Chemistry

O-Level IGCSE
Summary
Dr . Mohamad Habib
01020550220

Acids & Bases

NH3 (g)

Acids

HCl

Ammonia diffuses faster than HCl

so putting two damp litmus papers
on red & one blue : the red one will
blue first the the blue will turn red

NH4Cl (s)

(g)

H+ donor / pH less than 7 / damp blue litmus turn red

Acids
Strong

Acidic salts

Acidic oxide
Weak

ammonium salts

CO2 SO2
SO3 NO2
P4O10

CH3COOH
H2SO3
HNO2
H2CO3

HCl
HBr
H2SO4
HNO3

Ex: NH4Cl
Hydrogen carbonate salts

KHCO3

Bases H+ acceptor / pH more than 7 / damp red litmus turn blue

Alkali

Metal hydroxide

Soluble metal hydroxide Insoluble metal hydroxide

Strong

Weak Ca(OH)2
NH4OH Fe(OH)2
Cu(OH)

NaOH
KOH

Metal carbonate Gases

Basic oxide

All metal oxides & metal sulphite

except Zn & Al
ZnSO3 CuCO3

Fe(OH)3
Ba(OH)2 MgO
CaO

CaSO3

MgCO3
BaCO3

CuO
Fe2O3

NH3

Reactions Acid + Base

Salt + water
* Neutralization
Carbonate gives CO & sulphite gives SO
OH
NH Cl
+ HO
* HHClSO + 2NHNaOH
Na SO + 2 H O
* 2 HNO + Ba(OH)
Ba(NO ) + 2 H O
+
*
MgSO
H SO +
MgO
+ HO
* 2 HCl
CuCl
CuO
+ HO
* 2 HNO + CuCO
Cu(NO ) + H O + CO
+
*
CaCl
+ CaSO
+ H O + SO
* 2HHCl
SO
(NH ) SO
+ 2 NH
* H SO
(NH
CH ) SO
2
NH
(CH
)
* CO + Ca(OH)
CaCO
+
+ HO
*
* Precipitation Reactions
KNO
+ AgI
* KI + AgNO
Cu(NO ) + BaSO
+ Ba(NO )
* 2CuSO
Na PO + 3 ZnCl
6 NaCl + 2 Zn (PO )
* FeCl
3 NaCl + Fe(OH)
+ 3 NaOH
* Redox Reactions H
CuO
Cu
+ HO
+
* CuO
Cu
CO
+ CO
* Mg + CuSO
MgSO + Cu
*
01020550220
Dr. Mohamad Habib
(any type)

hydroxide

3 2

hydroxide

4 (aq)

4 (aq)

4 2

oxide

oxide

3 2

hydroxide

Carbonate
sulphite

3 2

the formation of insoluble (ppt) solid from two aqueous solutions

4 (s)

3 2

3 2

(s)

4 2

Losing or gaining : Oxygen, hydrogen, or electrons

2

* Ionic Equations

01020550220

Dr. Mohamad Habib

Ionic equation represent the ions that changed only omitting the others which didn't change

Ionic equation must be balanced in the no. of atoms & the no. of charges on both sides

* Equation

+ NaOH
+ Cl + Na + OH
H
+ OH

+ HO
+ Cl + H O

HCl
H+

* Ionic equation
* Equation H SO

2-

2-

* Ionic3 equations
Mg
2 V2+
Pb2+

+
+
+

2-

2+

2+

2+

2+

2-

2+

2+

2+

2-

+ H O+ CO
SO + Cu + H O + CO
H O + CO
MgCl
+ H
Mg + 2 Cl + H
Mg + H
ZnSO + Cu
Zn + SO + Cu
Zn
+ Cu
I
2 KCl +
2 K +2 Cl + I
2 Cl + I

2-

CuSO4

2+

Na+
H2 O

+ CuCO
2 H + SO + Cu + CO
* Ionic equation 2 H + CO
Mg
+ 2 HCl
* Equation
Mg + 2 H + 2 Cl
* Ionic equation Mg + 2 H
Zn + CuSO
* Equation
Zn + Cu + SO
*Ionic equation Zn + Cu
Cl
* Equation
+ 2 KI
Cl + 2 K + 2 I
* Ionic equation Cl + 2 I
2

NaCl

3 Mg2+

2 Fe3+
I2

+
+

2 Fe

2 I2 V3+
PbCl2 (s)

2 Cl-

Reducing agents (reductant) & Oxidizing agents (Oxidant)

