Us Army Mechanic Course - Principles of Internal Combustion

SUBCOURSE
OD1619
EDITION
8
PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
USARMYBRADLEYFIGHTINGVEHICLESYSTEMSMECHANIC
CORRESPONDENCECOURSE
MOS/SKILLLEVEL:63T30
PRINCIPLESOFINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINES
SUBCOURSENO.OD1619
USArmyCorrespondence
CourseProgram
7CreditHours
GENERAL
The purpose of this subcourse is to increase the mechanic's knowledge of the
principles,components,andoperationofinternalcombustionengines.
Sevencredithoursareawardedforsuccessfulcompletionofthissubcourse.
Lesson1:
INTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINES
TASK1:
Describe the principles, components, and operation of both the two
strokeandfourstrokegasolineengines.
TASK2:
strokeandfourstrokedieselengines.
Lesson2:
INTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINESUBSYSTEMS
TASK1:
Describe the principles, components, and operation of turbochargers,
intake,andexhaustsystems.
TASK2:
system.
Describe the principles, components, and operation of the lubrication
TASK3:
system.
Describe the principles, components, and operation of the cooling
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Section
Page
TITLE.........................................................................
TABLEOFCONTENTS.............................................................
ii
Lesson1:
INTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINES.....................................
Describetheprinciples,
components,andoperationofboththe
twostrokeandfourstrokegasoline
engines.........................................................
components,andoperationofboththe
twostrokeandfourstrokediesel
engines.........................................................
27
PracticalExercise1.....................................................
44
AnswerstoPracticalExercise1..........................................
46
Task1:
Task2:
Lesson2:
INTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINE
SUBSYSTEMS......................................................
47
components,andoperationofturbochargers,
intake,andexhaustsystems.....................................
47
components,andoperationofthe
lubricationsystem..............................................
58
components,andoperationofthe
coolingsystem..................................................
79
PracticalExercise2.....................................................
97
AnswerstoPracticalExercise2..........................................
98
Task1:
Task2:
Task3:
ii
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619

REFERENCES....................................................................
99
*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***
THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.
iii
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

LESSON1
TASK1.

strokeandfourstrokegasolineengines.
CONDITIONS
Withinaselfstudyenvironmentandgiventhesubcoursetext,withoutassistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
Nosupplementaryreferencesareneededforthistask.
1.
Introduction
Militaryvehiclesincorporateallformsofwheeledandtrackedvehicles,including
thefullrangeofbodytypesfoundincommercialvehicles.However,therearealso
bodies and equipment that are unique to military operations. They include all
types of trucks, tractors, truck tractors, personnel carriers, tanks, self
propelledguns,motorizedandmechanizedspecialpurposeequipment,trailers,vans,
andspecialpurposetowedvehicles.
Theprincipaldistinctionbetweenthesevehiclesandtheircommercialcounterparts
isthatmilitaryvehiclesarespecificallydesignedformilitarypurposes. These
includecombatoperationsandthetransportationofcargo,personnel,orequipment;
towing other vehicles or equipment; and operations, both crosscountry and over
roads,inclosesupportofcombatvehiclesandtroops.Suchvehiclesaredesigned
andconstructedtoenduretherigorsofthemilitaryenvironmentandtocontinueto
operateat,orabove,aprescribedminimumperformance

level. Theyhaveexcellentcrosscountryperformancecapabilitiesoveralltypes
of terrain where tactical or combat operations can be conducted. This includes
snowandice,rockyterrain,swamps,anddesertsands.Inordertonegotiatewater
barriers with a minimum of preparation, all sensitive equipment is either
permanentlywaterproofedordesignedtofunctionunderwater.
The majority of the vehicles described in the paragraphs above have an internal
combustion engine. For this reason, a mechanic should know the principles of
operationofthisengineanditsvariouscomponents.Aninternalcombustionengine
is any engine within which the fuel is burned. The four stroke and two stroke
cycle gasoline and diesel engines are examples of internal combustion engines
because the combustion chamber is located within the engine. In this task, an
internalcombustionengine,referredtoasthepistonengine,willbedescribed.
2.
PistonEngineCharacteristics
a.
EngineOperation.
(1) General.Becausethemostwidelyusedpistonengineisthefourstrokecycle
type, it will be used as the example for this paragraph and as the basis for
comparisoninTask2.Theoperationofthepistonenginecanbestbeunderstoodby
comparingittoasimplecannon. InviewAoffigure1onthefollowingpage,a
cannonbarrel,chargeofgunpowder,andacannonballareillustrated.InviewBof
figure 1, the gunpowder is ignited. The gunpowder burns very rapidly and as it
burns there is a rapid expansion of the resulting gases. This rapid expansion
causesatremendousincreaseinpressurethatforcesthecannonballfromthebarrel.
InviewAoffigure2onthefollowingpage,thecannonbarrelhasbeenreplacedby
acylinderandacombustionchamber.Thecannonballhasbeenreplacedbyapiston.
A mixture of vaporized fuel and air has replaced the gunpowder. In view B of
figure2,thegasolineisignited.Thistime,theresultingforceactstopushthe
pistondownward.

FIGURE1.PISTONENGINEPRINCIPLES.
FIGURE2.PISTONENGINEOPERATION.
(2) ReciprocatingMotiontoRotaryMotion. Theforceofthepistonactingina

downward notion is of little immediate value if it is to turn the wheels of a
vehicle. Inordertousethisstraightlineorreciprocatingmotion,itmustbe
transformed into rotary motion. This is made possible through the use of a
crankshaft.Thecrankshaftisconnectedtothedrivingwheelsofavehiclethrough
the drive train on one end. On the other end of the shaft is a crank with a
crankpinoffsetfromtheshaft'scenter.Figure3onthefollowingpage
3

FIGURE3.PISTONANDCRANKSHAFT.
illustrateshowthepistonandthecrankshaftareconnectedthroughtheconnecting
rodandthecrankpin.Figure4onthefollowingpageillustrateshowreciprocating
notionofthepistonischangedtorotatingmotionofthecrankshaft.
A more detailed explanation of the parts that perform this reciprocating and
rotatingmotionwillbedescribedinparagraph3onpage15.
(3) Intake and Exhaust. If the engine is going to operate, the fuel and air
mixture must be fed into the combustion chamber. The burnt gases also must be
exhausted.Toaccomplishthis,thereisapassagetothecombustionchambercalled
theintakeport,andapassagefromthecombustionchambertotheexhaustsystem
calledtheexhaustport.Asimplifiedarrangementisshowninfigure5onpage6.
Byputtingopeningsinthecombustionchamber,aproblemiscreated;theforceof
theburningfuelandairmixturewillbelostthroughtheexhaustandintakeports
rather thanusedtopushdownthepiston. Tosolvethisproblem,theremustbe
something that opens and closes the intake and exhaust ports to the combustion
chambers. To accomplish this, a valve is added to each of these ports; these
valvesarecalledtheintakeand

FIGURE4.PISTONTOCRANKSHAFTRELATIONSHIP.
exhaust valves. A simplified arrangement is shown in figure 6 on the following

page.
Theintakeandtheexhaustvalvesareopenedandclosedinatimedsequencebythe
valvetrain.Thevalvetrainwillbediscussedinparagraph2a(5)onpage8.
(4) Action in the Cylinder. When the piston is at its highest point in the
cylinder,itisinapositioncalledtopdeadcenter. Whenthepistonisatits
lowestpointinthecylinder,itisinapositioncalledbottomdeadcenter. As
the piston moves from top dead center to bottom dead center, or vice versa, the
crankshaftrotatesexactlyonehalfofarevolution,asshowninfigure6onthe
followingpage.

FIGURE5.INTAKEANDEXHAUSTPORTSANDVALVES.
FIGURE6.PISTONPOSITIONS.
Each time the piston moves from top dead center to bottom dead center, or vice
versa, itcompletesamovementcalledastroke. Therefore,thepistoncompletes
twostrokesforeveryfullcrankshaftrevolution. Therearefourdefinitephases
ofoperationthatanenginegoesthroughinone
6

completeoperatingcycle. Eachoneoftheseoperatingphasesiscompletedinone
piston stroke. Because of this, each operating phase is also referred to as a
strokeand,becausetherearefourstrokesofoperation,theengineisreferredto
asafourstrokecycleengine. Thefourstrokesareintake,compression,power,
and exhaust. Because there are four strokes in one operating cycle, it may be
concluded that there are two complete crankshaft revolutions in each operating
cycle.
(a) IntakeStroke(figure7onpage9).Theintakestrokebeginsattopdead
center. Asthepistonmovesdown,theintakevalveopens. Thedownwardmovement
ofthepistonwiththeexhaustvalveclosedcreatesavacuuminthecylinder.The
vacuumcausesafuelandairmixturetobedrawnthroughtheintakeportintothe
combustion chamber. As the piston reaches bottom dead center, the intake valve
closes.
(b) Compression Stroke. The compression stroke begins with the piston at
bottomdeadcenter.Boththeintakeandtheexhaustvalvesremainclosed.Asthe
pistonmovestowardtopdeadcenter,theamountofspaceintheuppercylindergets
smaller. Thefuelandairmixtureiscompressedandthepotentialenergyinthe
fuelisconcentrated.Thecompressionstrokeendswhenthepistonreachestopdead
center.
(c) Power Stroke. As the piston reaches top dead center, ending the power
stroke,thesparkplugignitesthecompressedfuelandairmixture. Becauseboth
valves are closed, the force of the resulting explosion pushes the piston down,
givingapowerfuldrivingthrusttothecrankshaft. Thepowerstrokeendsasthe
pistonreachesbottomdeadcenter.
(d) Exhaust Stroke. As the piston reaches bottom dead center, ending the
powerstroke,theexhaustvalveopens,beginningtheexhauststroke.Asthepiston
movesupwardtowardtopdeadcenter,itpushestheburntgasesfromthefueland
airmixtureoutofthecombustionchamberthroughtheexhaustport.Asthepiston
reachestopdeadcenter,endingtheexhauststroke,theexhaustvalvecloses. As
theexhaustvalvecloses,theintakevalveopenstobegintheintakestrokeinthe
nextcycle.

(5) ValveTrain.Itisveryimportanttooperatethevalvesinatimedsequence.
Therefore,theengineisfittedwithavalvetrain,whichoperatesthevalves.If
theexhaustvalveweretoopeninthemiddleoftheintakestroke,thepistonwould
drawburntgasesintothecombustionchamberwithafreshmixtureoffuelandair.
As the piston continued to the power stroke, there would be nothing in the
combustionchamberthatwouldburn.
A simplified valve train is illustrated in view A of figure 8 on page 10. A
camshaft is made to rotate with the crankshaft through the timing gears. The
raisedpieceonthecamshaftiscalledacamlobe. AsillustratedinviewBof
figure8,thevalvespringisdesignedtoholdthevalveclosed.
Thecamlobecontactsthebottomofthelifterasitrotateswiththecamshaft,as
showninviewCoffigure8.Asthecamlobepushesuponthelifteritwill,in
turn,pushthevalveopenagainstthepressureofthespring.InviewDoffigure
8,thecamlobehaspassedthecenterofthelifterbottom. Asitrotatesaway
fromthelifter,thevalvespringpullsthevalveclosed.
Byproperpositionofthecamlobesonthecamshaft,asequencecanbeestablished
for the intake and exhaust valves. It is described, in subparagraphs 2a(4) (a)
through2a(4)(d)onpage7,howtheintakevalveandtheexhaustvalvemusteach
open once for every operating cycle. As explained in subparagraph 2a(4), the
crankshaft must make two complete revolutions to complete one operating cycle.
Usingthesetwofacts,acamshaftspeedmustbeexactlyonehalfthespeedofthe
crankshaft. Toaccomplishthis,thetiminggearsaremadesothatthecrankshaft
gearhasexactlyonehalfasmanyteethasthecamshaftgear,asshowninviewAof
figure9onpage11.Thetimingmarksindicatedareusedtoputthecamshaftand
thecrankshaftintheproperpositionrelativetoeachother.

FIGURE7.FOURSTROKECYCLEOPERATIONS.

