Dissipation of stored heat is a low, because the lost heat is at least in part again imparted
to the refractories during the next ON- period, thus expending fuel to generate the heat. If a furnace is
operated 24 hr, every third day, practically all of the heat stored in the refractories is lost. But if the
furnace is operated 8 hours per day, not all the heat stored in the refractories is dissipated. For a
furnace with firebrick wall (350mm) thick it is estimated that 55% of the heat stored in the refractories
is dissipated from the cold surface during 16 hours idle period. Furnace wall built of insulating
refractories and encased in a shell reduce flow of heat to the surroundings. The loss can be further be
reduced by inserting a fiber blow between the insulating refractory and the steel casing. The general
question one asks is how much heat loss can be reduced by application of insulation. The answer is
ha it depends on the thickness of firebricks and of the insulation and on continuity of furnace operation.
The heat saving pattern with three of these variables are indicated in the table below:
Reduction of Wall Losses by Insulation, Percent
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Thickness of
Continuous
Operation
1 Week Cycle
1 Day Cycle; 6
Firebrick Wall
Insulation
Insulation
Insulation
Days per week
(mm)
(65mm)
(120mm)
(65mm)
Insulation
(65mm)
115
62
76
58
25
230
46
65
36
18
350
38
65
20
14
460
35
53
15
12
In the table, one-week cycle means continuous operation for 6 days of 24 hrs. For 5 days operation,
the savings reduced, approximately 10%, to one day cycle means 8 to 10 hr per day. The tabular
values must be reduced somewhat, if the wall is thick in comparison with the interior dimensions of the
furnace. The tabular values apply only to those furnaces which are covered entirely with insulation,
even under the binding.
To sum up, the heat losses from walls depend on
1) Inside temperature
2) Outside air temperature
3) Outside air velocity
4) Configuration of walls
5) Emissivity of walls
6) Thickness of walls
7) Conductivity of walls
The last two can be easily controlled by the furnace fabricator. The following conclusions can be
drawn:
i.
As the wall thickness increases, the heat losses reduce
ii.
As thickness of insulation is increased, heat losses reduce
iii.
The effect of insulation in reducing heat losses is more pronounced than the increase of wall
thickness (roughly 1 cm of insulation brick is equivalent to 5 to 8 cm of refractory firebrick)
iv.
In intermittent furnaces, thin walls of insulating refractories are preferable to thick walls of a normal
refractory for intermittent operation since less heat is stored in them.
v.
One approach to achieve less heat storage capacity would be to utilize insulating material itself to
form the inner refractory lining. Robust refractories with fairly god strength and spalling resistance
can be used for temperature in the range of 1300 C. They are termed as hot face insulation.
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Hot face insulating bricks are lighter than normal refractories, weighing only one third to one half
as much. Therefore, heat storage in the hot face insulation is very much reduced.
Example: A case on thermal insulation of an oil fired forging furnace

An oil fired furnace with 3.34 sq meter heart area and 350 mm thick side walls of fire bricks is operated
for about 8 hours a day. The furnace takes about one hour in the morning to attain the desired furnace
temperature of 1250C. Moreover, the radiation losses are considerable. With a view to cut down the
radiation loss and the heat storage or initial heating time of the furnace, it is desired to employ
insulation.
The seven proposals of employing various refractories and insulating bricks of various thicknesses
have been studied from fuel savings considerations. The replacement of refractories at the roof and
the doors side is not being considered.
1) 450 mm Firebrick
2) 350mm Firebrick (the existing one)
3) 350mm Firebrick + 115mm Cold face insulation
4) 230mm Firebrick + 115mm Hot face insulation + 75 mm Cold face insulation
5) 230mm Firebrick + 115mm Hot face insulation
6) 350mm hot face insulation
7) 350mm hot face insulation + 75mm cold face insulation
The various heat aspects are given in Tables A) & B) below. The calculations and figures given in the
table are on the following bases:
a. Furnace Dimensions, Hearth
= 1.83 m x 1.83 m
b. Side wall internal height up to the lower end of arch = 60 mm wall thickness = 350 mm firebrick
c.
For convenience only three sidewalls have been taken into consideration for calculating radiation
loss and initial heating time.
d. Initial heating time for proposal 2 (existing one) is 1 hour. For other proposals, the initial heating
time has been calculated on the basis of relative mass of the refractory with respect to the mass
associated with that of proposal 2.
e. The furnace operates for 8 hrs
f.
Steady state internal furnace temperature is 1250 C
g. Brick size = 230mm x 115mm x 75mm