Oxidation the process of gaining oxygen, losing hydrogen or losing electrons
Reduction the process of losing oxygen, gaining hydrogen or gaining electrons
Oxidizing agent The substance which gives (loses) oxygen or takes hydrogen or gains electrons
Reducing agent The substance which gains oxygen or loses (gives) hydrogen or loses electrons

Oxidation
oxidizing agent
lost oxygen gained electrons

H2 +

reducing agent
gained oxygen

gains/takes electrons

oxidizing agent

Mg + CuSO4

reducing agent

lost/gives electrons

Cu +

CuO

H2O

Reduction
Oxidation

MgSO4 + Cu
Reduction

the process of

losing electrons

gaining oxygen
losing hydrogen

the process of
losing oxygen
gaining hydrogen

gaining electrons

Reducing agent

Oxidizing agent
The substance which
gives (loses) oxygen

gains electrons

takes hydrogen

CO2

metal ion

O2

Ag+

2CO Zn+Cu2+

C + CO2

less reactive metal oxide

CuO
H2+CuO

Cu+H2O

Cl2 + 2Na

Cu2+
Zn2++Cu

H+/KMnO4
purple
colorless
Mn7+

2 Na+Cl-

Group (I)

The substance which

gains oxygen
loses (gives) hydrogen

CO

loses electrons

metal atom

H2

Fe2O3+3CO
2Fe+3CO2
K+Ag1+

Mn4+

H+/K2Cr2O7
orange
green
Cr3+
Cr6+

non-metal atom

Reduction

Oxidation

K1++Ag

non-metal ion
Br2+ 2I-

2Br- + I2

atom loses electron (reductant)

* Metal
Metal
ion gains electron (oxidant)
* Nonmetal
gains electron (oxidant)
* Nonmetal atom
ion
loses
electron (reductant)
*

density & it increases

* Lowdown
the group

*
* Low melting point & the M.P decrease down the group
Soft metals

* Very reactive & their reactivity increase down the group

compounds are white solids
Monovalent (+1)
* Their
*
ions are colorless
* Their
& hydrogen gas
* React violently with water giving alkali2KOH
+ H
2K + 2H O
React with oxygen forming basic oxide
all their
* 2Na
+ O
compounds are
Na O
React with halogens forming salts
soluble
* 2Na
+ Cl
2NaCl
compounds do NOT undergo thermal decomposition
* Their
except group (I) nitrates which gives metal nitrite & oxygen
no change
* K CO
no change
* Na SO
Dr. Mohamad Habib
2 NaNO + O
*2 NaNO
01020550220
{ XOH }

( X2O )

( X2O )

(2 products)

*
* Low melting point & the M.P decrease down the group

Group (II)

Low density & it increases down the group

but less reactive than group1 &

* Reactive
compounds are white solids
Divalent (+2)
* Their
*
(
X
)
ions are colorless
* Their
* React with water giving alkali & hydrogen gas

their reactivity increase down the

group

2+

Mg reacts with hot water

giving magnesium oxide & hydrogen

2MgO+H2

2Mg+2H2O

{ X(OH)2 } ( XO)

The rest react with cold water

giving metal hydroxide & hydrogen

Ba(OH)2 +H2

Ba+2H2O

React with oxygen forming basic oxide

* 2Ca
+ O
2CaO
with halogens forming salts
* React
Mg + Cl
MgCl
* Their compounds undergo thermal decomposition giving metal oxide
MgO + CO
* MgCO
CaO + SO
* CaSO
2 BaO + 4 NO + O
*2 Ba(NO )
SrO + H O
* Sr(OH)
( X2O )

3 2

CaCO3
Limestone

(3 products)

H2 O

CaO
Quick Lime

Ca(OH)2

H2 O

Slaked Lime

CO2

Ca(OH)2

CaCO3

Lime water

* Their compounds are white solids

Their ions are colorless
*
Al has lower density than transition metals

Aluminum & Zinc

* Al is more reactive than Zn but it reacts slower due to the

* insoluble oxide layer which takes time to dissolve ..
* The metals, their oxides & their hydroxide are amphoteric
Zn + 2HCl