FIGURE8.VALVETRAINOPERATION.
(6) EngineAccessorySystems.
(a) Fuel System. The fuel system supplies the engine with the properly
proportioned fuel and air mixture. It also regulates the amount of the mixture
suppliedtotheenginetocontrolenginespeedandpoweroutput.
10

FIGURE9.TIMINGGEARSANDFLYWHEEL.
(b) IgnitionSystem.Theignitionsystemignitesthefuelandairmixturein
thecombustionchamberattheprecisemomentneededtomaketheenginerun.
(c) Cooling System. The cooling system removes the excess heat from the
engine,generatedbycombustion.
(d) LubricationSystem. Thelubricationsystemprovidesaconstantsupplyof
oiltotheenginetolubricateandcoolthemovingparts.
(e) Flywheel (figure 9, view B). As discussed previously, for every two
revolutionsthecrankshaftmakes,itonlyreceivesonepowerstrokewhichlastsfor
onlyonehalfofonerevolutionofthecrankshaft.Thismeansthattheenginemust
coast through one and onehalf crankshaft revolutions in every operating cycle.
Thiswouldcausetheenginetoproduceveryerraticpoweroutput. Tosolvethis
problem,aflywheelisaddedattheendofthecrankshaft.Theflywheel,whichis
very heavy, will absorb the violent thrust of the power stroke. It will then
releasetheenergybacktothecrankshaftsothattheenginewillrunsmoothly.
11

b. ComparisonofEngineTypes.
(1) InternalCombustionEngineVersusExternalCombustionEngine.
(a) Internal Combustion Engine (figure 10, view A). An internal combustion
engineisanyengineinwhichthefuelisburnedfromwithin.Afourstrokecycle
engineisaninternalcombustionenginebecausethecombustionchamberislocated
withintheengine.
FIGURE10.INTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINE
VERSUSEXTERNALCOMBUSTION
ENGINE.
(b) External Combustion Engine (figure 10, view B). An external combustion
engineisanengineinwhichthefuelisburnedoutsideoftheengine. Asteam
engine is a perfect example. The fuel is burned in an outside boiler where it
makessteam.Thesteamispipedtotheenginetomakeitrun.
(2) Four StrokeCycleVersusTwoStrokeCycle. Theenginedescribeduntilnow
has been a four stroke cycle engine. There is another form of gasoline piston
enginewhichrequiresnovalvemechanismsandwhichcompletesoneoperatingcycle
foreveryrevolutionofthecrankshaft.Itiscalledatwostrokecycleengineand
isillustrated
12

infigure11. Insteadofplacingtheintakeandexhaustportsinthecombustion
chamber, they are placed in the cylinder wall. In this engine, the piston goes
through a power stroke every time it moves from top dead center to bottom dead
center. The downward stroke is also an intake and an exhaust stroke. As the
pistonmovesfrombottomdeadcenterbacktotopdeadcenter,itisgoingthrougha
compressionstroke.
FIGURE11.TWOSTROKECYCLEENGINE.
(a) Downward Stroke (figure12, viewA, on thefollowing page). The piston

beginsthepowerstrokeattopdeadcenter.Astheexplodingfuelandairmixture
pushes the piston downward, it first covers the inlet port. This seals the
crankcase. As the piston continues downward, it uncovers the intake and the
exhaust ports. The pressure built up in the crankcase forces the fuel and air
mixtureintothecylinderthroughtheintakeport.Thetopofthepistonisshaped
todivertthemixtureupwardandawayfromtheexhaustport.Asthemixtureenters
thecylinder,itdisplacesandpushestheburntgasesoutthroughtheexhaustport.
13

(b) UpwardStroke(figure12,viewB).Asthepistonmovesupward,itcovers
the intake and exhaust ports. This seals the upper cylinder so that the upward
movementofthepistoncompressesthefuelandairmixture.Atthesametime,the
upward movement of the piston creates a suction in the crankcase so that as the
inletportisuncovered,amixtureoffuelandairisdrawnintothecrankcase.As
the piston reaches top dead center, the spark plug ignites the fuel and air
mixture,beginningthedownwardpowerstrokeagain.
FIGURE12.THETWOSTROKECYCLE.
(c) TheFuelandLubricationSystem.Thefuelandairmixturemustfirstpass
throughthecrankcasebeforeitgetstothecombustionchamber. Forthisreason,
the fuel and air mixture must also provide lubrication for the rotating and
reciprocatingparts.Thisisaccomplishedbymixingasmallpercentageofoilwith
thefuel.Theoil,mixedwiththefuelandairmixture,entersthecrankcaseina
vaporthatconstantlycoatsthemovingparts.
(d) PowerOutput.Itmayseemthatatwostrokeenginewillputouttwiceas
muchpowerasacomparablefourstrokecycleenginebecausetherearetwiceasmany
powerstrokes.However,thisisnotthecase.Becausetheforceofthefueland
14

airmixtureenteringthecylindermustbereliedupontogetridoftheburntgases
inthecylinderfromthelastpowerstroke,thereissomedilutionofthemixture.
The mixing of the intake mixture with exhaust gases reduces the potential power
output. Also,withtheinletandexhaustportsopenedtogether,acertainamount
ofthefuelandairmixtureislost.Thereisalsoamuchshorterperiodinwhich
theinletportisopen. Thesefactorsreducetheamountofpowerfromeachpower
stroke.
(e) Advantage and Usage. The two stroke cycle engine is used almost
exclusively in very small equipment. It is lightweight and able to run at very
highspeedsduetotheabsenceofamechanicalvalvetrain.
3.
RotatingandReciprocatingParts
a.
Piston.
(1) General(figure13).Thepistonisthepartofboththetwoandfourstroke
engines that receives the energy from the combustion and transmits it to the
crankshaft. The piston must withstand heavy stress under severe temperature
extremes.Thefollowingareexamplesofconditionsthatapistonmustwithstandat
normalhighwayspeeds.
FIGURE13.PISTON.
15

(a) Asthepistonmovesfromthetopofthecylindertothebottom(orvise
versa),itacceleratesfromastoptoaspeedofapproximately50milesperhour
(mph)(80kilometersperhour[kph])atmidpoint,andthendeceleratestoastop
again.Itdoesthisapproximately80timespersecond.
(b) Theheadofthepistonissubjectedtopressuresinexcessof1000pounds
persquareinch(psi)(6895kPa).
(c) Thepistonheadissubjectedtotemperatureswellover600F(316C).
(2) Construction Materials. When designing pistons, weight is a major
consideration. Thisisbecause ofthetremendousinertialforcescreatedbythe
rapidchangeinpistondirection.Forthisreason,ithasbeenfoundthataluminum
is the best material for piston construction. It has a very high strengthto
weight ratio and, in addition to being lightweight, aluminum is an excellent
conductorofheatandismachinedeasily.Pistonsarealsomanufacturedfromcast
iron.Castironisanexcellentmaterialforpistonsinlowspeedengines.Itis
notsuitableforhighspeedsbecauseitisaveryheavymaterial.
(3) ControllingExpansion (figure14onthefollowingpage). Pistonsmusthave
builtinfeaturestohelpthemcontrolexpansion.Withoutthesefeatures,pistons
wouldfitlooselyinthecylinderswhencold,thenbindinthecylindersasthey
warm up. This is a problem with aluminum because it expands so readily. To
controlexpansion,pistonsmaybedesignedwiththefollowingfeatures:
(a) Itisobviousthatthecrownofthepistonwillgethotterthantherest
ofthepiston.Topreventitfromexpandingtoalargersizethantherestofthe
piston,itismachinedtoadiameterthatisapproximately0.03to0.04in.(0.762
to1.106mm)smallerthantheskirtarea.
(b) Oneofthewaystocontrolexpansionintheskirtareaistocutaslotup
thesideoftheskirt.Asasplitskirtpistonwarmsup,thesplitwillcloseup,
thereby keeping the skirt from expanding outward and binding the piston in the
cylinder.
16

FIGURE14.CONTROLLINGPISTONEXPANSION.
(c) A variationofthesplitskirtpistonistheTslotpiston. TheTslot

pistonissimilartothesplitskirtpiston,withtheadditionofahorizontalslot
thatretardsheattransferfromthepistonheadtothepistonskirt.
(d) Some aluminum pistons have steel braces cast into them to control
expansion.
(4) CamGrinding (figure15onthefollowingpage). Bymakingthepistonegg
shaped, it will be able to fit the cylinder better throughout its operational
temperaturerange. Apistonofthisconfigurationiscalledacamgroundpiston.
Camgroundpistonsaremachinedsothattheirdiameterissmallerparalleltothe
pistonpinaxisthanitisperpendiculartoit. Whenthepistoniscold,itwill
bebigenoughacrossthelargerdiametertopreventrocking. Asitwarmsup,it
willexpandacrossitssmallerdiameteratamuchhigherratethanatitslarger
diameter. This will tend to make the piston round at operating temperature.
Virtuallyallpistonsinautomotiveapplicationsarecamground.
17

FIGURE16.CAMGROUNDPISTON.
(5) PartialSkirted (SlipperSkirt) Pistons (figure 16). The purpose of the

pistonskirtistokeepthepistonfromrockinginthecylinder.Theslipperskirt
pistonhaslargeportionsofitsskirtremovedinthenonthrustareas.Removalof
theskirtintheseareasservesthefollowingpurposes:
(a) Lightens the piston, which, in turn, increases the speed range of the
engine.
FIGURE16.FULLANDPARTIALSKIRTEDPISTONS.
18

(b) Reducesthecontactareawiththecylinderwall,whichreducesfriction.
(c) Allows the piston to be brought down closer to the crankshaft without
interferencewithitscounterweights.
(6) StrengthandStructure (figure17onthefollowingpage). Whendesigninga
piston,weightandstrengtharecriticalfactors.Twoofthewayspistonsaremade
strongandlightareasfollows:
FIGURE17.PISTONSTRUCTURE.
(a) Theheadofthepistonismadeasthinasispractical;tokeepitstrong
enough,ribsarecastintotheundersideofit.
(b) Theareasaroundthepistonpinarereinforced;theseareasarecalledthe
pinbosses.
(7) Coatings. Aluminum pistons are usually treated on their outer surfaces to
aidinenginebreakinandtoincreasehardness.Thefollowingarethemostcommon
processesfortreatmentofaluminumpistons.
(a) Thepistoniscoatedwithtinwhichwillworkintothecylinderwallsas
theengineisbrokenin.Thisprocessresultsinamoreperfect
19

fit,shorteningthebreakinperiod,andanincreaseisoverallenginelongevity.
(b) Thepistonisanodizedtoproduceaharderoutsidesurface.Anodizingis
a process that produces a coating on the surface by electrolysis. The process
hardensthesurfaceofthepiston.Thishelpsitresistpickingupparticlesthat
maybecomeembeddedinthepiston,causingcylinderwalldamage.
b.
PistonRings.
(1) General(figure18).Pistonringsservethreeimportantfunctions:
FIGURE18.PURPOSEOFPISTONRINGS.
(a) They provideasealbetweenthepistonandthecylinderwalltoprevent

the force of the exploding gases from leaking into the crankcase from the
combustionchamber.Thisleakageisreferredtoasblowby.Blowbyisdetrimental
toengineperformancebecausetheforceoftheexplodinggaseswillmerelybypass
thepistonratherthanpushitdown.Italsocontaminatesthelubricatingoil.
20

(b) They prevent the lubricating oil from bypassing the piston and getting
intothecombustionchamberfromthecrankcase.
(c) They provide a solid bridge to conduct the heat from the piston to the
cylinderwall. Aboutonethirdoftheheatabsorbedbythepistonpassestothe
cylinderwallthroughthepistonrings.
(2) Description (figure 19). Piston rings are split to allow for installation
and expansion, and they exert an outward pressure on the cylinder wall when
installed.Theyfitintogroovesthatarecutintothepiston,andareallowedto
float freely in these grooves. A properly formed piston ring, working in a
cylinderthatiswithinlimitsforroundnessandsize,willexertanevenpressure
and maintain a solid contact with the cylinder wall around its entire
circumference.Althoughpistonringshavebeenmadefrommanymaterials,castiron
hasprovedmostsatisfactoryasitwithstandsheat,formsagoodwearingsurface,
and retains a greater amount of its original elasticity after considerable use.
Therearetwobasicclassificationsofpistonrings.
(a) The Compression Ring. The compression ring seals the force of the
explodingmixtureintothecombustionchamber.
FIGURE19.PISTONRINGTYPESANDDESCRIPTION.
21

(b) The Oil Control Ring. The oil control ring prevents the engine's
lubricationoilfromgettingintothecombustionchamber.
(3) Configurations. Piston rings are arranged on the pistons in three basic
configurations.Theyare:
(a) Thethreeringpiston(figure20,viewA)hastwocompressionringsnear
thehead,followedbyoneoilcontrolring. Thisisthemostcommonpistonring
configuration.
FIGURE20.CONFIGURATIONSOFPISTONRINGS.
(b) Thefourringpiston(figure20,view8)hasthreecompressionringsnear
thehead,followedbyoneoilcontrolring.Thisconfigurationiscommonindiesel
engines because they are more prone to blowby, due to the much higher pressures
generatedduringthepowerstroke.
(c) The fourring piston (figure 20, view c) has two compression rings near
thehead,followedbytwooilcontrolrings. Thebottomoilcontrolringmaybe
locatedaboveorbelowthepistonpin.
Thisisnotaverycommonconfigurationincurrentenginedesign. Inadditionto
theconfigurationsmentioned,therearesomedieselenginesthatusefiveormore
pistonringsoneachpistontocontrolthehigheroperatingpressures.
22