h. Burner output at initial heating = 100 liters/hr (burner output at other times = 80 liters/hr avg )
3
i.
Density of firebrick = 1920 Kg/m
j.
Density of hot face insulation brick = 960 Kg/m
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k.
Density of cold face insulation brick = 480 Kg/m
l.
Coefficient of conductivity in Kcal/hr m C of
Fire Brick = 1.30
Hot face insulation = 0.414
Cold face insulation = 0.207
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m. Calorific value of furnace oil = 10300 Kcal/kg

n. The bricks employed in various proposals can withstand the interfacial temperature obtained in
actual operation of the furnace
o. Percentage heat utilized in the heating of the material and refractories = 50%, i.e. of every 100
Kcal by oil, 50 Kcals are carried away be stack and 50 Kcals are available for raising temperature
of furnace and materials.
TABLE - A
Proposal
Wall
No. of
Corresponding
Radiation
no.
Thickness
Bricks
mass of
Losses
used
refractories
Kcal/hr/m
(Kg)
Total
Initial
Radiation
heating to
in 8hrs
attain the
operation
furnace
Kcal
temperature
in minutes
450 mm
1
Firebrick
83
12.73 x 10
60
66
57
900
3430
2390
10.71 x 10
650
2482
3040
2720
1085
4.85 x 10
2350
1085
4.75 x 10
350mm
Firebrick (the
2
existing one)
350mm
Firebrick +
3
115mm Cold
face insulation
230mm
Firebrick +
650
250
450
250
115mm Hot
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Proposal
Wall
No. of
Corresponding
Radiation
no.
Thickness
Bricks
mass of
Losses
used
refractories
Kcal/hr/m
(Kg)
Total
Initial
Radiation
heating to
in 8hrs
attain the
operation
furnace
Kcal
temperature
in minutes
115mm Hot
face insulation
+ 75 mm Cold
face insulation
230mm
Firebrick +
5
450
115mm Hot
52
30
33
2150
1845
7.73 x 10
1240
1085
4.55 x 10
1384
760
3.33 x 10
250
face insulation
350mm hot
6
face insulation
650
350mm hot
face insulation
7
650
+ 75mm cold
164
face insulation
(Note 1 Kcal = 3.55 Btu)
TABLE - B
Proposal
Initial heating
Oil used
Heat loss in 8hrs
Equivalent oil
Total oil
no.
to attain the
in light
operation in Kcal
consumption
consumption
furnace
up
corresponding
equivalent to heat
temperature
(gallons
to 8 hrs losses
losses (gallons
in minutes
per day)
(gallons per
per day)
day)
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Proposal
Initial heating
Oil used
Heat loss in 8hrs
Equivalent oil
Total oil
no.
to attain the
in light
operation in Kcal
consumption
consumption
furnace
up
corresponding
equivalent to heat
temperature
(gallons
to 8 hrs losses
losses (gallons
in minutes
per day)
(gallons per
per day)
day)
4
42
33
2.7
31.7
2.6
27.6
4.3
27.3
2.5
15.5
1.8
15.8
83
36
10.71 x 10
60
26
12.73 x 10
66
29
4.85 x 10
57
25
4.75 x 10
52
23
7.73 x 10
30
13
4.55 x 10
33
14
3.33 x 10
Design and Constructional Aspects