Al2O3 + 6HCl

2AlCl3 + 3H2
2AlCl3 + 3H2O

ZnO + 2HCl

ZnCl2 + H2
ZnCl2 + H2O

Al(OH)3 + 3HCl

AlCl3 + 3H2O

Zn(OH)2 + 2HCl

ZnCl2 + H2O

2Al + 6HCl

Zn + 2KOH

2Al + 2NaOH

2NaAlO2 + H2

2Al2O3 + 4NaOH

4NaAlO2 +2H2O ZnO + 2KOH

2NaAlO2 +4H2O Zn(OH)2 + 2KOH

2Al(OH)3 +2NaOH
Dr. Mohamad Habib

K2ZnO2 + H2

K2ZnO2 + H2O
K2ZnO2 + 2H2O
01020550220

Dr. Mohamad Habib

Transition metals

01020550220

* High density * High melting point

Their compounds are colored
* They
more than one valency
* morehave
than one oxidation state

ions are colorled

* Their
have catalytic activity
* They
* Their compounds undergo thermal decomposition giving metal oxide
Halogens *Diatomic molecules (consist of two similar atoms)
Monovalent
*
Active & their activity decrease down the group
* Each
* element can replace (oxidize) the one below it in the group

F2

Cl2

Br2

I2

State

Gas

Gas

Liquid

Solid

Color

yellow

Greenish yellow

color of
aqueous
solution

colorless

color in
gas state

yellow

orange

colorless

Greenish yellow

*Halide ions are colorless

Cl2 + 2KI
colorless

Reddish brown

Reddish brown

Dark grey

Reddish brown

Purple

2KBr + I2

Reddish brown

States of matter

Room Temperature is 250 C

the melting point more than the room temperature

* IfIf the
point less than the room temperature
* If the Boiling
m.p below the room temperature & the b.p above

Solid

Gas

Liquid

room temperature

B.p

High

Ionic
compounds
High

M.p

High

High

Metals

Conductivity
as solid

Conductivity
as liquid

Simple
Covalent
Low

Low

Giant
Covalent
High

High

Electrolysis

Battery

< <

Cathode

<

<

* Endothermic
* Battery

< <
Anode

+
-

Electron acceptor
Oxidation happens
losing electrons

Electron donor
Reduction happens
gaining electrons

Electrolyte

a. Molten liquids
PbBr2(l)

(+)

(-)
metal ion reduced

nonmetal ion oxidized

Gas

2Br- - 2es

Metallic deposit

Br2

{ graphite electrode }

2+

Pb + 2es
b. Aqueous solution (concentrated)
NaCl(aq)

(+)

(-)
More reactive ion

The ion with higher

concentration
-

2Cl - 2es

2H+ + 2es

Cl2

{ graphite electrode }

CuCl2(aq)

(-)
More reactive ion

The ion with higher

concentration

4OH - 4es

SO4

ZnSO4(aq)
2-

never oxidizes at the anode

The ion with higher

concentration

4OH - 4es

2H2O + O2

{ Copper electrode } d. Aqueous solution

Purifying copper
Goes thinner

(+)
Impure copper / Pure

Cu - 2es
Ag - es
Dr. Mohamad Habib

Cu2+ + 2es

2H2O + O2

(+)
-

H2

c. Aqueous solution (dilute)

(+)
-

Pb

If you used carbon

silver electrode you should
add more salt
Cu2+

Ag

2+

Cu

(-)
More reactive ion

Zn2+ + 2es

Zn

{ Silver electrode }

Electroplating
Goes thicker

(-)
Pure copper / Metal object

Cu2+ + 2es
Ag+ + es
01020550220

Cu
Ag

Voltmeter

<

Copper

<

Simple cell

<

<

Zinc
Electron donor
Goes thinner

Electron acceptor
Goes thicker

is more reactive
* Zinc
metal so it is oxidizes
* Exothermic
No battery
is more reactive
*
* Copper
ion so it is reduced
higher voltage you should use metals further apart from each
* Forother
in the chemical activity series . like : Mg & Ag
CuSO4

Making Salts

ZnSO4

PbI2 (s)

a. Insoluble Salts

Precipitation

1) divide the anion from the cation

Pb2+

2) Put each one with a different

cation/anion to form an aqueous salt

Pb(NO3)2

3) Add the two salts to each other

Pb(NO3)2

+ 2KI

2) Put the cation with carbonate

(excess)
Put the anion as an acid

2KNO3+ PbI2

CuSO4 (aq)

b. Soluble Salts not group (I)