(4) CompressionRing. Asstatedinparagraph3b(2)(a)onpage21,thepurpose
ofthecompressionringistomaintainagastightsealbetweenpistonandcylinder,
andtoholdthepressurefromthepowerstrokeinthecombustionchamber. There
aremanydifferentcrosssectionalshapesofpistonringsavailable(figure21).
FIGURE21.TYPESOFCOMPRESSIONRINGS.
Thevariousshapesofringsallservetopreloadtheringsothatitsloweredge
pressesagainstthecylinderwall. Asshowninfigure22onthefollowingpage,
thisservesthefollowingfunctions:
(a) Thepressurefromthepowerstrokewillforcetheupperedgeofthering
intocontactwiththecylinderwall,formingagoodseal.
(b) Asthepistonmovesdownward,theloweredgeoftheringscrapesanyoil
thatworkspasttheoilcontrolringsfromthecylinderwalls.
(c) Onthecompressionandtheexhauststrokes,theringwillglideoverthe
oil,increasingthering'slife.
23

FIGURE22.OPERATIONOFCOMPRESSIONRINGS.
24

FIGURE23.STAGGERINGRINGGAPS.
(5) SecondCompressionRing (figure23). Theprimaryreasonforusingasecond

compressionringistoholdbackanyblowbythatmayhaveoccurredatthetopring.
Asignificantamountofthetotalblowbyatthetopringwillbefromtheringgap.
For this reason, the top and the second compression rings are assembled on the
pistonwiththeirgaps60offset.
(6) OilControlRings (figure24onthefollowingpage). Theoilcontrolrings
servetocontrolthelubricationofthecylinderwalls. Theydothisbyscraping
theexcessoilfromthecylinderwallsonthedownstroke. Theoilisthenforced
throughslotsinthepistonringandthepistonringgroovedrainingbackintothe
crankcase. The rings are made in many different configurations, from onepiece
unitstomultipieceassemblies. Regardlessoftheconfiguration,alloilcontrol
ringsworkbasicallyinthesameway.
25

FIGURE24.OILCONTROLRINGS.
4.
Conclusion
Thistaskdescribedtheoperationofboththetwostrokeandfourstrokegasoline
engines.Inthenexttask,theoperationalinformationforthedieselenginewill
bediscussed.
26

LESSON1
TASK2.

strokeandfourstrokedieselengines.
CONDITIONS
STANDARDS
Withinonehour
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
Intask1,thegasolinepistonenginewasdiscussed. Inthistask,theoperation
ofafourstrokegasolineengineandafourstrokedieselenginewillbecompared.
Inaddition,informationwillbeprovidedonthetwostrokedieselengineandthe
combustionchambers.
2.
GasolineEngineVersusDieselEngine
a.
General.Inmanyrespects,thefourstrokecyclegasolineengineandthefour
strokecycledieselengineareverysimilar. Theybothfollowanoperatingcycle
consistingofintake,compression,power,andexhauststrokes.Theyalsosharethe
samesystemforintakeandexhaustvalves.Thecomponentpartsofadieselengine
areshownin(figure25).Themaindifferencesbetweengasolineenginesanddiesel
enginesfollow:
27

(1) Inadieselenginethefuelandairmixtureisignitedbytheheatgenerated
bythecompressionstroke,versustheuseofasparkignitionsysteminagasoline
engine. Thedieselenginethereforeneedsnoignitionsystem. Forthisreason,
thegasolineengineisreferredtoasasparkignitionengineandadieselengine
isreferredtoasacompressionignitionengine.
(2) In a diesel engine the fuel and air mixture is compressed to about one
twentieth of its original volume. In contrast, the fuel and air mixture in a
gasoline engine is compressed to about oneeighth of its original volume. The
diesel engine must compress the mixture this tightly to generate enough heat to
ignitethefuelandairmixture.Thecontrastbetweenthetwoenginesisshownin
figure26onthefollowingpage.
FIGURE25.THEFOURSTROKECYCLEDIESEL.
28

(3) Thegasolineenginemixesthefuelandairbeforeitreachesthecombustion
chamber. Adieselenginetakesinonlyairthroughtheintakeport. Fuelisput
intothecombustionchamberdirectlythroughaninjectionsystem.Theairandfuel
then mix in the combustion chamber. This is illustrated in figure 27 on the
followingpage.
(4) Theenginespeedandthepoweroutputofadieselenginearecontrolledby
thequantityoffueladmittedtothecombustionchamber.The
FIGURE26.COMPARISONOFDIESELAND
GASOLINEENGINE
COMPRESSIONSTROKES.
29

amountofairisconstant.Thiscontrastswiththegasolineenginewherethespeed
and power output are regulated by limiting the air entering the engine. This
comparisonisillustratedinfigure28onthefollowingpage.
FIGURE27.COMPARISONOFDIESELAND
GASOLINEENGINEINTAKE
STROKES.
b.
Operation.
(1) Intake(figure29,viewA,onpage32).Thepistonisattopdeadcenterat
thebeginningoftheintakestroke.Asthepistonmovesdownward,theintakevalve
opens. Thedownwardmovementofthepistondrawsairintothecylinder. Asthe
piston reaches bottom dead center, the intake valve closes, ending the intake
stroke.
(2) Compression(figure29,viewB).Thepistonisatbottomdeadcenteratthe
beginningofthecompressionstroke.Thepistonmovesupward,
30

FIGURE28.COMPARISONOFGASOLINEAND
DIESELENGINEREGULATION
OFPOWER.
compressingtheair.Asthepistonreachestopdeadcenter,thecompressionstroke
ends.
(3) Power (figure 29, view C, on the following page). The piston begins the
power stroke at top dead center. At this time, air is compressed in the upper
cylinder to as much as 500 psi (3448kPa). The tremendous pressure in the upper
cylinder brings the temperature of the compressed air to approximately 1000 F
(538C). Thepowerstrokethenbeginswiththeinjectionofafuelchargeinto
the engine. The heat of compression ignites the fuel as it is injected. The
expandingforceoftheburninggasespushesthepistondownward,providingpowerto
the crankshaft. Thepowergeneratedinadieselengineiscontinuousthroughout
thepowerstroke.Thiscontrastswithagasolineengine,whichhasapowerstroke
withrapidcombustioninthebeginningandlittleornocombustionattheend.
(4) Exhaust(figure29,viewD).Asthepistonreachesbottomdeadcenteronthe
power stroke, the power stroke ends and the exhaust stroke begins. The exhaust
valveopensandthepistonpushesthe
31

burntgasoutthroughtheexhaustport.Asthepistonreachestopdeadcenter,the
exhaustvalveclosesandtheintakevalveopens.Theengineisthenreadytobegin
anotheroperatingcycle.
FIGURE29.FOURSTROKECYCLEDIESEL.
32

c.
Advantages.
(1) Thedieselengineismuchmoreefficientthanagasolineengineduetothe
muchtightercompressionofthefuelandairmixture. Thedieselengineproduces
tremendous lowspeed power, and gets much greater fuel mileage than its gasoline
counterpart.Thismakestheengineverysuitableforlargetrucks.
(2) Thedieselenginerequiresnoignitiontuneupsbecausethereisnoignition
system.
(3) Because diesel fuel is of an oily consistency and is less volatile than
gasoline,itisnotaslikelytoexplodeinacollision.
d.
Disadvantages.
(1) The diesel engine must be made very heavy to have enough strength to
withstandthetightercompressionofthefuelandairmixture.
(2) Thedieselengineisverynoisy.
(3) Dieselfuelcreatesalargeamountoffumes.
(4) Becausedieselfuelisnotveryvolatile,coldweatherstartingisdifficult.
(5) A diesel engine operates well only in lowspeed ranges in relation to
gasolineengines. Thiscreatesproblemswhenusingtheminpassengercars,which
requireawidespeedrange.
e.
Usage. Dieselenginesarewidelyusedinalltypesofheavytrucks,trains,
andboats. Inrecentyears,moreattentionhasbeenfocusedonusingdieselsin
passengercars.
f.
MultifuelEngine (figure30onthefollowingpage). Themultifuelengineis
basicallyafourstrokecycledieselenginewiththecapabilityofoperatingona
widevarietyoffueloilswithoutadjustmentormodification. Thefuelinjection
systemisequippedwithadevicecalledafueldensitycompensator.Itsjobisto
varytheamountoffuel,keepingthepoweroutputconstantregardlessofthefuel
being used. The multifuel engine uses a spherical combustion chamber to aid in
thoroughmixing,completecombustion,andminimizedknocks.
33
FIGURE30.MULTIFUELENGINE.
3.
TwoStrokeCycleDiesel
a.
General. Thetwostrokecyclediesel(figure31onthefollowingpage)isa
hybrid engine sharing operating principles of both a two stroke cycle gasoline
engineandafourstrokecycledieselengine.Themajorfeaturesoftheengineare
asfollows:
(1) Itcompletesanoperatingcycleeverytwopistonstrokesoreverycrankshaft
revolution. Likeatwostrokecyclegasolineengine,itprovidesapowerstroke
everytimethepistonmovesdownward.
(2) Itisacompressionignitionengine,makingitatruedieselengine.
(3) Itusesanexhaustvalveontopofthecombustionchamberasinafourstroke
cycle diesel engine. Intake ports are cut into the cylinder wall as in a two
strokecyclegasolineengine.
34

FIGURE31.THETWOSTROKECYCLEDIESELENGINE.
(4) Itmixesitsfuelandairinthecombustionchamberasinafourstrokecycle
dieselengine. Theairentersthroughtheintakeportsandthefuelisinjected
intothecombustionchamberbythefuelinjectionsystem.
(5) Theairsupplytotheengineisconstantwhilethespeedandpoweroutputof
the engine is regulated by controlling the quantity of fuel injected into the
combustionchamber.
(6) Unlikeanyoftheotherenginetypes,thetwostrokecycledieselenginemust
have a supercharger to force the intake air into the upper cylinder. The most
commontypeusedistheRootes.
b.
Operation(figure32onthefollowingpage).
(1) Scavenging. Scavengingbeginswiththepistonatbottomdeadcenter. The

intakeportsareuncoveredinthecylinderwallandtheexhaustvalveopens. Air
isforcedintotheuppercylinderbythesupercharger. Astheairisforcedin,
theburntgasesfromthepreviousoperatingcycleareforcedout.
35
FIGURE32.THETWOSTROKEDIESELCYCLE.
(2) Compression. As the piston moves toward top dead center, it covers the
intakeports. Theexhaustvalveclosesatthispointsealingtheuppercylinder.
Asthepistoncontinuesupward,theairinthecylinderistightlycompressed.As
inthefourstrokecyclediesel,atremendousamountofheatisgeneratedbythe
compression.
36

(3) Power. Asthepistonreachestopdeadcenter,thecompressionstrokeends.
Fuelisinjectedatthispoint.Theintenseheatofcompressioncausesthefuelto
ignite. Theburningfuelpushesthepistondown,givingpowertothecrankshaft.
Thepowerstrokeendswhenthepistongetsdowntothepointwheretheintakeports
areuncovered.Ataboutthispoint,theexhaustvalveopensandscavengingbegins
again.
c.
Advantages.Thetwostrokecycledieselenginehasalloftheadvantagesthat
afourstrokecycleenginehasoveragasolineengine,plusthefollowing:
(1) Becauseitisatwostrokecycleengine,itwillrunsmootherthanitsfour
strokecyclecounterpart. Thisisbecausethereisapowerstrokegeneratedfor
everycrankshaftrevolution.
(2) The two stroke cycle diesel has a less complicated valve train because it
doesnotuseintakevalves.
d.
Disadvantages.
(1) Thetwostrokecycleenginemustuseasuperchargertoforceintheintake
air and push out the burnt exhaust gases. This is because the movement of the
pistonisnotsuchthatitwillaccomplishthisnaturally. Thesuperchargeruses
enginepowertooperate.
(2) The two stroke cycle diesel uses either two or four exhaust valves per
cylinder,whichcomplicatesthevalvemechanism.
(3) Aswiththetwostrokecyclegasolineengine,thedieselcounterpartwillnot
producetwiceasmuchpowerasafourstrokecycleengine,eventhoughitproduces
twiceasmanypowerstrokes. Bystudyingfigure33onthefollowingpage,itcan
be seen that the power stroke occupies only a portion of the downstroke of the
piston in a two stroke cycle diesel. In a four stroke cycle diesel, the power
strokelastsfromtopdeadcentertobottomdeadcenter.
e.
Usage.Thetwostrokecycledieselisusedinmostofthesameapplicationsas
thefourstrokecyclediesel.
37