The life of an installation may be shortened due to faulty design or improper construction in spite of the
selection of the right type of refractory. Some of the important aspects of refractory construction are:
Bond: Bond in brickwork is an arrangement by which the joints between the bricks are staggered in
all directions in a pre-determined manner. This ensures stability in construction as well as air tightness.
An all header construction is recommended in the hot face of a furnace where heavy refractory wear is
anticipated either due to action of molten metal slag or dust laden gas moving at high velocities.
Where intermittent repairs to the walls are expected, the working layer is built separately from the main
wall.
Wall Thickness: Structural stability should be taken into consideration while deciding the wall
thickness. Walls of 115mm thickness are not constructed beyond a height of one meter without proper
anchorage. From the stability point of view minimum thickness should be around 230mm, which may
be suitably increased as the height goes up. Use of metallic sheets with anchoring arrangements,
improves the stability of the wall where basic refractories are used. Such anchoring of walls with the
furnace structure should have sliding arrangement to take care of the movement of refractories during
heating up and cooling down.
Joints: The joints form a small part of the lining of the vessels but they have two important functions.
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1) To assemble the pieces (bricks or blocks) together;

2) To absorb thermal expansion and to limit the stresses generated in the masonry.
The joints may be either mortared joints (i.e. granular material with matrix and voids) or dry (without
mortar) joints. In either case, the stress/strain behavior of the joint interface differs considerably. The
joints constitute the weak part of the wear lining.
At room temperature, compressibility of the joints is around 20%. At 1200C, the mortar becomes
more and more plastic and its compressibility approaches 50%.
Mortar Joints: Mortar joints will improve the stability of construction. It also takes care of slight
variation in sizes as well as warpages by offering a uniform bedding surface. The mortar joints should
be as thin as possible especially where they are in contact with molten metal slag, etc. as in the case
of ladles handling molten metals. This can be achieved where the construction is limited to standard
bricks. But where special bulky shapes are involved a thicker joint has to be provided as a design
allowance. Chemical and physical properties of mortar should be identical to that of the bricks, which
they are joining. Workability of the mortar is important, in the absence of which, good construction is
not possible. The excess mortar applied to the brick surface should come out from the edges when
one brick is tapped against the other, to ensure that the joints are full and that there is not open gap.
Expansion Joints: As explained earlier, refractories expand on heating up. Suitable provisions
should be made at the time of construction for this expansion to take place without creating undue
stresses, which may result in failure of the refractories. Usually, expansion joints are built in as the
construction proceeds. The necessary provision is made depending on the expansion characteristic of
the particular refractory at the operating temperature. Care should be taken to see that the expansion
allowance provided is just sufficient, as any excess provision will have open joints, after heating up of
the furnace, which will have detrimental effects. In practice, it has been found that if one could provide
for just one half of the theoretical expansion it would suffice. The remaining one half will be absorbed
by the mortal joints, or even dry joints between the bricks. In some cases, expansion joints are not built
in; either they are provided for at the ends or alternatively the movement of the structural to move
under controlled loads. Expansion joints must be kept free from foreign mater like clay or brick dust. It
is preferable to fill it with some combustible material like saw dust, corrugated paper, cardboard,
wooden shavings etc.
Structural Support: Refractories are normally held in position with steel shell or a structural
framework comprising backstays and tie rods as failure of structural by other reasons will cause partial
failure or even total collapse of refractories. Their alignment, shape etc should be equal concern.
Periodical checks on the structure should be done, as these are likely to lose strength by fatigue. Also
important is that the structural should not get overheated, and therefore, it should be adequately
insulated wherever required.
Engineering Analysis of Refractories
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Engineering analysis is a methodology used to examine wear mechanisms, stress and behavior of the
various parts of the refractory assembly lining (brick joints, expansion joint allowances). This assembly
method governs the interactions between the bricks, on the one hand, and between refractories and
the steel shell on the other hand.
The most common simulation tool adopted by researchers for conducting a reliable refractory
investigation is the finite element method (FEM). The objective of a lining simulation is to provide
insight into the application of refractory materials to better resist the stress environments developed in
the refractory lining components under various operating conditions. A lining investigation is usually
conducted in two steps:
The first is an evaluation of the thermal response of the lining system, which may be either
steady-state or transient;
The second step of the lining analysis consists in evaluating the thermal stresses and strain
fields within the lining system.
Analysis is also performed on the mechanisms of the origin of the stress states and displacements and
how they relate to the component fracture.
Ways to reduce slag penetration