1) divide the anion from the cation

I1KI

Cu2+

Neutralization

SO42H2SO4

CuCO3
excess

3) Add the two salts to each other CuCO3 + H2SO4

CuSO4 + CO2+ H2O

4) Filter to remove excess base

c. Soluble Salts from group (I)

1) divide the anion from the cation
2) Put the cation with hydroxide
Put the anion as an acid

K+
KOH

3) Put an indicator
KOH + HCl
4) Start titration & record the volumes
5) Repeat the experiment without the
indicator using the volume you recorded

Dr. Mohamad Habib

KCl
Titration

ClHCl
KCl + H2O

01020550220

Moles

no. of moles =

Solids

Gases

Mass

Volume

Mr

24

Liquids

V x C

of one mole (molar mass) is the = Mr

* mass
* volume of one mole of gas (molar volume) = 24

The most important step in a mole problem is to write the mole ratio

Element percent in a compound =

Percentage yield =

Practical

Theoretical

no. of atms of the element x Ar

Mr of the compound

x 100

NH4NO3

x 100

2 x 14

Element (N) % =

14+(4x1)+14+(3x16)

Percentage Purity =

Pure

Impure

x 100

Element (N) % =

80

x 100 = 35 %

Mr = 180

Empirical formula & Molecular formula

1- write each element % below the element

2- divide each element % by its Ar to get
the no. of moles of each element
3- simplify the ratio by dividing by
the smallest no.
4- write the empirical formula
5- calculate the Mr for the empirical formula
6- divide the Mr of the molecular formula given
by the Mr of the empirical formula
7- multiply the result by the empirical formula
to get the molecular formula

28

40%
12
3.33

53.3%
16
3.33

3.33

6.7%
1
6.7
3.33

3.33

CH2O
Mr= 12+2+16 = 30

Mr of M.F 180
=
30
Mr of E.F
M.F is 6 x CH2O

C6H12O6

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Metals

Good electric & heat conductor

Free moving electrons
* Malleable
& ductile
Layers can slide over each other
*High {melting
& boiling points & density & hard}
Strong metallic
*
bond

Alloys : is a mixture of two or more different metals with a fixed ratio

* They have Lower melting point & they are Harder

(a) Extraction

Of

Cu+Zn brass
Cu+Sn Bronze

Aluminum from its ore ( Bauxite ) Al2O3

Al2O3

Fe2O3

amphoteric

SiO2

basic

acidic

+ NaOH

1)
react forming soluble
sodium aluminate

no reaction
as it is a giant molecule

no reaction

NaAlO2
2) filtration to remove the insoluble Fe2O3 - SiO2
3) Acid is added to form Al(OH)3
4) filter agian to separate the insoluble Al(OH)3
5) Heat the Al(OH)3 to get Al2O3

* Pure Al O
2

has high melting point so cryolite is added:

decrease the melting point
to 9000 C

better conductivity

a. Molten Al2O3

(+)

(-)
metal ion reduced

nonmetal ion oxidized

Gas

Metallic deposit

-2

O2
Al
Al + 3es
at this temperature the O2 at the anode react with graphite electrode forming CO
2

2O - 4es

(b) Extraction

3+

Of Copper from its ore

{ Copper electrode }
Purifying copper

(+)

(-)

Impure copper

Cu - 2es
Dr. Mohamad Habib

Pure copper

Cu2+

Cu2+ + 2es

Cu
01020550220

(c) Extraction

Of Iron from its ore ( Haematite ) Fe2O3

Fe2O3

10

CaCO3

Limestone

Coke

In the blast furnace

*C + O
* CO + C
* Fe O + 3CO
* CaCO
* CaO + SiO
2

CO2

exothermic reaction (the source of heat)

2CO

reducing agent

2Fe + 3CO2
CaO + CO2
CaSiO3

cast (pig) iron contains 5%

impurities { 4% carbon }
calcium silicate (slag)

In the converter where molten (cast) iron is purified

CO
* SC ++ OO
SO
*
CaO + CO
* CaCO
CaSiO
* CaO + SiO
car bodies ( it rusts )
alloy { Fe + C }
* steel
* stainless steel alloy {+ FeCr ++ CNi}
2

from impurities as
C, S, SiO2

to obtain
wrough iron

utensils, cutleries & chemical plants

( it does not rust but expensive )