FIGURE33.COMPARISONOFTWOAND
FOURSTROKECYCLEDIESEL
POWERSTROKELENGTHS.
4.
CombustionChamberDesign
a.
General. The fuel injected into the combustion chamber must be mixed
thoroughly with the compressed air and be distributed as evenly as possible
throughoutthechamberiftheengineistofunctionatmaximumdriveability. The
welldesigned diesel engine uses a combustion chamber that is designed for the
engine's intendedusage. Theinjectorsusedintheengineshouldcomplimentthe
combustion chamber. The combustion chambers described in the following
subparagraphsarethemostcommonandcovervirtuallyallofthedesignsthatare
usedincurrentautomotiveapplications.
b.
Open Chamber (figure 34 on the following page). The open chamber is the
simplest form of chamber. It is suitable for slowspeed, four stroke cycle
engines, and is used widely in two stroke cycle diesel engines. In the open
chamber,thefuelisinjecteddirectlyintothespaceatthetopofthecylinder.
The combustion space, formed by the top of the piston and the cylinder head, is
usuallyshapedtoprovideaswirlingactionoftheairasthepistoncomesupon
thecompressionstroke.
38

Therearenospecialpockets,cells,orpassagestoaidthemixingofthefueland
air. This type of chamber requires a higher injection pressure and a greater
degreeoffuelatomizationthanisrequiredbyothercombustionchamberstoobtain
an acceptable level of fuel mixing. This chamber design is very susceptible to
ignitionlag.
FIGURE34.OPENCOMBUSTIONCHAMBER.
c.
Precombustion Chamber (figure 35 on the following page). The precombustion
chamberisanauxiliarychamberatthetopofthecylinder.Itisconnectedtothe
main combustion chamber by a restricted throat or passage. The precombustion
chamberconditionsthefuelforfinalcombustioninthecylinder. Ahollowedout
portionofthepistontopcausesturbulenceinthemaincombustionchamberasthe
fuel enters from the precombustion chamber to aid in mixing with air. The
followingstepsoccurduringthecombustionprocess:
(1) During the compression stroke of the engine, air is forced into the
precompression chamber and, because the air is compressed, it is hot. At the
beginningofinjection,theprecombustionchambercontainsadefinitevolumeofair.
39
FIGURE35.PRECOMBUSTIONCHAMBER.
(2) Astheinjectionbegins,combustionbeginsintheprecombustionchamber.The
burning ofthefuel,combinedwiththerestrictedpassagetothemaincombustion
chamber,createsatremendousamountofpressureinthechamber.Thepressureand
theinitialcombustioncauseasuperheatedfuelchargetoenterthemaincombustion
chamberatatremendousvelocity.
(3) Theenteringmixturehitsthehollowedoutpistontop,creatingturbulencein
thechambertoensurecompletemixingofthefuelchargewiththeair.Thismixing
ensures even and complete combustion. This chamber design will provide
satisfactory performance with low fuel injector pressures and coarse spray
patterns, because a large amount of vaporization takes place in the combustion
chamber.Thischamberalsoisnotverysusceptibletoignitionlag,makingitmore
suitableforhighspeedapplications.
d.
TurbulenceChamber (figure36onthefollowingpage). Theturbulencechamber
is similar in appearance to the precombustion chamber, but its function is
different. Thereisverylittleclearancebetweenthetopofthepistonandthe
head,sothatahighpercentageoftheairbetweenthepistonandthecylinderhead
isforcedintothe
40

turbulence chamber during the compression stroke. The chamber usually is
spherical,andtheopeningthroughwhichtheairmustpassbecomessmallerasthe
pistonreachesthetopofthestroke,therebyincreasingthevelocityoftheairin
the chamber. This turbulence speed is approximately 60 times crankshaft speed.
The fuel injection is timed to occur when the turbulence in the chamber is the
greatest.Thisensuresathoroughmixingofthefuelandtheair,withtheresult
thatthegreaterpartofcombustiontakesplaceintheturbulencechamberitself.
Thepressurecreatedbytheexpansionoftheburninggasesistheforcethatdrives
thepistondownwardonthepowerstroke.
FIGURE36.TURBULENCECHAMBER.
e.
SphericalCombustionChamber(figure37onthefollowingpage).Thespherical
combustion chamberisprincipallydesignedforuseinthemultifuelengine. The
chamberconsistsofabasicopentypechamberwithasphericalshapedreliefinthe
top of the piston head. The chamber works in conjunction with a strategically
positioned injector and an intake port that produces a swirling effect on the
intakeairasitentersthechamber.Operationofthechamberisasfollows:
41

FIGURE37.SPHERICALCHAMBER.
(1) Astheairentersthecombustionchamber,aswirleffectisintroducedtoit
bytheshapeoftheintakeport(figure37,viewA).
42

(2) During the compression stroke, the swirling motion of the air continues as
thetemperatureinthechamberincreases(figure37,viewB,onthepreviouspage).
(3) Asthefuelisinjected,approximately95percentofitisdepositedonthe
headofthepiston;theremaindermixeswiththeairinthesphericalcombustion
chamber(figure37,viewC).
(4) Ascombustionbegins,themainportionofthefuelissweptoffthepiston
headbythehighvelocityswirlthatwascreatedbytheintakeandthecompression
strokes. Asthefuelissweptoffthehead,itburnsthroughthepowerstroke,
maintainingevencombustionandeliminatingdetonation(figure37,viewDandE).
6.
Conclusion
This concludes the explanation of the gasoline and diesel internal combustion
engines.Inthenextlesson,operationalinformationonthesubsystemsofinternal
combustionengineswillbediscussed.
43
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/PE 1

PRACTICALEXERCISE1
1.
Instructions
Readthescenarioandrespondtotherequirementsthatfollowthescenario.
2.
Scenario
SSG Fredrick has been attending an Army NCO development course for four weeks.
This week the subject has been internal combustion engines, which he understands
completely.Oneofhisclassmates,SSGOlson,isnotverysureaboutthissubject
andisnervousabouttheexamwhichiscomingupintwodays.
SSGOlsonasksSSGFredrickifhewouldmindhelpinghimstudyfortheexam. SSG
FredrickagreestohelpanddecidesthatthebestwaytoprepareSSGOlsonforthe
examistogivehimapretest.
3.Requirement
BelowisalistofquestionsthatSSGFredrickfeelswillgiveSSGOlsonageneral
understandingofinternalcombustionengines.
a.
Iftheengineisgoingtooperate,thefuelandairmixturemustbefedinto
the__________________________.
b.
What component opens and closes the intake and exhaust valves in a timed
sequence?
c.
Howmanyrevolutionsdoesthecrankshaftrotatewhenthepistonmovesfromtop
deadcentertobottomdeadcenter?
d.
Whatarethefourstrokesofoperationinapistonengine?
e.
Whatsystemignitesthefuelandairmixtureinthecombustionchamberatthe
precisemomentneededtomaketheenginerun?
f.
Whattypeofengineisusedalmostexclusivelyinverysmallequipmentbecause
it is lightweight and able to run at very high speeds due to the absence of a
mechanicalvalvetrain?
44

g.
What piston ring keeps the engine's lubrication oil from getting into the
combustionchamber?
h.
Whyisadieselenginereferredtoasacompressionignitionengine?
i.
Whyisthedieselenginemuchmoreefficientthanthegasolineengine?
j.
Thetwostrokecycleenginemustuseasuperchargertoforceintheintakeair
andpushouttheburntexhaustgasesbecause_____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________.
k.
What type of combustion chamber is designed principally for use in the
multifuelengine?
45

LESSON1.PRACTICALEXERCISEANSWERS
1.
Requirement
a.
combustionchamber.
b.
Thevalvetrain.
c.
Exactlyonehalf.
d.
Intake,compression,power,andexhaust.
e.
Theignitionsystem.
f.
Thetwostrokecycleengine.
g.
Theoilcontrolring.
h.
Thefuelandairmixtureisignitedbytheheatgeneratedbythecompression
stroke.
i.
Thedieselengineismuchmoreefficientthanthegasolineengineduetothe
muchtightercompressionofthefuelandairmixture.
j.
themovementofthepistonisnotsuchthatitwillaccomplishthisnaturally
andthesuperchargerusesenginepowertorunit.
k.
46
Thesphericalcombustionchamber.

LESSON2
TASK1.
Describe the principles, components, and operation of the

turbochargers,intake,andexhaustsystems.
CONDITIONS
STANDARDS
Withinonehour
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
In Lesson one, the principles, components, and operation of diesel and gasoline
enginesweredescribed. Theknowledgeobtainedfromthisinformationcanbeused
to understand the subsystems of the internal combustion engines discussed within
thislesson. Thesesubsystemsare:intakesystem;exhaustsystem;turbochargers;
lubricationsystem;andcoolingsystem.
Thistaskwillintroduceanddescribetheintakesystem,turbochargers,andexhaust
system.
2.
IntakeSystem
a.
Purpose.Todrawairfromanoutsidesourceintotheenginecylinder.
b.
IntakeManifold(figure38onthefollowingpage).Theintakemanifoldshould:
47

FIGURE38.TYPICALINTAKEMANIFOLD.
(1) Deliver the mixture to the cylinders in equal quantities and proportions.
This is important for smooth engine performance. The lengths of the passages
should be as near equal as possible to distribute the mixture equally. In a
gasolineengine,thereisaseriesofpipesorpassagesthroughwhichthefuelair
mixture from the carburetor is directed to the engine cylinders on the intake
stroke. Thedieselenginedoesnothaveacarburetorsotheairisdirectedinto
thecylinderandthefuelisinjectedtomixwiththeair.
(2) Help to keep the vaporized mixture from condensing before it reaches the
combustionchamber.Becausetheidealmixtureshouldbevaporizedcompletelyasit
entersthecombustionchamber,thisisveryimportant.Toreducethecondensingof
the mixture, the manifold passages should be designed with smooth walls and a
minimumofbendsthatcollectfuel. Smoothflowingintakemanifoldpassagesalso
increasevolumetricefficiency,themethodofmeasuringanenginesabilitytotake
initsintakemixture.
(3) Aid in the vaporization of the mixture. To do this, the intake manifold
shouldprovideacontrolledsystemofheating,asdescribedinparagraph3conpage
53. This system must heat the mixture enough to aid in vaporization without
heatingtothepointofsignificantlyreducingvolumetricefficiency.
48
FIGURE39.RAMINDUCTIONMANIFOLD.
c.
RamInduction(figure39).Intakemanifoldscanbedesignedtoprovideoptimum
performanceforagivenenginespeedrangebyvaryingthelengthofthepassages.
Theinertiaofthemovingintakemixturewillcauseittobouncebackandforthin
themanifoldpassagefromtheendofoneintakestroketothebeginningofthenext
intakestroke.Ifthepassageistheproperlengthsothatthenextintakestroke
is just beginning as the mixture is rebounding, the inertia of the mixture will
cause it to ram itself into the cylinder. This will increase the volumetric
efficiencyoftheengineinthedesignatedspeedrange. Itshouldbenotedthat
therammanifoldwillservenousefulpurposeoutsideofitsdesignatedspeedrange.
d.
Heating the Mixture. As stated in paragraph 2b(3) on page 48, providing
controlled heat for the incoming mixture is very important for good performance.
The heating of the mixture may be accomplished by one or both of the following
methods:
(1) Directingaportionoftheexhaustthroughapassageintheintakemanifold
(figure 40 on the following page). The heat from the exhaust will transfer and
heatthemixture.Theamountofexhaustthatisdivertedintotheintakemanifold
heatpassageiscontrolledbythemanifoldheatcontrolvalve.
49
FIGURE40.EXHAUSTHEATEDINTAKEMANIFOLD.
(2) Directing the engine coolant, which is laden with engine heat, through the
intakemanifoldonitswaytotheradiator(figure41onthefollowingpage).
e.
Intake Manifold Flame Heater System (figure 42 on page 52). Engines are
equipped with a flametype manifold heater for heating the induction air during
coldweatherstartingandwarmupoperations.
(1) Operation. Theflameheaterassemblyiscomposedofahousing,sparkplug,
flowcontrolnozzle,andtwosolenoidcontrolvalves.Thesparkplugisenergized
bytheflameheaterignitionunit.Thenozzlespraysfuelunderpressureintothe
intakemanifoldelbowassembly. Thefuelvaporisignitedbythesparkplugand
burns in the intake manifold, heating the air before it enters the combustion
chambers.
(2) Because this system uses fuel from the fuel tank of the vehicle, its
componentsmustbecompatiblewithallapprovedfuelswhenthesystemisusedwith
amultifuelengine.
(a) The flame fuel pump assembly is a rotary type, driven by an enclosed
electricmotor.Thefuelpumpreceivesfuelfromthevehiclefueltankthroughthe
vehicle'ssupplypumpanddeliversittothespraynozzle. Thepumpisenergized
byanONOFFswitchlocatedontheinstrumentpanel.
50
FIGURE41.WATERHEATEDINTAKEMANIFOLD.
(b) Theintakemanifoldflameheatersystemhasafiltertoremoveimpurities
fromthefuelbeforeitreachesthenozzle.
(c) Twofuelsolenoidvalvesareusedintheflameheatersystem.Thevalves
are energized (open) whenever the flame heater system is activated. The valves
ensurethatfuelisdeliveredonlywhenthesystemisoperating. Theystopfuel
flowtheinstanttheengineorheatersystemisshutdown.
51

