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Introduction.................................................................................................
Stress intensity ............................................................................................
Categorization of stresses .........................................................................
4.3.1 Primary stress .................................................................................
4.3.2 Secondary stress .............................................................................
4.3.3 Peak stress .......................................................................................
4.4 Stress limits .................................................................................................
4.5 Special stress limits....................................................................................
4.6 Practical aspects of stress categorization ...............................................
4.7 Shape factor considerations......................................................................
References .............................................................................................................
Problems................................................................................................................
4.1 Introduction
First of all we need to define the term stress. Stress is a tensor quantity
(neither a vector nor a scalar) that depends on the direction of applied load
as well as on the plane it acts. Generally speaking, at a given plane there are
both normal and shear stresses. However, there are planes within a
structural component (that is being subjected to mechanical or thermal
loads) that contain no shear stress. Such planes are called principal planes
and the directions normal to those planes are called principal directions.
The normal stresses (only stresses in those planes) are called principal
stresses. For a general three-dimensional stress state there are always three
principal planes along which the principal stresses act. In mathematical
terms we can say that the problem of principal stresses is an eigenvalue
problem, with the magnitudes of the principal stresses being the
eigenvalues and their directions (normal to the planes on which they act)
being the eigenvectors. Principal stress calculations form an essential
activity for a general stress analysis problem.
4:1
The stress intensity, SI, is then the largest absolute value of the stress
differences, or in other words
SI max S1;2 ; S2;3 ; S1;3
4:2
4.3.1
Primary stress
(for a discussion on limit load and the lower bound theorem see Appendix
C). When the limit load is exceeded, gross deformation takes place, hence
the qualification not self-limiting.
A further elaboration of primary stresses is provided in a definition by
Pastor and Hechmer where they state:
Primary stresses are those that can cause ductile rupture or a
complete loss of load-carrying capability due to plastic collapse
of the structure upon a single application of load. The purpose of
the Code limits on primary stress is to prevent gross plastic
deformation and to provide a nominal factor of safety on the
ductile burst pressure.2
Primary stresses are further divided into three types: general primary
membrane (Pm), local primary membrane (PL), and primary bending (Pb).
Quite often the concepts of general primary membrane stress and local
primary membrane stress are used interchangeably; the local primary
membrane stress representing a general primary membrane stress along a
local structural discontinuity. The rigorous definition of the general primary
membrane stress is the average primary stress across a solid section
produced by mechanical loads, and excludes discontinuities and concentrations. The local primary membrane stress is defined as also the average
stress across any solid section, but includes discontinuities. However, the
general primary membrane stress is one that is so distributed in the
structure that no redistribution of load occurs as a result of yielding. The
failure mode associated with the general primary membrane stress and the
local primary membrane stress are meant to be different; the general
primary membrane stress leads to gross distortion with no redistribution,
and the local primary membrane stress to excessive plastic deformation
with redistribution of load.
The primary bending is the component of primary stress proportional to
the distance from the centroid of the solid section, and is produced by
mechanical loads. This definition excludes discontinuities and concentration. The concept of bending stress is akin to the situation of beam bending,
with a neutral axis along the center line with regions of tension and
compression. The membrane stress is the component having a constant
value through the section and represents an average value.
4.3.2
Secondary stress
strain-controlled condition. Secondary stresses occur at structural discontinuities and can be caused by mechanical load or differential thermal
expansion. The local stress concentrations are not considered for
secondary stresses. There is no need for further dividing the secondary
stress into membrane and bending categories. In terms of secondary stress
we imply secondary membrane and bending in combination.
4.3.3
Peak stress
Location
Remote from
discontinuities
Junction with head or
flange
Any section across
entire vessel
Near nozzle or other
opening
Any location
Dished head or
conical head
Flat head
Crown
Origin of stress
Internal pressure
Axial thermal gradient
External load or moment, or
internal pressure
External load or moment
External load or moment, or
internal pressure
Temperature difference between
shell and head
Internal pressure
Internal pressure
Knuckle or junction to
shell
Center region
Internal pressure
Junction to shell
Internal pressure
Type of stress
General membrane
Through thickness gradient
Membrane
Bending
General membrane averaged
across full section
Bending across full section
Local membrane
Bending
Peak (fillet or corner)
Membrane
Bending
Membrane
Bending
Membrane
Bending
Membrane
Bending
Membrane
Bending
Classification
Pm
Q
Q
Q2
Pm
Pm
PL
Q
F
Q
Q
Pm
Pb
PL3
Q
Pm
Pb
PL
Q2
Notes:
1
Q and F classification of stresses refers to other than design condition.
2
If the bending moment at the edge is required to maintain the bending stress in the middle to acceptable limits, the edge bending is classified as Pb .