(d) Extraction

Of Zinc from its ore zinc blend

* Roasting

2ZnS + 3O2

Reduction

2ZnO + C

ZnS
2ZnO + 2SO2
2Zn + CO2

Uses Galvanisation, Sacrificial protection, making brass alloy & batteries

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Nonmetals

a. Oxygen

11

21% of air

MnO2

2H O + O
*
* Obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air
Test : Glowing splint
it relights it
* Collected
over water as it is insoluble in water
*
2H2O2

b. Hydrogen

Used in steel making

divers & hospital tanks
& welding
( oxyacetylene flame )

Heat

* Metal + acid
Salt + Hydrogen
* Zn + 2HCl
ZnCl + H
passed over heated coke
* Steam
CO + H
HO + C
Test : Lighted splint
burn with a pop sound
* Collected
over water as it is insoluble in water
* Lightest gas
( lowest Mr )
*
c. Carbon * Black solid
Obtained from its ore (coal mines)
* Burn
of excess oxygen forming CO
* Burn inin presence
presence of limited amount of oxygen forming CO
C5H12

Obtained by cracking of crude oil

2

Used in manufacture
of ammonia,
hydrochloric acid
,margarine & filling
balloons flammable .

C5H10 + H2

Used as a fuel & as

reducing agent in
metals extraction

d. Carbon dioxide

complete combustion of organic compounds

* Produced CHby breathing,
CO + 2 H O
+ 2 O
of carbonate salts
* Thermal decomposition
CuO + CO
CuCO
Carbonate salts
* Acid + ZnCO
ZnCl + H O + CO
+ 2HCl
: Turn clear limewater
Milky
* Test
gas : not collected over water as it is soluble in water
* Acidic
collected by downward delivery tube ( heavier than air )
* Can't be dried by KOH ( basic) ..
e. Sulphur * Yellow solid
Low melting point
* Obtained
its ore
* (peroleum,from
zinc blend or free in volcanic regions)
* Burn in presence of oxygen forming SO
4

Used in photosynthesis
& fire extinguishing

Used in manufacture
of Sulphuric acid
& medicine

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

f. Sulphur dioxide

Dr. Mohamad Habib

12

by burning of sulphur
01020550220
* Obtained
SO
S + O
* Obtained by adding acid to sulphite salts & heat
2 KCl + H O + SO
HCl + K SO
: Turn KMnO from purple to
Colorless
* Test
Acidic gas : not collected over water as it is soluble in water
2

*
*

collected by downward delivery tube ( heavier than air )

Can NOT be dried by KOH (base) ..
Used in 1- manufacture of papers (bleaching wood pulp)
2- as preservative (acidic action which kills bacteria)
3- manufacture of sulphuric acid

Contact Process { Manufacture of sulphuric acid }

S + O2

2 SO2 + O2

SO2
V2O5

2-5 atm

4500 C

SO3 + H2SO4

Used in manufacture
of plant fertilizers,
detergents,
car batteries &
dehydrating agents

2 SO3
H2 S 2 O 7

SO3 + H2O

H2SO4

too violent
very exothermic

2 H2SO4

H 2 S 2 O 7 + H2 O
Oleum

V O is a catalyst
*Forward
reaction is exothermic & backward reaction is endothermic
*
2

4500 C
If lower the rate will
be slower

If higher will shift

the reaction backward
decreasing the yield of SO3
2-5 atm
If higher it would
be more expensive

If lower the reaction will shift

backward to the lesser number
of moles (( less yield of SO3 )

h. Nitrogen

13

78% of air

by fractional distillation of liquid air

* Obtained
Used in manufacture of ammonia & nitric acid
* Collected
over water as it is insoluble in water
* Burn in presence
of oxygen at high temperature
*
forming NO
( inside a car engine or in forest fires )

Habor Process

Used in manufacture
of ammonia &
nitric acid

{ Manufacture of Ammonia }

N2 + 3 H2

Fe

200 atm

4500 C

2 NH3

Iron is a catalyst
*Forward
reaction is exothermic & backward reaction is endothermic
*
4500 C
If lower the rate will
be slower

If higher will shift

the reaction backward
decreasing the yield of NH3
200 atm

If lower the reaction will shift

backward to the lesser number
of moles (( less yield of NH3 )

If higher it would
be more expensive

i. Ammonia
: Damp red litmus paper turns blue
* Test
Basic gas : not collected over water as it is soluble in water
collected by upward delivery tube ( lighter than air )
Can NOT be dried by H2SO4 (acid) ..