FIGURE42.MANIFOLDFLAMEHEATERSYSTEM.
3.
ExhaustSystem
a.
Purpose (figure43onthefollowingpage). Thewasteproductsofcombustion
arecarriedfromtheenginetotherearofthevehiclebytheexhaustsystem,where
they are expelled to the atmosphere. The exhaust system also serves to lessen
enginenoise.
52

FIGURE43.TYPICALEXHAUSTSYSTEM.
b.
Exhaust Manifold (figure 44 on the following page). The exhaust manifold
connectsalloftheenginecylinderstotheexhaustsystemandisusuallymadeof
castiron.Iftheexhaustmanifoldisformedproperly,itcancreateascavenging
actionthatwillcauseallofthecylinderstohelpeachothergetridofexhaust
gases. Back pressure (the force that the pistons must exert to push out the
exhaustgases)canbereducedbymakingthemanifoldwithsmoothwallsandwithout
sharpbends. Allofthesefactorsaretakenintoconsiderationwhentheexhaust
manifold isdesigned,andthebestpossiblemanifoldismanufacturedtofitinto
theconfinesoftheenginecompartment.
c.
ManifoldHeatControlValve (figure45onpage55).Avalveisplacedinthe
exhaust manifold on some gasoline engines to deflect exhaust gases toward a hot
spotintheintakemanifolduntiltheenginereachesoperatingtemperature. This
valveisaflatmetalplatethatisthesameshapeastheopeningitcontrols.It
pivotsonashaftandisoperatedbyathermostaticcoilspring.Thespringpulls
thevalveclosedagainstacounterweightbeforewarmup.Thespringexpandsasthe
enginewarmsupandthecounterweightpullsthevalveopen.
53
FIGURE44.EXHAUSTMANIFOLD.
d.
Muffler (figure46onpage56). Themufflerreducestheacousticpressureof
exhaust gases to discharge them to the atmosphere with a minimum of noise. The
mufflerisusuallylocatedatapointaboutmidwayinthevehicle,withtheexhaust
pipebetweenitandtheexhaustmanifold,andthetailpipeleadingfromittothe
rearofthevehicle.Theinletandtheoutletofthemufflerareusuallyslightly
larger than their connecting pipes so that it may be hooked up by slipping over
them.Themuffleristhensecuredtotheexhaustpipeandthetailpipebyclamps.
Atypicalmufflerhasseveralconcentricchamberswithopeningsbetweenthem.The
gasenterstheinnerchamberandexpandsasitworksitswaythroughaseriesof
holes in the other chambers and finally to the atmosphere. Mufflers must be
designed to quiet exhaust noise while creating a minimum of back pressure.
Excessivebackpressurecouldcauselossofenginepower,economy,andalsocause
overheating. Exhaust system components are usually made of steel. They are
usuallycoatedwithaluminumorzinctoretardcorrosion.
54

Stainlesssteelisalsousedinexhaustsystems,inlimitedquantitiesduetoits
highcost.Astainlesssteelexhaustsystemwilllastindefinitely.
FIGURE45.MANIFOLDHEATCONTROLVALVE.
4.
Turbochargers
Turbochargingisamethodofincreasingenginevolumetricefficiencybyforcingthe
airfuelmixtureintotheintakeratherthanmerelyallowingthepistonstodrawit
innaturally. Aturbocharger(figure47onpage57)usestheforceoftheengine
exhaust stream to force the airfuel mixture into the engine. It consists of a
housing
55

containing two chambers. One chamber contains a turbine that is spun as hot
exhaustgasesaredirectedagainstit. Theturbineshaftdrivesanimpellerthat
islocatedintheotherchamber. Thespinningimpellerdrawsanairfuelmixture
fromthecarburetorandforcesitintotheengine. Becausethevolumeofexhaust
gases increases with engine load and speed, the turbocharger speed will increase
proportionally,keepingthemanifoldpressurefairlyuniform.Adeviceknownasa
wastegateisinstalledonturbochargedenginestocontrolmanifoldpressure. It
is a valve which, when open, allows engine exhaust to bypass the turbocharger
turbine,effectivelyreducingintakepressure.Thewastegatevalveisoperatedby
a diaphragm that is operated by manifold pressure. The diaphragm will open the
wastegatevalvewhenevermanifoldpressurereachesthedesiredmaximum.
FIGURE46.MUFFLER.
56

FIGURE47.TURBOCHARGER.
5.
Conclusion
This taskdescribedthreesubsystemsofaninternalcombustionengine. Thenext

taskwilldefinethelubricationsystem.
57

LESSON2
TASK2.
Describe the principles, components, and operation of the lubrication

system.
CONDITIONS
STANDARDS
Withinonehour
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
The lubricationsystem(figure48onthefollowingpage)inanautomotiveengine
supplies a constant supply of oil to all moving parts. This constant supply of
freshoilisimportanttominimizewear,flushbearingsurfacesclean,andremove
thelocalizedheatthatdevelopsbetweenmovingpartsasaresultoffriction.In
addition, the oil that is supplied to the cylinder walls helps the piston rings
makeagoodsealtoreduceblowby.
This task will describe the characteristics, components, and function of an
internalcombustionenginelubricationsystem.
2.
PurposeofLubrication
a.
OilasaLubricant. Theprimaryfunctionofengineoilistoreducefriction
betweenmovingparts(lubricate). Friction,inadditiontowastingenginepower,
createsdestructiveheatandrapidwearofparts.Thegreaterthefrictionpresent
between moving parts, the greater the energy required to overcome that friction.
The
58

increaseinenergyaddstotheamountofheatgenerated,causingmovingpartsthat
aredeprivedofoiltomelt,fuse,andseizeafteraveryshortperiodofengine
operation.Theeffectivenessofamodernlubricationsystemmakespossibletheuse
of frictiontype bearings in an engine. Friction between the pistons and the
cylinder walls is severe, making effective lubrication of this area imperative.
Lubricationoftheconnectingrodandmainbearingsiscrucialbecauseoftheheavy
loads that are placed on them. There are many other less critical engine parts
thatalsoneedaconstantsupplyofoil,suchasthecamshaft,valvestems,rocker
arms,andtimingchains.
FIGURE48.TYPICALENGINELUBRICATIONSYSTEM.
59

b.
OilasaCoolant. Engineoilcirculatedthroughouttheenginealsoservesto
removeheatfromthefrictionpoints. Theoilcirculatesthroughtheengineand
drains to the sump. The heat picked up by the oil while it is circulated is
reducedbyanairflowaroundtheoutsideofthesump.Insomeinstances,wherethe
sumpisnotexposedtoaflowofair,itisnecessarytoaddanoilcoolingunit
thattransferstheheatfromtheoiltotheenginecoolingsystem.
3.
EngineOils
a.
General.Mineraloilisusedinmostinternalcombustionengines.Engineoils
generally are classified according to their performance qualities and their
thickness.
(1) HowOilLubricates(figure49onthefollowingpage).
(a) Everymovingpartoftheengineisdesignedtohaveaspecificclearance
from its adjacent surface. As oil is fed to the surface it forms a film,
preventingthemovingpartfromactuallytouchingthesurface.
(b) Asapartrotates,thefilmofoilactsasaseriesofrollers. Because
themovingpartsdonotactuallytoucheachother,frictionisreducedgreatly.
(c) Itisimportantthatsufficientclearancebeallowedbetweenthepartand
the bearing; otherwise the film might be too thin. This would allow contact
betweentheparts,causingthebearingtowearorburnup.
(d) Italsoisimportantthattheclearancenotbetoolargebetweenrotating
partsandtheirbearings. Thisistrueparticularlywithheavilyloadedbearings
likethosefoundontheconnectingrods.Theheavyloadscouldthencausetheoil
filmtobesqueezedout,resultinginbearingfailure.
(2) OilContamination(figure50onpage62).Oildoesnotwearout,butitdoes
becomecontaminated.Whenforeignmatterentersthroughtheairintake,someofit
willpassbythepistonringsandenterthecrankcase. Thisdirt,combinedwith
foreignmatterenteringthroughthecrankcase
60

breather pipe, mixes with the oil, and when forced into the bearings, greatly
accelerates wear. Water, one of the products of combustion, will seep by the
pistonringsassteamandcondenseinthecrankcase. Thewaterinthecrankcase
then will emulsify with the oil to form a thick sludge. Products of fuel
combustionwillmixwiththeoilastheyenterthecrankcasethroughblowby. The
oil,whenmixedwiththecontaminants,losesitslubricatingqualitiesandbecomes
acidic. Engineoilmustbechangedperiodicallytopreventcontaminatedoilfrom
allowing excessive wear and causing etching of bearings. Oil contamination is
controlledinthefollowingways:
FIGURE49.HOWOILLUBRICATES.
(a) Control engine temperature; a hotter running engine burns its fuel more
completelyandevaporatesthewaterproducedwithinitbeforeanyappreciableoil
contaminationoccurs.
61

FIGURE50.SOURCESOFOILCONTAMINATION.
(b) The use of oil filters removes dirt particles from the oil before it
reachesthebearings,minimizingwear.
(c) An adequate crankcase ventilation system will purge the crankcase of
blowbyfumeseffectivelybeforealargeamountofcontaminantscansixwiththeoil.
(d) The use of air intake filters trap foreign material and keep it from
enteringtheengine.
(3) Oil Dilution (refer to figure 50). Engine oil thins out when mixed with
gasoline,causingadramaticdropinitslubricatingqualities.Someofthecauses
ofoildilutionarethefollowing:
(a) Excessiveuseofahandchokecausesanoverrichmixtureandanabundance
of unburned fuel to leak past the piston rings into the crankcase. The same
conditioncanoccuronvehiclesequipped
62

withanimproperlyadjustedormalfunctioningautomaticchokesystem.
(b) Avehiclewithadefectiveignitionsystemcancauseoildilutiondueto
misfiringsparkplugs. Wheneverasparkplugmisfires,mostoftheunburnedfuel
willbeforcedintotheexhaustsystembutasmallportionofitwillalsopassthe
ringsandenterthecrankcase.
(c) Anenginewithamalfunctioningthermostat,oranenginethatisoperated
for short durations only, will never reach a sufficient temperature to burn the
fuelcompletely.Asmallamountofoildilutionoccursinallenginesfrominitial
startup through warmup. When, however, the engine reaches its operational range
(180F(82.2C]to200F[93.3C]),thisconditioniscorrectedastheexcess
gasolinevaporizesinthecrankcaseandiscarriedoffbythecrankcaseventilation
system.
b.
AmericanPetroleumInstitute(API)RatingSystem.
(1) General. The API system for rating oil classifies oil according to its
performancecharacteristics. Thehigherratedoilscontainadditivesthatprovide
maximumprotectionagainstrust,corrosion,wear,oiloxidation,andthickeningat
high temperatures. There are currently six oil classifications for gasoline
engines(SA,SB,SC,SD,SE,andSF)andfourclassificationsfordieselengines
(CA,CB,CC,andCD).Thehigherthealphadesignation,thehigheristhequality
oftheoil.
(2) APIDesignations.
(a) SA(UtilityGasolineEngines). Adequateforutilityenginessubjectedto
light loads, moderate speeds, and clean conditions. SArated oils generally
containnoadditives.
(b) SB (Minimum Duty Gas Automotive). Adequate for automotive use under
favorable conditions (light loads, low speeds, and moderate temperatures) with
relatively short oil change intervals. SBrated oils generally offer minimal
protectiontotheengineagainstbearingscuffing,corrosion,andoiloxidation.
63