Slag attack of refractories involves dissolution or diffusion, penetration, and erosion
i.
Change wetting characteristics of slag
ii.
Reduce wet ability of refractory
iii.
Reduce interconnected porosity in refractory
iv.
Change the pore-size distribution
v.
Induce in-situ microstructure changes to seal the refractory
vi.
Devising effective means of slag removal
vii.
Additives to create low viscosity slag to permit effective tapping

80% chromia brick with phosphate additive had much less slag penetration than 90% chromia brick,
after 24 hrs at 1600C.
Fusion-cast 80% chromia-MgO showed best corrosion resistance. Fusion-cast 80% chromia magnesia
spinel was most slag resistant, but thermal shock resistance is a suspect.
Sintered 80% chromia-MgO and 75% chromia-alumina had low corrosion and less costly.
Refractory Applications
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Refractories serve as protection for the shell of kilns and furnaces, against excessive high
temperatures. It provides lining for high temperature furnaces, reactors and other processing units.
Refractories deteriorate and wear due to chemical and mechanical constraints of various intensities.
These mechanical constraints lead to frequent failures and degradation of refractories, through
cracking, spalling of materials, by creep rupture, by joint failure of the brick mortar systems.
The metallurgical equipments are apt to experience slag attack, erosion by fluidized particles, thermal
shock, and other destructive forces. Refractory selection for the lining of equipment is invariably built
upon a combination of material qualities, and brick size to maximize the performance.
Because of increasing competitiveness in industry, the refractory developments have occurred largely
as the result of the pressure for improvement caused by the persistent search for superior
metallurgical processes. The research is mainly attributed to extending refractory life and increasing
reliability of the materials.
Iron and Steel