* All ammonium compounds are white in colors as solids

* Most ammonium salts are acidic
*

Forming NH4OH

Used in manufacture
of fertilizers &
nitric acid

( can react with base forming salt, water & ammonia)

NH4Cl + KOH

KCl + H2O + NH3

can test the ammonium ion { NH } by adding Cu ion

* We
which will give blue ppt turns dark blue color on adding excess NH OH
4

2+

2NH3 + 3CuO
2NH3 + H2SO4
Dr. Mohamad Habib

3Cu + 3H2O + N2
(NH4)2SO4
01020550220

Dr. Mohamad Habib

{ Manufacture of Nitric acid }

N2 + 2 O2

01020550220

2 NO2

2 NO2 + H2O

14

brown fumes

HNO2 + HNO3

Bubbling NO2 through water produces nitric & nitrous acids

4 HNO3

4 NO2 + O2 + 2 H2O

Bubbling O2 with NO2 oxidize all nitrous acid to nitric acid

* From rivers by { decanting - filtration - chlorination }

Water

settle in
tanks

Test Purity : Boiling point

* Test
* presence :
CuSO4
white
(anhydrous)

H2 O

1000 C

remove
insoluble
impurities

CoCl2

CuSO4

purple
(anhydrous)

Blue
(hydrated)

H2 O

kill
bacteria

CoCl2
Pink
(hydrated)

* Water pollutants : microorganisms, chemicals & radiation .

He
separating air components
*
*
Ne
Air
{ Ca(OH) - H SO - fractional distillation }
2

remove
CO2

remove
water vapor

Air pollutants

Sources

CO2

burning fossil fuel

in excess air

Global warming

NO
NO2

SO2

Factories & burning

coal & fossil fuel

Freon

Refrigerator

Destroy Ozone

Lead

adding Pb to petrol

brain damage

Decomposition
vegetation

Global warming

Methane
CH4

{ light bulbs

Ar
separate the N2 from O2 Kr
{projector lamp
Xe
detect leaks
in pipe
Rn
Effect
Solving the problem

burning fossil fuel

in limited air
burning nitrogen inside
the car engine, forest
fires lightening

CO

filling balloons

Toxic
Acid rains,
toxic gas
Acid rains, destroy
crops & marine life
destroy stonework

Stop deforestation
reduce fossil fuel burning

Catalytic converter

2CO+2NO

2CO2+N2

neutralize acidic rain

by CaO
neutralize acidic rain
by CaO
use alternatives
stop adding lead
compounds to petrol

15

Heat Change

*Bond breaking is endothermic reaction

*Bond formation is exothermic reaction
* Exothermic Reaction the reaction that produces energy
C

H = -ve

CO2

O2

Products

Reactants
Energy of reactants

bonds strength of reactants

>

E.A

Energy of products

so energy is given out with the reactants

bonds strength of products

energy produced to form the products bond

energy needed to break the reactants bond

Energy

Temperature
increases

E.A

Energy of activation :
it is the energy needed to
start the chemical reaction

H
R

Endothermic

Exothermic

* Endothermic Reaction the reaction that takes energy

CuCO3

H = +ve

Reactants

>

Energy of reactants
bonds strength of reactants

>

energy needed to break the reactants bond

CuO + CO2
Products

Temperature
decreases

Energy of products
bonds strength of products
energy produced to form the products bond

Heat change (

H ) =

Sum of bond energy of bond broken - Sum of bond energy of bond formed
CO2 + 2H2O

CH4 + 2 O2

H
H

O
O

O
O

H
O

C-H = 413
O=O = 495
C=O = 743
O-H = 463

H = { (4 x 413) + (2 x 495) } - { (2 x 743) + (4 x 463) }

H = { 1652 + 990 } - { 1489 + 1852 }
= - 699 kj Exothermic

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Rate of Reaction

Is how fast the reaction happens

16

measured by : changing the mass/time changing the volume/time

* Can bechange
changing the ppt height/ time
in amount
rate =

time

* Factors affecting the reaction rate

1) Concentration

concentration

speed of the chemical reaction

As the number of collisions between reactants molecules increases

2) Surface area

speed of the chemical reaction

surface area

As the number of reactants molecules exposed to the chemical reaction increases

so the number of collisions between reactants molecules increases
the surface area increases by crushing ( powders have bigger S.A than lumps )