(c) SC. Meets all automotive manufacturers' requirements for vehicles
manufacturedfrom1964to1967.
(d) SD. Meets all automotive manufacturers' requirements for vehicles
manufacturedfrom1968to1970.SDoiloffersadditionalprotectionoverSCoils,
necessarywiththeintroductionofemissioncontrols.
(e) SE. Meets all automotive manufacturers' requirements for vehicles
manufacturedfrom1971to1979.Stricteremissionrequirementsduringtheseyears
createdtheneedforthisoiltoprovideprotection.
(f) SF. Meets all automotive manufacturers' requirements for vehicles
manufactured after 1980. SF oil is designed to meet the demands of the small,
highrevving enginesmadenecessarybythetrendtowardsmallervehicles. AnSF
oil can be used in all automotive vehicles. API service ratings have related
militaryspecificationdesignations.
c. ViscosityandViscosityMeasurement.
(1) General.Theviscosityofanoilreferstoitsresistancetoflow.Whenoil
is hot, it will flow more rapidly than when it is cold. In cold weather,
therefore,oilshouldbethin(lowviscosity)topermiteasyflow.Inhotweather,
oilshouldbeheavy(highviscosity)topermitittoretainitsfilmstrength.The
ambienttemperatureinwhichavehicleoperatesdetermineswhetheranengineoilof
highorlowviscosityshouldbeused. If,forexample,toothinanoilwereused
in hot weather, consumption would be high because it would leak past the piston
ringseasily. Thelubricatingfilmwouldnotbeheavyenoughtotakeupbearing
clearancesorpreventbearingscuffing.Incoldweather,heavyoilwouldnotgive
adequate lubrication because its flow would be sluggish; some parts might not
receiveoilatall.
(2) Viscosity Measurement. Oils are graded according to their viscosity by a
seriesofSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers(SAE)numbers.Theviscosityoftheoil
willincreaseprogressivelywiththeSAEnumber.AnSAE5oilwouldbeverylight
(lowviscosity)andanSAE90oilwouldbe
64

very heavy (high viscosity). The viscosity of the oil used in gasoline engines
generally ranges from SAE 5 (arctic use) to SAE 60 (desert use). It should be
notedthattheSAEnumberoftheoilhasnothingtodowiththequalityoftheoil.
Theviscositynumberoftheoilisdeterminedbyheatingtheoiltoapredetermined
temperature and allowing it to flow through a precisely sized orifice while
measuringtherateofflow.Thefasteranoilflows,thelowertheviscosity.The
testingdeviceiscalledaviscosimeter. AnyoilthatmeetsSAElowtemperature
requirementswillbefollowedbytheletterW.AnexamplewouldbeSAE10W.
(3) Multiweight Oils. Multiweight oils are manufactured to be used in most
climatesbecausetheymeettherequirementsofalightoilincoldtemperaturesand
aheavyoilinhottemperatures.Theirviscosityratingwillcontaintwonumbers.
Anexampleofthiswouldbe10W30.Anoilwithaviscosityratingof10W30would
beasthinasa10Wweightoilat0F(17.7C)andasthickasa30weightoil
at210F(99C).
(4) DetergentOils. Detergentoilscontainadditivesthathelpkeeptheengine
clean by preventing the formation of sludge and gum. All SE and SF oils are
detergentoils.
4.
OilPumps.
a.
General. Oil pumps are mounted either inside or outside of the crankcase,
dependingonthedesignoftheengine. Theyareusuallymountedsothattheycan
bedrivenbyawormorspiralgeardirectlyfromthecamshaft.Oilpumpsgenerally
areofthegearortherotortype.
b.
RotorType Oil Pump (figure 51 on the following page). The rotor oil pump
makesuseofaninnerrotorwithlobesthatmatchsimilarlyshapeddepressionsin
theouterrotor.Figure51showsthemannerinwhichthetworotorsfittogether.
Theinnerrotorisoffcenterfromtheouterrotor.Theinnerrotorisdrivenand,
asitrotates,itcarriestheouterrotoraroundwithit. Theouterrotorfloats
freely inthepumpbody. Asthetworotorsturn,theopeningsbetweenthemare
filledwithoil.Thisoilisthenforcedoutfrombetweentherotorsastheinner
rotorlobesenterthe
65

FIGURE51.ROTARYPUMPS.
openingsintheouterlobes.Thisactionismuchlikethatinthegeartypepump.
c.
GearTypeOilPump(figure52onthefollowingpage).Geartypeoilpumpshave
aprimarygearthatisdrivenbyanexternalmember,andwhichdrivesacompanion
gear.Oilisforcedintothepumpcavity,aroundeachgear,andouttheotherside
intotheoilpassages.Thepressureisderivedfromtheactionofthemeshedgear
teeth, which prevents oil from passing between the gears, forcing it around the
outsideofeachgearinstead.Theoilpumpincorporatesapressurereliefvalve,a
springloaded ball that rises when the desired pressure is reached, allowing the
excessoiltobedeliveredtotheinletsideofthepump.
66

FIGURE52.GEARTYPEPUMPS.
FIGURE53.OILPICKUPANDSTRAINER.
67

d.
OilStrainerandPickup (figure53onthepreviouspage). Mostmanufacturers
of inline and Vtype engines place at least one oil strainer or screen in the
lubricationsystem. Thescreenisusuallyafinemeshbronzescreen,locatedin
the oil sump on the end of the oil pickup tube. The oil pickup tube is then
threadeddirectlyintothepumpinletormayattachtothepumpbyaboltedflange.
Afixedtypestrainer,liketheonedescribed,islocatedsothataconstantsupply
ofoilwillbeassured. Someautomotiveenginesuseapickupthatishingedfrom
theoilpump. Thepickupisdesignedtofloatontopoftheoil,thuspreventing
sedimentfrombeingdrawnintotheoilingsystem.
e.
OilFilters.
(1) General (figure54onthefollowingpage). Theoilfilterremovesmostof

theimpuritiesthathavebeenpickedupbytheoilasitiscirculatedthroughthe
engine. The filter is mounted outside the engine and is designed to be readily
replaceable.
(2) Filter Configurations (figure 54). There are two basic filter element
configurations:thecartridgetypeandthesealedcamtype.
(a) The cartridgetypefilterelementfitsintoapermanentmetalcontainer.
Oilispumpedunderpressureintothecontainerwhereitpassesfromtheoutsideof
the filter element to the center. From here the oil exits the container. The
elementischangedeasilybyremovingthecoverfromthecontainerwhenthistype
offilterisused.
(b) The sealed camtype filter element is completely selfcontained,
consistingofanintegralmetalcontainerandfilterelement. Oilispumpedinto
thecontainerontheoutsideofthefilterelement. Theoilthenpassesthrough
thefiltermediumtothecenteroftheelementwhereitexitsthecontainer.This
typeoffilterisscrewedontoitsbaseandisremovedbyspinningitoff.
(3) FilterMediumMaterials(figure55onpage70).
68

FIGURE54.OILFILTERS.
(a) Cotton waste or resintreated paper are the two most popular automotive
filtermediums.Theyareheldinplacebysandwichingthembetweentwoperforated
metalsheets.
(b) Some heavyduty applications use layers of metal that are thinly spaced
apart.Foreignmatterisstrainedoutastheoilpassesbetweenthemetallayers.
(4) Filter System Configurations. There are twofilter system configurations,
the fullflow system and the bypass system. Operation of each system is as
follows:
69

FIGURE55.OILFILTERINGMEDIUMS.
(a) The fullflow (figure 56, view A, on the following page) is the most
popularincurrentautomotivedesign.Alloilinafullflowsystemiscirculated
throughthefilterbeforeitreachestheengine.Whenafullflowsystemisused,
itisnecessarytoincorporateabypassvalveintheoilfiltertoallowtheoilto
passthroughtheelementintheeventitbecomesclogged. Thiswillpreventthe
oilsupplyfrombeingcutofftotheengine.
(b) Thebypasssystem(figure56,viewB)divertsonlyasmallquantityofthe
oileachtimeitiscirculatedandreturnsitdirectlytotheoilpanafteritis
filtered. Thistypeofsystemdoesnotfiltertheoilbeforeitissenttothe
engine.
f.
OilCoolers.
(1) Purpose. Some automotive configurations do not allow sufficient airflow

aroundthecrankcasetoallowtheoiltodissipateheat.Enginesinheavydutyand
desertusemustbeabletodissipatemoreheatfromtheiroilthannormalairflow
canaccomplish.Anoilcoolerisinstalledinallofthesecases.
70

FIGURE56.FILTERSYSTEMCONFIGURATIONS.
(2) Oil TemperatureRegulator (figure57,viewA,onthefollowingpage). The

oil temperatureregulatorisusedtopreventtheoiltemperaturefromrisingtoo
highinhotweather,andtoassistinraisingthetemperatureduringcoldstartsin
winterweather.Theregulatormakesuseofthe
71

liquidinthecoolingsystem.Itprovidesamorepositivemeansofcontrollingoil
temperaturethandoescoolingbyradiationofheatfromtheoilpanwells.
FIGURE57.OILTEMPERATUREREGULATORANDOILCOOLER.
72

Theregulatorunitismadeupofacoreandahousing.Thecorethroughwhichthe
oilcirculatesisofcellularorbellowsconstruction,builttoexposeasmuchoil
aspossibletothecoolantthatcirculatesthroughthehousing. Theregulatoris
attached to the engine so that the oil will flow through the regulator after
passingthroughthepump. Theoilleavestheregulatoreitherheatedorcooled,
depending on the temperature of the coolant, and is then circulated through the
engine.
(3) Oil Cooler (figure 57, view B, on the previous page). The types of oil
coolers used with combat vehicles consist of a radiator through which air is
circulatedbymovementofthevehicle,orbyacoolingfan.Oilfromtheengineis
circulated through this radiator and back to the sump or supply tank. In this
system,theradiatorwillactonlytocooltheoil.Itwillnotheatoilinacold
engine.
FIGURE58.OILLEVELINDICATOR.
g.
Oil Level Indicator (figure 58). The oil level indicator is usually of a
bayonet type. It consists of a small rod, known as a dipstick, that extends
throughatubeintothecrankcase.Itismarkedtoshowwhenthecrankcaseisfull
or, if it is low, how much oil is needed. Readings are taken by pulling the
dipstickoutandnotingtheoillevelwhichitindicates.
73

h.
PressureRegulator (figure59). Theoilpumpwillproducepressuresingreat
excess to those necessary. This excess pressure, if uncontrolled, would cause
excessoilconsumptionduetofloodedcylinderwallsandleakagethroughoilseals.
Aspringloadedregulatorvalveisinstalledinthelubricationsystemtocontrol
pump pressure. The valve will open as the pressure reaches the value that is
determinedbythespring,causingexcessoiltobedivertedbacktothecrankcase.
FIGURE59.OILPRESSUREREGULATOR.
5.TypesofLubricationSystems
a.
SplashSystem(figure60onthefollowingpage).Thesplashlubricationsystem
is no longer used in automotive engines, though it is used in small equipment
engines.Inasplashlubricationsystem,dippersontheconnectingrodsenterthe
oilinthecrankcasewitheachcrankshaftrevolution,thussplashingtheoil. As
the oil is thrown upward, it finds its way into the various engine parts. A
passageisdrilledfromthedippertothebearingineachconnectingrodtoensure
lubrication.Thissystemistoouncertainformodernautomotiveapplications.One
reasonisthatthelevelofoilinthecrankcasewillgreatlyvarytheamountof
lubricationreceivedbytheengine;ahighlevelresultsinexcesslubricationand
oilconsumptionandevenaslightlylowlevelresultsininadequatelubrication.
74