Iron and Steel industry is the major consumer of refractories with about 70% of refractories being
consumed by them.
The different areas of the steel manufacturing processes are exposed to different temperatures, slag
and sulphur gases. The diversity in the operating conditions of different equipment's demands different
grades for different areas of application.
Refractory selection for the lining of a furnace is invariably built upon a combination of material
qualities, and brick size to maximize the performance. Preferential wear in the hot spots and at the
slag line is reduced by careful material selection, together with an understanding of the particular
practice.
Steel industry use refractory for diverse applications:
Blast Furnace
Coke Ovens
Torpedo Ladles
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Twin Hearth Furnace
Energy Optimizing Furnace
Secondary Refining Ladles
Stainless Steel Vessels
Slide Gate Refractories
Purging Refractories
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Tundish Refractories
Induction Furnace
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A comprehensive range of materials for basic oxygen steel making processes are based upon
magnesia graphite, which incorporates fused and or sintered magnesia with either a pitch or resin
bonding system. A high strength product incorporating a variety of metal additions is included to
provide high performance products. Typically, the major elements that are subjected to refractory lining
are described below:
Sub hearth
The sub hearth of the furnace has an extended lifetime in comparison with other components of the
lining, and is only replaced after severe metal penetration through the working hearth or after major
water leakage.
Sub hearth linings are normally constructed with high quality magnesite bricks.
Working Hearth
The working hearth is required to withstand high temperature, temperature cycling, and impact from
the scrap charge. Current furnace designs favor monolithic linings based upon high MgO powders
rammed into placed and contoured into the sidewalls. Some furnace operations do however permit
and prefer brick hearths, generally based upon pitch impregnated fired magnesite.
Sidewalls
Within the sidewall area there are three main zones, the slag line, the hot spots and the remainder.
Balanced lining wear is the main criteria of the furnace refractory performance, and this requires
zoning of the lining by both material quality and thickness. The majority of furnaces incorporate
magnesite-carbon products into the sidewall, and their performance is influenced by both the base raw
material, and graphite content. Performance is markedly increased as the crystal size of the magnesite
increased to the ultimate by the use of fused magnesia. Increase of graphite content also follows the
same pathway, although carbon retention is important, and this may be improved by the inclusion of
finely divided metals.
Main Sidewall
The areas in the sidewall that gives rise to least difficulty are those between the hot spots, the socalled 'cold spots'.
The major factors influencing refractory performance are temperature, and slag splash, and in watercooled furnaces a magnesite carbon of at least 10% graphite content is preferred.
Hot Spots
Wear in the hotspots is similar to that in the main sidewall, but is exacerbated by temperature owing to
electrode flare.
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Higher quality magnesite carbon with graphite content of 20% and based upon either large crystal size
or fused magnesia is preferred. Where oxy-fuel burners are employed, oxidation of the carbon can
take placed, and this may be reduced by magnesite carbon materials incorporating finely divided
metals.
Slagline
The aggressive nature of slag fluidizers such as fluorspar has a detrimental effect upon slag line
performance. Materials based upon high quality magnesite, or in severe cases, large crystal size or
fused magnesia are preferred. Where high iron oxide slags are encountered magnesite carbon
materials incorporating metal additions are preferred.
Burner Ports and Slag Door
These areas of the furnace are subjected to wear by oxidation, and by impact of slag doorjambs.
Magnesite carbon with metal additions is important in these areas.
Roof
Electric arc furnace roofs have a high degree of water-cooling, and as such require little refractory
material. The delta between the electrodes is invariably formed using a monolithic material or precast
shape, but refractory bricks are often used to form the electrode ports. Materials in this area require
good thermal shock and abrasion resistance, and high alumina materials are seen to advantage.
Where the furnace roof is bricked, these are subjected to high thermal loading, and slag splash.
Phosphate bonded heat treated materials offer good resistance to slab and spalling in the roof.
Nozzles
A wide range of atomizing and metering nozzles are available that are based upon Zircon based
products and stabilized Zirconia. The nozzles are manufactured in a wide range of shapes, sizes and
designs flexible to the requirements of customer specifications.
Copper Industry
In Copper Industry, Direct Bonded Magnesia Chrome Brick is the most popular choice worldwide.
The bulk of copper smelting is produced using flash smelters followed by reverberatory furnaces.
Flash furnaces have major benefits over reverberatory furnaces, particularly in fuel efficiency, and
increased yield.
The other type of copper smelting include; Isa Furnace, Pierce Smith Converters, Anode refining
Furnace, Rotary Holding Furnace, Slag Cleaning Electric Arc Furnace, etc
A comprehensive range of products for the traditional and advanced smelting processes is primarily
based upon magnesite -chrome products for the working lining with alumino - silicate materials for the
intermediate and safety linings. A complete range of refractory mortars and monolithics is also
available.
Smelting Process
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Primary smelting vessels, whether they are flash furnaces, reverberatory furnaces or electric arc
furnaces; all subject the refractory lining to attack by slag and sulphur gases. The slag composition is
normally high in Fe2O3 and SiO2, both of which attack magnesia in the refractory to form magnesioferrite, and Forsterite, whilst the sulphur present in the vapor phase also attacks magnesia to form
magnesium sulphate. All reactions in the refractory system are accompanied by volume expansion,
leading to crack formation behind the working face, which are then lost during temperature cycling.
Direct bonded magnesite -chrome refractories are the preferred materials in contact with copper slags,
owing to their greater tolerance to acidic slags. Improved products based upon pre-sintered clinker