3) Pressure

speed of the chemical reaction

Pressure

As the number of collisions between reactants molecules increases

4) Temperature

speed of the chemical reaction

Temperature

As the number of collisions between reactants molecules increases

due to higher kinetic energy of the molecules

5) Catalyst Chemical that speed up the chemical reaction without

being changed or used up
Enzymes are
biological catalyst
6) Light Light
speed of the chemical reaction
As the number of collisions between reactants molecules increases
due to higher kinetic energy of the molecules

* Photochemical reactions

light dependant reaction

The brighter the light the faster the reaction

a) CH4 + Cl2

U.V

CH3Cl

HCl

b)

U.V

2 Ag

Br2

2 AgBr
creamy white

c) 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Black
U.V

C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Photosynthesis

& Evaporation are endothermic changes

* Melting
* freezing & condensation are exothermis changes

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Equilibrium

17

Reversible reaction which can go both ways

Both reaction happen in the same time with the same rate
The rate of forward reaction = the rate of backward reaction

affecting the equilibrium

*1) Factors
Concentration

Products

Reactants

increasing the concentration on one side shifts

the reaction to the other side

reaction shifts from higher concentration to lower concentration

2 SO2 + O2

V2O5

2-5 atm

4500 C

2 SO3

increasing the concentration of SO3 shifts the reaction backward

2) Pressure

increasing the pressure shifts the reaction to the side

where the less number of moles

less number of moles = less frequency of collisions = less pressure

thus the reaction shifts to the side with less pressure

N2 + 3 H2

Fe

200 atm

4500 C

2 NH3

increasing the pressure shifts the reaction forward

3) Temperature increasing the temperature shifts the reaction to
the side that needs heat ( endothermic )

white
fumes

decreasing the temperature shifts the reaction to

the side that releases heat ( exothermic )

NH3 (g)

HCl

exo

(g)

NH4Cl (s)

endo

increasing the temperature shifts the reaction backward

chemistry of carbon

Hydrocarbon

Organic Chemistry
Alcohol

white
powder

chemistry of living organism

Ester

Carboxylic acid

Hydrocarbon
Organic compounds consisting only of Carbon & Hydrogen only .

Alkanes
Dr. Mohamad Habib

Alkenes
01020550220

* C - C * ane
React by substitution
hydrocarbons
* Saturated
*
first four members of this homologous series are gases
* The
the no. of carbon atoms increases in the compound :
* As( viscosity,
M.P, B.P, Density & Heat of combustion ) increase

*CnH2n+2

Alkanes

18
insoluble
in water

( Volatility, Reactivity, Flammability & Rate of diffusion ) decrease

* C = C * ene
* React by addition

*CnH2n

Alkenes

hydrocarbons
* Unsaturated
first four members of this homologous series are gases
* The
the no. of carbon atoms increases in the compound :
* As( viscosity,
M.P, B.P, Density & Heat of combustion ) increase

insoluble
in water

( Volatility, Reactivity, Flammability & Rate of diffusion ) decrease

* Isomers

Substances that have the same molecular formula but

different structural formula
Alkane
H H H
H H H H

H H
Butane

C
H

Alkene

*H

H
2 methyl propane

*H

=C

H H H H
Bute 1 ene
Alcohol

H
H

H H H H
Bute 1 ol

=C

Bute 2 ene

OH

H OH H

*H

Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

although
it is an alkane
H H
H
C4H8
alkene
H C C C C
double
H H H H
bond
Bute 1 ene

Bute 2 ol

* Cyclo-alkane have the same molecular formulaH as alkene

=

H
H

C4H8
alkane
H
H no double
bond
H

Crude Oil

*Formed by decomposition of plants and animals

High pressure

High temperature

Separated by fractional distillation

*Bitumen
Not fuel

Roads & roofs

Lubrication

Not fuel
Fuel

Lubricating oil
Fuel oil
Diesel oil
Paraffin oil
(kerosene)
Naphthaline
Gasoline
Gas

Alcohol

Fuel

Fuel for ships

Diesel for trains

Fuel

Jet engine & stoves

Not fuel

Chemicals
Cars & vehicles
Bottled gas

Fuel
Fuel

*CnH2n+2O

19

*C

* nol

- OH

as fuel, solvent & manufacture of beer & wine

* Used
in air or by oxidizing agent like ( KMnO - K Cr O )
* Oxidized
to form carboxylic acids
* Prepared
by 1) hydration of alkene obtained from cracking of crude oil
*
4

soluble
in water

{ expensive - waste fuel - but continuous & doesn't need big space }

2) Fermentation of glucose using yeast or bacteria in the

absence of air ( anaerobic)
{ renewable (from sugar cane) - but produce less yield of ethanol - needs big space }