FIGURE60.SPLASHTYPELUBRICATIONSYSTEM.
FIGURE61.COMBINATIONSPLASHAND
FORCEFEEDLUBRICATION
SYSTEM.
75

b.
CombinationSplashandForceFeedSystem(figure61onthepreviouspage).In
thecombinationsystem,oilisdeliveredtosomepartsbymeansofsplashandto
otherpartsthroughoilpassages,underpressurefromapumpinthecrankcase.The
mainandthecamshaftbearingsareusuallytheitemsthatareforcefedwhilethe
connectingrodsarefittedwithdippersthatsupplyoiltotherestoftheengine
bysplash. Someconfigurationsusesmalltroughsundereachconnectingrod,kept
fullbysmallnozzlesthatdeliveroilunderpressurefromtheoilpump.Theseoil
nozzles deliver an increasingly heavy stream as speed increases. At very high
speeds,theseoilstreamsarepowerfulenoughtostrikethedippersdirectly.This
causesamuchheaviersplashsothatadequatelubricationofthepistonsandthe
connectingrodbearingsisprovidedathigherspeeds. Ifacombinationsystemis
usedonanoverheadvalveengine,theuppervalvetrainislubricatedbypressure
fromtheoilpump.
FIGURE62.FORCEFEEDLUBRICATIONSYSTEM.
c.
ForceFeed Lubrication System (figure 62). A somewhat more complete
pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the forcefeed lubrication system.
Oilisforcedbytheoilpumpfromthecrankcasetothemainbearingsandthe
76

camshaftbearings. Unlikethecombinationsystem,theconnectingrodbearingsare
also fed oil under pressure from the pump. Oil passages are drilled in the
crankshaft in order to lead oil to the connecting rod bearings. The passages
deliveroilfromthemainbearingjournalstotherodbearingjournals. Insome
engines, theseopeningsareholesthatindex(lineup)onceforeverycrankshaft
revolution. In other engines, there are annular grooves in the main bearings
through which oil can feed constantly into the hole in the crankshaft. The
pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting rod bearings goes on to lubricate
thepistonsandwallsbysquirtingoutthroughstrategicallydrilledholes. This
lubrication system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with
semifloatingpistonpins.
FIGURE63.FULLFORCEFEEDLUBRICATIONSYSTEM.
d.
Full ForceFeed Lubrication System (figure 63). In the full forcefeed
lubricationsystem,allofthebearingsmentionedinparagraph5bonpage76are
lubricated by oil under pressure. This includes main bearings, rod bearings,
camshaftbearings,andthecompletevalvemechanism.Inaddition,thefullforce
feedlubricationsystemprovideslubricationunderpressuretothepistons
77

and the piston pins. This is accomplished by holes drilled the length of the
connecting rod, creating an oil passage from the connecting rod bearing to the
pistonpinbearing.Thispassagenotonlyfeedsthepistonpinbearings,butalso
provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. A full forcefeed
lubrication system is used in virtually all current automotive engines that are
equippedwithfullfloatingpistonpins.
6.
Conclusion
The lubrication system plays an important role in keeping an internal combustion

engine operational. The cooling system, described in the next task, is another
subsystemessentialforproperoperationofaninternalcombustionengine.
78

LESSON2
TASK3.
Describe the principles, components, and operation of the cooling

system.
CONDITIONS
STANDARDS
Withinonehour
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
All internal combustion engines are equipped with some type of cooling system
becauseofthehightemperaturesgeneratedduringoperation.Hightemperaturesare
necessary to produce the high gas pressures that act on the head of the piston.
Powercannotbeproducedefficientlywithouthightemperatures.However,itisnot
possible to use all of the heat of combustion without harmful results. The
temperatureinthecombustionchamberduringtheburningofthefueliswellabove
themeltingpointofiron.Therefore,ifnothingisdonetocooltheengineduring
operation,valveswillburnandwarp,lubricatingoilwillbreakdown,andbearings
andpistonswilloverheat,resultinginengineseizure.
This task will describe the principles, components, and operation of the cooling
system.
2.
CoolingEssentials
a.
CoolingMediums.
79

(1) Liquid. Liquid is the most popular coolant in automotive use. A liquid
cooling systemprovidesthemostpositivecoolingandisbestformaintainingan
evenenginetemperature.
(2) Air.Aircoolingismostpracticalforsmallvehiclesandequipmentbecause
noradiatororhosesarerequired.Aircoolinggenerallywillnotbeusedwherever
watercoolingispractical.Thisisbecauseaircooledenginesdonotrunateven
temperaturesandrequireextensiveuseofaluminumtodissipateheat.
b.
OtherSourcesofEngineCooling. Thereareothersourcesofheatdissipation
fortheengineinadditiontothecoolingsystem.
(1) The exhaust system dissipates as such, if not more, heat than the cooling
system,althoughthatisnotitspurpose.
(2) Theengineoil,asstatedinparagraph1onpage58,removesheatfromthe
engineanddissipatesittotheairfromthesump.
(3) Thefuelprovidessomeenginecoolingthroughvaporization.
(4) Ameasurableamountofheatisdissipatedtotheairthroughradiationfrom
theengine.
3.
LiquidCoolingSystems
a.
Flow of Coolant (figure 64 on the following page). A simple liquidcooled
coolingsystemconsistsofaradiator,coolantpump,piping,fan,thermostat,anda
system of jackets and passages in the cylinder head and cylinder block through
whichthecoolantcirculates.Someenginesareequippedwithawaterdistribution
tube inside the cooling passages; these direct additional coolant to the points
wherethetemperaturesarehighest.Coolingoftheenginepartsisaccomplishedby
keeping the coolant circulating and in contact with the metal surfaces to be
cooled. The pump draws the coolant from the bottom of the radiator, forces it
throughthejacketsandpassages,andejectsitintotheuppertankonthetopof
theradiator.Thecoolantthenpassesthroughasetoftubestothebottomofthe
radiatorfromwhichthecoolingcyclebeginsagain. Theradiatorissituatedin
frontofafandriveneitherbythewaterpumporbyanelectric
80

motor. Thefanensuresanairflowthroughtheradiatorattimeswhenthereisno
vehiclemotion. Itshouldbenotedthatthedownwardflowofcoolantthroughthe
radiatorcreateswhatisknownasathermosiphonaction.Thissimplymeansthatas
thecoolantisheatedinthejacketsoftheengine,itexpands.Asitexpands,it
becomeslessdenseandthereforelighter. Thiscausesittoflowoutofthetop
outlet of the engine and into the top tank of the radiator. As the coolant is
cooledintheradiator,itagainbecomesmoredenseandheavier. Thiscausesthe
coolanttosettletothebottomtankoftheradiator. Theheatingintheengine
andthecoolingintheradiator,therefore,createsanaturalcirculationthataids
thewaterpump.Theearliestautomotivevehiclesreliedonthermosiphonactionand
usednowaterpump.
FIGURE64.LIQUIDCOOLEDSYSTEM.
81

b.
EngineWaterJackets (figure64onthepreviouspage). Thewaterpassagesin
thecylinderblockandcylinderheadformtheenginewaterjacket.Inthemajority
ofcylinderblocks,thewaterjacketcompletelysurroundsallcylindersalongtheir
fulllength.Withinthejacket,narrowpassagesareprovidedbetweencylindersfor
coolant circulation. In some engine configurations, however, the cylinder bores
areattachedtoeachotherandacoolantpassagewayisnotprovidedbetweenbores.
Anengineofthisdesignoftenisreferredtoashavingsiamesecylinders. This
typeofenginetendstooperatewithcylindertemperaturesslightlyhigherbetween
thebores,andslightlycoolerwherewaterjacketscomeincontactwiththebores.
Inaddition,allenginesareprovidedwithwaterpassagesaroundtheexhaustvalve
seat.Thisprovidescoolingforthevalvewhenitcomesincontactwiththeseat.
Inthecylinderhead,thewaterjacketcoversthecombustionchambersatthetopof
the cylinders and contains water passages around the valve seats when these are
located in the head. The coolant flows from the cylinder block up into the
cylinderheadthroughpassagescalledwatertransferports. Atightsealatthe
portsbetweenthecylinderheadandblockisveryimportant. Thewatertightseal
attheports,aswellasthegastightsealatthecombustionchamberopenings,is
obtainedwithonelargegasketcalledthecylinderheadgasket.
c.
Coolants.Waterisbyfarthemostpopularcoolantforliquidcooledengines.
It is plentiful, inexpensive, and its boiling point is within the efficient
operationaltemperaturerangeoftheengine.
(1) Antifreeze Protection. When a vehicle is operated in areas where the
temperaturefallsbelow32F(0C),anantifreezesolutionmustbeaddedifwater
is used as the coolant. The most common antifreeze is ethylene glycol. Other
antifreezesthatarelittleusedareglycerin,methylalcohol,andethylalcohol.
Ethylandmethylalcoholprovideadequateprotectionasanantifreezewhenusedin
sufficientquantities.Themainobjectiontotheseliquids,however,isthatthey
evaporatebelowtheoperatingtemperatureofmodernautomotiveengines,makingthem
impractical. Glycerinoffersthesamedegreeofprotectionasalcohol,butdoes
notevaporateinuse,hasahigh
82

boilingpoint,isnoncorrosive,hasnoodor,andgivescompleteprotectionagainst
freezing in normal use. Ethylene glycol gives a maximum protection against
freezingto65F(53.8C)whenitismixedtoasolutionof60percentwith40
percentwater.
Iftheproportionsofethyleneglycolareraisedinthesolution,itwillresultin
ahigherfreezingpointforthesolution,consequentlyhavinglessprotection.If
a 100percentsolutionofethyleneglycolwereused,itsfreezingpointwouldbe
muchbelowthatofwater. Otherantifreezesolutions,however,donotshowthis
increase of freezing point with increasing concentration. Two good examples are
methylalcoholwhichfreezesat144F(97.8C),andethylalcoholwhichfreezes
at174F(114.3C).
(2) CorrosionResistance. Thecoolingsystemmustbefreeofrustandscalein
ordertomaintainitsefficiency.Theuseofinhibitorsorrustpreventativeswill
reduce or prevent corrosion and the formation of scale. Inhibitors are not
cleaners and, therefore, will not remove rust and scale that have already
accumulated. Mostcommerciallyavailableantifreezesolutionscontaininhibitors.
Ifwateraloneisusedasacoolant,aninhibitorshouldbeadded.
d.
Radiators(figure65onthefollowingpage).Radiatorsforautomotivevehicles
using liquid cooling systems consist of two tanks with a heat exchanging core
betweenthem.Theuppertankcontainsanoutsidepipecalledaninlet.Thefiller
neckgenerallyisplacedonthetopoftheuppertank;attachedtothisfillerneck
isanoutlettotheoverflowpipe. Thelowertankalsocontainsanoutsidepipe
thatservesastheradiator'soutlet.Operationoftheradiatorisasfollows:
(1) Theuppertankcollectsincomingcoolantand,throughtheuseofaninternal
baffle,distributesitacrossthetopofthecore.
(2) Thecoreismadeofnumerousrowsofsmallverticaltubesthatconnectthe
upper and lower radiator tanks. Sandwiched between the rows of tubes are thin
sheetmetalfins. Asthecoolantpassesthroughthetubestothelowertank,the
finsconducttheheatawayfromitanddissipateit
83

FIGURE65.ENGINERADIATORCONSTRUCTION.
into the atmosphere. The dissipation of the heat from the fins is aided by
directingaconstantairflowbetweenthetubesandoverthefins.
(3) Thelowertankcollectsthecoolantfromthecoreanddischargesittothe
enginethroughtheoutletpipe.
(4) Theoverflowpipeprovidesanopeningfromtheradiatorforescapeofcoolant
orsteamifpressureinthesystemexceedstheregulatedmaximum. Thisprevents
ruptureofcoolingsystemcomponents.
Someradiatorsaredesignedwiththeirtanksonthesidesinaverticalposition.
They are connected by a core that contains horizontal tubes. This radiator
configurationiscalledacrossflowradiatorandoperatesinthesamemannerasthe
conventional vertical flow radiator, though it should be noted that there is no
thermosiphoneffectwithacrossflowradiator.
e.
WaterPump(figure66onthefollowingpage).Allmoderncoolingsystemshave
waterpumpsto
84

circulatethecoolant. Thepump,usuallylocatedonthefrontsideoftheengine
block,receivescoolantfromthelowertankandforcesitthroughthewaterjacket
into the upper radiator tank. The pump is of a centrifugal type and has an
impeller with blades that force coolant outward as the impeller rotates. It is
usually driven by the engine crankshaft through a Vbelt. Advantages of a
centrifugal pump as a water pump are that it is inexpensive, circulates great
quantitiesofcoolantforitssize,andisnotcloggedbysmallamountsofforeign
matter. Anotheradvantageisthatacentrifugalpumppermitsalimitedamountof
thermosiphonactionaftertheengineisshutdowntohelppreventboilover. The
pumphousingusuallyiscastfromironoraluminum. Theimpellercanbemadeof
iron,aluminum,orplastic. Itridesonashaftthatissupportedinthehousing
onasealeddoublerowballbearing.Thepumpshaftalsohasaspringloadedseal
topreventcoolantleakage.
FIGURE66.WATERPUMPCONSTRUCTION.
f.
FanandShrouding(referbacktofigure64onpage81).Thefanpullsalarge
volume of air through the radiator core so that engine heat can be dissipated
effectively.Inmostcases,thefan
85

works in an enclosure called a shroud to ensure maximum efficiency of the fan.
Therearetwomethodsofdrivingafan.Onemethodistoattachittotheendof
thewaterpumpshaft. Theothermethod,becomingincreasinglypopular,istouse
anelectricmotor.
(1) Thermostatically Controlled EngineDriven Fan. Some vehicles are equipped
with a sevenblade fan, particularly those for heavyduty use or those with air
conditioning. Thisfanconfigurationwillmovetremendousamountsofairthrough
theradiatortoprovideextracoolingcapacity. Theproblemwithahighcapacity
fan is that it can cause the radiator core to freeze in cold weather. Other
problems associated with a high output fan are excessive power consumption and
noise at highway speeds. Most sevenblade fans are driven by the water pump
throughaviscous(fluid)clutch(figure67)tocorrecttheseconditions.Thefan
clutchisdesignedtolimitthefanspeedbasedonthetemperatureoftheairdrawn
through the radiator. The clutch will provide controlled slippage if the
temperatureofthisairisbelowapresetminimum.Afanclutchalsowillcontrol
thenoiseandthepowerconsumptionofthefanbylimitingitsspeedtoapreset
maximum.
(2) Electrically Motorized Fan (figure 68 on the following page). The
electricallymotorizedfanisgainingpopularityinautomotiveuse.Inthenewer
FIGURE67.VISCOUSFANCLUTCH.
86

configurationsoffrontwheeldrivevehicleswithtransverselymountedengines,the
electricfanisanecessitybecausetheendoftheengineisnotlocateddirectly
behindtheradiator.Descriptionandoperationofthefanisasfollows:
FIGURE68.ELECTRICALLYMOTORIZEDFAN.
(a) The fan blade is mounted on the motor shaft. The motor and fan blade
assemblyisthenmounteddirectlybehindtheradiatorcore.
(b) The fan receives electric current through the ignition switch and a
temperaturesensitiveswitchlocatedatthebottomoftheradiator.Thepurposeof
thisradiatorthermalswitchistoturnonthefantoprovidecoolingwheneverthe
temperatureofthecoolantreachesapproximately210F(98.8C).Thisservesto
allowthefantorunonlywhenneeded.
(c) Some models incorporate a timed relay that allows the fan to run for a
shorttimeafterengineshutdown.This,inconjunctionwiththermosiphonactionin
thecoolingsystem,helpstopreventboiloverafterengineshutdown.
87