and/or fused grain clinkers also show further benefit.
The Converter
The copper converter carries similar slags to those found in the smelting process, together with
sulphurous gases, and consequently similar modes of refractory attack take place. Preferential wear
frequently takes place at the tuyere line of the converter owing to the combination of slag attack and
thermal shock. High hot strength chrome - magnesite with good thermal shock resistance is a
prerequisite.
Anode Furnace
There is little slag present in the Anode furnace, but the refractory lining is in contact with highly
penetrative molten copper and cuprous oxide. Penetration of the refractory material with copper leads
to disruptive failure owing to crack formation at the limit of penetration. Reaction between copper oxide
and silica in the refractory leads to the formation of low melting point compound, which exacerbate the
formation of cracks, and loss of the working face.
The working environment of the Anode furnace demands chrome - magnesite material with high hot
strength to minimize copper penetration and disruptive loss of the working face.
Slag Cleaning Furnace
The slag-cleaning furnace has special requirements depending upon the slag practice.
With a frozen slag practice, as the name implies, it is necessary to maintain a frozen slag layer on the
refractory lining, requiring a highly conductive refractory lining.
Direct bonded Magnesite - chrome materials with good hot strength are the preferred refractory lining
Practices using an 'active molten slag layer' require a refractory material with good slag and
penetration resistance. Direct bonded Chrome - magnesite materials perform well in this application.
Aluminum Industry
Refractories in Aluminum industry are commonly utilized in several equipment's like
Anode Baking Furnaces
Melting / Holding Furnaces
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Induction Furnaces
Ladles and Launders
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Most common refractories utilized in Aluminum Industry include:
Super duty Fireclay & High Alumina Bricks
Phosphate Bonded High Alumina Bricks
The special requirements for refractories in Aluminum industry are
Resistance to Aluminum penetration
High Strength
High Corrosion resistance
Wide ranges of products are offered to meet the requirement of diverse application conditions. Range
of products for Aluminum contact applications includes Insulating, dense, Low Cement and Ultra Low
Cement Castables. These products are not only reaction resistant to Aluminum contact but also totally
non-wetting.
Cement Industry
Cement manufacturing has undergone transformation from wet process kiln to multi stage Pre Calciner
Kilns. Refractory in cement production is required for
Pre-calciners
Rotary Kiln
Coolers and
Ducts
Cement Rotary Kiln is the heart of any cement plant directly influencing the plant productivity. Nature
of stresses is different in different areas, necessitating different quality of refractories for different
zones.
Common refractory materials used are
Dolomite
Magnesia-Chrome Spinel
Magnesia-Alumina Spinel
Fireclay and
High Alumina
The cement kiln clinker area is usually provided with Dolomite refractories. Advantages of Dolomite
refractories for cement are well established worldwide. It is found to be the most compatible material
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with the cement kiln clinker as it provides excellent coating stability, has very good resistance to
thermal shock & alkali attack in varying kiln operating conditions. The refractories with Zirconia
enrichment are used for crack arresting
The Transition zone / Preheat zone / Preheater Precalinator areas are usually provided with
Magnesia-Alumina spinel variety with high thermoelastic and thermo mechanical property and various
grades of high alumina bricks (45-80% Al2O3) with high strength.
Glass Industry
The glass industry furnaces are categorized by
1) High operating temperature
2) High Insulation of crown
3) High pull rates and low melting Rates
4) Corrosive vapors and Batch dust
The bonded refractories are utilized in the following areas of furnace:
Melter
Refiner
Regenerator
Dog House and
Ports of furnace
Zirconia is useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily since it is not easily wetted by molten
glass and because of its low reaction with them.
Melter/Refiner: Refractories are needed for superstructure, crown and bottom. The important
characteristics of the refractories in these areas are
High Alkali Vapor Resistance
High hot strength
High Corrosion Resistance
Crown: The furnace crowns are heavily insulated to reduce the energy loss. The important
characteristics of refractory to meet this requirement are
Very Low flux factor <0.5- high hot strength
Very low residual quartz <0.5% good volume stability at service temperature
High alkali vapor resistance
Close dimensional tolerances required for laying with zero joint concept.
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Regenerators: Regenerator in single or multi pass design is a common energy saving measure
adopted. The basic requirement of the glassmaker from a regenerator is to maximize the heat
recovery from outgoing gases apart from a long trouble free campaign life. This coupled with the
increase in melting rates and use of alternative fuels has increased the severity of the working
conditions in regenerator, subjecting the refractories to adverse chemical attack and high
temperatures.
To achieve optimum energy saving and long campaign life the refractories for such areas should be
selected for
High thermal shock resistance
High hot strength
High creep resistance at service temperature
High heat transfer
Checker Work: Regenerator checker system is a most vital component of a glass tank furnace from
the point of energy saving. To increase the efficiency of heat transfer coupled with long campaign life,
the design of checker brickwork and the quality of checker bricks play a vital role.
To withstand the onslaught of the batch dust, high temperature and thermal cycling, the products are
characterized by
High thermal shock resistance
High resistance to the chemical attack of batch dust
High heat transfer
The needs of the different regions of the regenerator are different with condensation zone being the
most critical zone.
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Appendix -A
Table -1 below contains the physical properties of the conventional pitch and resin bonded brick and
the burned and impregnated magnesia brick.
Table 2 contains the physical properties of the magnesia-carbon refractory with 15% graphite
content.
Physical properties of various types of magnesia refractory bricks