N.B a) Air lock is necessary to let the CO2 out & prevent the air from entering
which would oxidize the alcohol to acid
b) The reaction is exothermic ( produces heat ) which kills bacteria or
cause denaturation to the yeast enzymes
C) as the alcohol concentration reach 15% the reaction stops
due to the same reasons mentioned above
C) to concentrate the alcohol we do fractional distillation which is expensive

Carboxylic Acids

* noic

* COOH

Weak acid { H donor } partially ionized

* Turn
the litmus paper red & the universal indicator orange
* The anion
is monovalent CH COO
* React withpart
forming salt & hydrogen
* React with metals
Dr. Mohamad Habib
bases forming salt & water
01020550220
Tested by carbonate salts
CO is produced
*
+

soluble
in water

20

=O

Esters

yellow liquids with good smell

* Oily
R-C-O-R
*
Produced
from
the
reaction
of
acids
&
alcohols
*
Esterification

Acid + Alcohol

Salt + water

Hydrolysis

*How to write & draw an esters : Acid + Alcohol

we draw the acid first but we pronounce the alcohol first

CH3COOC3H7 + H2O
Propyl ethanoate

CH3COOH + C3H7OH
Ethanoic acid + Propanol

C4H7COOCH3 + H2O
Methyl pentanoate

C4H7COOH + CH3OH
Pentanoic acid + methanol

OH

O
H
Ethanoic acid

Making soap

HO

C H

H C

Pentanol

noate

yl

Salt + water

Acid + Alcohol

Ester
( alcohol - acid)

O C

C H

H H H
Pentyl ethanoate

* Alkaline hydrolysis of oils

Soap + Glycerol (alcohol)

Oil + NaOH(aq)
Dr. Mohamad Habib

01020550220

Polymers

Condensation

Addition

* Gives two products

one products
* Gives
*Carbohaydrates ( glucose : monomer )
is formed at the C=C
*Linkage
*
H H
H H
O
O
Linkage is formed at the two reactive groups

C
H

monomer

Polymer

Proteins ( amino acid : monomer )

amide (peptide) linkage

C
O

N
H

C
O

* OilC & Fats

(acid + alcohol : monomer )

O
C O

O
O
ester linkage
Tyrelene is synthetic polyester
Oil & Fats (acid + alcohol : monomer )
C N
C
N

O Nylon is synthetic
O H
amide polymer

Fermentation

if
er
st

t
ica

CO2 + H2O

Carboxylic acid
Ethanoic acid

CO + H2O
ef

*CaCO

fe

rv
es

ce

MgO

nc

KOH

CH3COOC2H5

s
le
or

CH3COOH

Ester
Ethyl ethanoate

nO

O2

KM

pl

r
pu

l
co

ion

brow

C2H5OH

O2

C6H12O6

+
H2 O

Alcohol
Ethanol

350 C + bacteria or yeast

excess air

Glucose

dish

Br2

CO + H2O

H2 O

ai

ite

c
ex

H2SO4 / 1800 C or Al2O3

air

s
es

steam
2500 C + H3PO4

C2H4

lim

CO2 + H2O

red

Alkene
Ethene

( 1800 C / Ni )

O2
Test

Catalytic
4000 C + SiO2 or porecelian

H2 +

C2H6

HBr

on
n
iti
d
tio
a
Ad
n
i
lor
Ch

ed a
ir

O2

limit

O2

ss a
ir

Thermal
6000 C

Alkane
Ethane

C2H4Br2

C2H4Cl2

CO + H2O
exce

tion
na
Chlori

n
itutio

colorless

dichloroalkane

C2H5Cl + HCl

21

C2H5Br

one product

limited air

two products
Chloroalkane

Subst

bromoalkane

CO2 + H2O

Na

Salt + Water + CO2

Salt + Water
Calcium ethanote
Magnesium ethanote
(CH3COO)2Ca + H2O
(CH3COO)2Mg + H2O
+ CO2
Dr. Mohamad Habib
Salt + Hydrogen
Salt + Water
01020550220
Sodium ethanote
Potassium ethanote
CH3COONa + H2
CH3COOK + H2O