(3) VariablePitch(Flexible)FanBlades(figure69).Somevehiclesareequipped
withbladesthataremadeofflexiblealuminumorfiberglass.Thesefanbladesare
madetochangepitchasthespeedofthefanincreasessothatthefanwillnot
createexcessivenoiseordrawexcessiveenginepowerathighwayspeeds.
FIGURE69.VARIABLEPITCHFAN.
g.
Thermostats.
(1) Purpose.Thewaterpumpstartsthecoolantcirculatingthroughthesystemas
the engine is started, no matter how low the temperature. Therefore, it is
necessarytoinstallathermostattoensurequickwarmupandpreventovercoolingin
cold weather. A thermostat regulates engine temperature by automatically
controlling the amount of coolant flowing from the engine block to the radiator
core.
(2) Operation. The thermostat is merely a heatoperated unit that controls a
valvebetweentheengineblockandtheradiator. Itisusuallylocatedinseries
with the engine coolant outlet in a casing called the thermostat housing. The
thermostat,bydesign,ismadethatifitfails,itwillbeintheopenedposition
allowingthefreecirculationofcoolantthroughtheengine.
88
FIGURE70.BELLOWSTYPETHERMOSTAT.
(3) Configurations.Thetwoconfigurationsofthethermostatare:
(a) The bellowstype(figure70onthefollowingpage),whichconsistsofa
flexible metal bellows attached to a valve. The bellows, which is sealed and
expandable, is filled with a highly volatile liquid such as ether. The bellows
chamber is contracted when the coolant is cold, holding the valve closed. The
liquidinthebellowsvaporizesasthecoolantisheated,causingthebellowsto
expand. The bellows pull the valve open as they expand, allowing coolant to
circulate.Thebellowstypethermostatislittleusedinmodernequipmentbecause
its great sensitivity to the pressure around it makes it inaccurate in modern
pressurizedcoolingsystems.
89

(b) The pellet type thermostat (figure 71), is currently used because its
accuracy is unaffected by modern pressurized cooling systems. The thermostat
consistsofavalveoperatedbyapiston,asteelpinthatfitsintoasmallcase
containing a copper impregnated wax pellet. When the engine is cold, the wax
pellet is contracted and the spring pushes the valve closed. The wax pellet
expands as the engine heats up, pushing the valve open against the force of the
spring.Thepellettypethermostatwillmaintainaconstanttemperaturebyvarying
thesizeofthevalveopening.
FIGURE71.PELLETTYPETHERMOSTAT.
90

(4) ThermostatBeatRanges.Avarietyofthermostatsareavailabletoallowthe
coolanttooperateatdifferenttemperatures. Thestandardheatrangesavailable
arefrom160F(71C)to210F(99.8C).
(5) CoolantBypass(figure72onthefollowingpage).Theengineisdesignedso
that thewaterpumpwillcirculatecoolantwithinthewaterjacketswheneverthe
thermostat is closed. This is important to keep pistons and valves from
overheatingeventhoughtheengineisbelowoperatingtemperature.
FIGURE72.COOLANTBYPASS.
91

h.
RadiatorPressureCap.
(1) Purpose. Modern automotive vehicles use pressurized cooling systems that
allowacertainamountofpressuretodevelopwithinthesystemasitstemperature
goes up. The increase in pressure will raise the boiling point of the coolant
proportionally,helpingtopreventboilover.
FIGURE73.PRESSURECAP.
(2) Operation (figure 73). The cap contains two springloaded valves that are
normally closed, sealing the system. The larger of these two valves is the
pressure valve, the smaller is the vacuum valve. The pressure valve acts as a
safety valve that will vent any pressure over the rated maximum through the
overflowpipe.Thevacuumvalveallowsairtoenterthesystemastheenginecools
down.Thisistopreventatmosphericpressurefromcollapsingthehoses.
i.
Expansion Tank (figure 74 on the following page). Some vehicles use an
expansiontankintheircoolingsystems. Theexpansiontankismountedinseries
with the upper radiator hose. It is used to supply extra room for coolant
expansionandgenerallytakestheplaceoftheupperradiatortank. Theradiator
pressurecapandtheoverflowlinearealsomountedontheexpansiontank.
92

FIGURE74.EXPANSIONTANK.
j.
ClosedCoolingSystem(figure75onthefollowingpage).
(1) Purpose. The purpose of a closed cooling system is twofold. First, the
systemisdesignedtomaintainacompletelyfullradiatoratalltimes.Thiswill
increasetheefficiencyofthesystembyallowingamaximumamountofcoolantin
the system during all operating conditions. Second, during an overheating
condition, the closed cooling system prevents coolant loss through the overflow
linebycollectingitintherecoverytank.
(2) Operation.Asthetemperatureofthecoolingsystemrises,thepressurealso
willrise.Thiswillopenthepressurevalveinthepressurecap,causingcoolant
to exit through the overflow tube, thus venting excess pressure. An opentype
coolingsystemwillemptycoolantontotheroad,causingalowcoolantlevelafter
the temperature returns to normal. When a closed cooling system is used, the
overflowlineisconnectedtothebottomofacoolantrecoverytanktocatchand
hold any expelled coolant. As the temperature of the coolant drops, the
correspondingdropinpressurecausesatmosphericpressuretopushthecoolantin
therecoverytankbackintothecoolingsystemthroughtheopenvacuumvalveinthe
pressurecap.
93

FIGURE75.CLOSEDCOOLINGSYSTEM.
4.
AirCoolingSystems
a.
Anaircooledengineusesairastheprincipalcoolingmedium(figure76onthe
followingpage). Aircooledenginesareveryeasilyidentifiedbyseparatefinned
cylinders, finned cylinder heads and, in most cases, large cooling fans and
extensiveductwork.
b.
Theprimarymeansofremovingheatfromanaircooledengineisbydissipation
totheair.Theductworkandthecoolingfanscauseaconstantflowofairover
andaroundthecylindersandcylinderheads.Thefinneddesignofthesecomponents
addatremendousamountofsurfaceareatothensotheyareabletodissipatean
adequateamountofheat.
94

FIGURE76.AIRCOOLINGSYSTEM.
c.
An air cooling system, like a liquid cooling system, must be controlled to
prevent overcooling of the engine. To accomplish this, a system of
thermostaticallycontrolleddoorsareusuallyincorporatedintotheducting. The
thermostatisusuallyabellowsfilledwithbutylalcohol.Asthethermostatheats
up, it opens the temperature control doors through linkage. When the doors are
open,allofthecoolingairisdivertedthroughtheenginecoolingfins.Whenthe
doorsareclosed,allcoolingairbypassestheengineandnocoolingtakesplace.
To maintain uniform engine temperature, the thermostat, in most cases, will
positionthedoorssothatpartofthecoolingairbypassesandpartofitcools.
The thermostat, in the event of failure, is designed to open the doors fully to
preventoverheating.
d.
Because an air cooling systemdoes notemploy a liquid coolant,it isoften
assumed that air alone acts as the cooling medium. However, this is not true
because, as was pointed out in paragraph 2a on page 80, the fuel and the
lubricationsystemsalsohelpincoolingtheengine.Thelubricationsystemofan
aircooled
95

engine always uses an air cooling system. There is also a certain amount of
coolingasthefuelvaporizesintheintakemanifoldsandcombustionchambers.
e.
Virtually all aircooled engines use an oil cooler to help in the cooling
process. The oil cooler unit is usually located in the ducting so that it is
exposedtotheforcedairfromthecoolingfan.Itsoperationisthesameasthat
describedinparagraph3fofLesson2Task2onpage73.
4.
Conclusion
This concludes the discussion of the cooling system and the subsystems of the
internalcombustionengine.Theinformationprovidedinthissubcourseshouldgive
the mechanic a general idea of the principles and operation of an internal
combustion engine and its subsystems. For a more complete understanding of
internalcombustionengines,theiroperations,andcomponents,themechanicshould
refertoTM98000.
96

PRACTICALEXERCISE2
Onaplainsheetofpaper,writedowntheanswerstothefollowingquestions.When
youhaveansweredthem,turnthepageandcheckyouranswers.
1. Whenwillarammanifoldservenousefulpurpose?
2. Alongwithdampeningnoise,whatotherfunctiondoestheexhaustsystemhave?
3. Whichcomponentconnectsalloftheenginecylinderstotheexhaustsystem?
4. Acomponentthatusestheforceoftheengineexhauststreamtoforcetheair
fuelmixtureintotheengineiscalleda_____________________________.
5. Whatistheprimaryfunctionofengineoil?
6. Whatoilisusedinmostinternalcombustionengines?
7. Whatarethefouroilclassificationsfordieselengines?
8. Theviscosityofanoilrefersto___________________________________________.
9. Whatarethetwobasicfilterelementconfigurations?
10. Namethefourtypesoflubricationsystems.
11. Whatisthemostpopularcoolantforliquidcooledengines?
12. Thetwoconfigurationsofthethermostatarethe_____________________________
_______________________________________________________.
97

LESSON2.PRACTICALEXERCISEANSWERS
1.
Whenitisoutsideitsdesignatedspeedrange.
2.
Thewasteproductsofcombustionarecarriedfromtheenginetotherearofthe
vehiclebytheexhaustsystem.
3.
Exhaustmanifold
4.
Turbocharger
5.
Toreducefrictionbetweenthemovingpartsinsidetheengineandlubricate.
6.
Mineraloil
7.
CA,CB,CC,andCD
8.
Itsresistancetoflow
9.
Thecartridgetypeandthesealedcantype.
10. Splashsystem,combinationsplashandforcefeedsystem,forcefeedlubrication
system,andfullforcefeedlubricationsystem.
11. Water
12. Bellowstypeandpellettype
98
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 REFERENCES
REFERENCES
99
PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 REFERENCES

REFERENCES
The following documents were used as resource materials in developing this
subcourse:
TM98000
100

Us Army Mechanic Course - Principles of Internal Combustion

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Describe the principles, components, and operation of the lubrication

Describe the principles, components, and operation of the cooling

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619

*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***

THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

Describe the principles, components, and operation of both the two

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(2) ReciprocatingMotiontoRotaryMotion. Theforceofthepistonactingina

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

exhaust valves. A simplified arrangement is shown in figure 6 on the following

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(a) Downward Stroke (figure12, viewA, on thefollowing page). The piston

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(c) A variationofthesplitskirtpistonistheTslotpiston. TheTslot

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(5) PartialSkirted (SlipperSkirt) Pistons (figure 16). The purpose of the

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(a) They provideasealbetweenthepistonandthecylinderwalltoprevent

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

(5) SecondCompressionRing (figure23). Theprimaryreasonforusingasecond

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

Describe the principles, components, and operation of both the two

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

(1) Scavenging. Scavengingbeginswiththepistonatbottomdeadcenter. The

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/TASK 2

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/PE 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/PE 1

PRIN. OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - OD1619 LESSON 1/PE 1

* IMPORTANT NOTICE *