Otherwise it is classified as Q.
3
Consideration should also be given to the possibility of wrinkling and excessive deformation in vessels with large diameter to thickness ratio.
Sm
Sm
4:3
PL Pb 1:5Sm
These limits are sometimes higher than the actual operating conditions.
It is the intent of the design code that the limit on primary plus secondary
stresses be applied to the actual operating conditions. For normal and upset
conditions (sometimes indicated as levels A and B), the range of primary
and secondary stresses, PL Pb Q is not allowed to exceed 3Sm, or
PL Pb Q
range
3Sm
4:4
4:5
4:6
4:7
The limit on the sum of the principal stresses becomes equal to 4Sm or
1 2 3 < 4Sm
4:8
p
A
4:9
Pb
6m
t2
4:10
Here p is the load and m the bending moment per unit length of the
shell.
3. Guideline 3 defines stress classification lines (SCL) and stress
classification planes (SCP) for the purpose of evaluating membrane
and bending stresses. An SCL is shown in Figure 4.1.
4:11
2. Testing condition:
Pm 0:9Sy
Pm Pb 0:9Sy ; forPm 0:67Sy
Pm Pb 0:90:1 =1 Sy 1=1 Pm
4:12
4:13
For non full sections such as the I-sections and T-sections the values of
and have been calculated by Chattopadhyay4 and are:
I Section: 1.2, 0.55
T Section: 1.7, 0.75
The procedure for obtaining and will be discussed later.
Figures 4.3 to 4.6 give the interaction curves for circle, diamond, I- and
T-sections respectively and have been obtained using techniques outlined
in Appendix C. These interaction curves represent the upper limits of (Pm
Pb) as a function of Pm. It is possible to observe certain characteristics in all
these figures. At Pm 0, the limiting value of (Pm Pb) is the shape factor of
the cross-section times the yield strength (Sy). Then (Pm Pb) increases
with Pm, reaches a peak and then drops to Sy when Pm reaches Sy. The
peak value of (Pm Pb) is strongly dependent on the geometry of the
cross-section. Another feature that is noteworthy is that different crosssections can have identical shape factors, but differ significantly in the
interaction characteristics (see Figures 4.3 and 4.6).
For rectangular cross-sections, a closed-form mathematical expression
describes the interaction curve. For an arbitrary cross-section, no such
expression exists, and a large number of computations are necessary to
obtain the interaction curve at discrete values of Pm and (Pm Pb). For
certain sections where no abrupt changes in boundary occur, the interaction
curves may be approximated by analytical expressions involving the shape
factor, . Such cross sections may be referred to as full sections. (Note
that an I- or a T-section cannot be called a full section). Examples of full
sections include rectangular, circular, diamond and trapezoidal sections.
The interaction curve for a rectangular section as shown in Figure 4.2
can be mathematically described as
2
!2 3
Pm Pb
P
m
5 Pm
1:541
Sy
Sy
Sy
4:14
Pm Pb
Sy
and
x
Pm
Sy
4:15
4:16
1
1
at x
4
2
4:17
Furthermore,
y when x 0;
1
4:18
The results from Eqs. (4.17) and (4.18) may be used to define domains of
applicability of various stress limits. The interaction curves based on exact
methods using Appendix B and those using Eq. (4.15) are shown in Figure
4.7 for the circular and diamond sections. The exact and the approximate
solutions are not too different from each other.
For sections that are not full, the above approximations to the interaction
curves cannot be used, and each point on the interaction curve has to be
obtained explicitly. For such sections, Eq. (4.18) is replaced with
y when x 0;
4:19
References
1. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
ASME, New York.
2. Pastor, T.P., and Hechmer, J.L., ASME Task Group Report on Primary Stress,
J. Pressure Vessel Technol., 119, 1997.
3. Hechmer, J.L., and Hollinger, G.L. Three-dimensional stress criteria
summary of the PVRC project, J. Pressure Vessel Technol., 122, 105109, 2000.
4. Chattopadhyay, S., Allowable stresses for nonrectangular sections under
combined axial and bending loads, J. Pressure Vessel Technol., 110, 188193,
1988.
5. Seely, F.B., and Smith, J.O., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 2nd ed., Wiley,
New York, 1952.
6. Hodge, P.G., Plastic Analysis of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
Problems
1. Determine the interaction curve for a thin-walled I-beam of height h
and width h/2 and having a wall thickness of t (t<<h).
2. Determine the interaction curve for a thin-walled T-beam of height h
and width h/2 and having a wall thickness of t (t<<h).
3. Determine the interaction curve for a thin-walled circular beam of
radius R and a wall thickness of t (t<<h).