Property
Pitch Bond
Resin Bond
192
192
191
196
193
1100
3000
3000
3500
2500
500
--
--
--
--
150
300
1500
--
--
--
--
--
1250
1400
4.5
4.5
4.5
9.0
9.0
9.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
Residual Carbon
(%)
5.0
5.0
5.0
Slag Resistance
(%)
100
100
75
Pore size <4m
25
20
60
Bulk Density (pdf)
Resin +
Antioxidant
Burned +
Impreg
Burned +
Impreg
Mod. of Rup. (psi)

At 70F
At 950F
At 2550F
At 2800F
Porosity (%)
As received
Coked
Ignited
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Physical properties of magnesia-carbon bricks containing 15% graphite

Property
Bulk Density (pdf)
Conventional
97 MgO + 95
Graphite
99 MgO + 99
Graphite
97 MgO + 99 C +
Antiox.
177
182
182
170
5.75
4.35
4.30
4.25
10.75
9.35
9.00
3.40
1910
2220
2160
2210
2160
2100
2160
2050
870
970
1060
2180
15
15
15
15
1.00
0.70
0.20
0.20
1.90
1.90
0.60
0.60
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.03
0.03
Trace
Trace
Porosity (%)
As received
Coked
Mod. Of Rup. (psi)

At 70F
At 2550F
After Coking at 2550F
Chemical Analysis
Graphite
SiO2
CaO
Fe2O3
B2O3
B2O3
Page 41 of 41

Refractory Materials Overview

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Refractory Materials Overview

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Overview of Refractory Materials

Phase Constitution of Refractory Materials

What are Refractories used for?

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MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)

What are Refractories made off?

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MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)

Thoria, ThO2 Pure Sintered

Magnesia, MgO, Pure Sintered

Zirconia, ZrO2, Pure Sintered

Beryllia, BeO, Pure Sintered

Silicon Carbide, SiC, Pure

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MELTING TEMPERATURES (F)

Alumina, Al2O3, Pure Sintered

Chromite, 38%, Cr2O3

Alumina Fused Bauxite

Silicon Carbide, 80-90%

Kaolin, Al2O3 -, SiO2

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5) Cold Crushing Strength:

6) Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

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7) Refractoriness under load:

8) Creep at high temperature:

9) Volume stability, expansion and shrinkage at high temperature:

A chemical reaction, which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.

The formation of liquid phase

Reversible Thermal Expansion:

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How are Refractories Classified?

Classification Based on Chemical Composition

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Classification Based on Method of Manufacture

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Classification Based on Physical Form

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TYPICAL REFRACTORIES IN INDUSTRIAL USE

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High Alumina Refractories

d. Alumina-carbon brick - high-alumina brick (usually bonded by a resin) containing a

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Dead Burned Magnesite

Highly unreactive MgO

Refractory raw material

Available in a range of purities

Available in lump or graded

Available in lump form

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How is Magnesia Produced?

Generic Specification - Dead Burned Magnesite

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Generic Specification Fused Magnesite

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115 m m Red Brick

Existing Flue Wall

METHOD OF ATTACHING INSULATION TO AN